OBSERVATIONS

General

The sacred groves occGng in the Coromandel coastal sector (Fig. 2)

covering ca. 250 k m h e r e enumerated through 32 field trips spread over four

years (1999-2003). This sector lies between the towns of Marakanam in the

north, Chidhambaram in the south, Vimdhachalam and Villupuram in the west.

Earlier, Kadamban (1998) and Praveenkumar (1999) recorded the

presence of more than 84 groves through a preliminary survey. Apart from

veryfying their list, new Aiyanar 1 Amman temples associated with trees were

now enumerated through intensive surveys. Totally 163 groves were listed out

(Table 10). Of these, majority of them (145) had Aiyanar as the presiding deity

while Amman in different incarnations in 12 groves. In a rare occurrence six

groves had other Gods; Lord Siva presides over three as Viswanathar, Eswara

and Sivalingam; Maduraiveeran was the chief in two and Palaniandavar was the

presiding deity in one.

These were graded into well preserved (WP), partially preserved (PP),

degraded (DG) categories on the basis of the tree cover; those with only isolated

trees separated by large gaps were considered mostly degraded (MD) and

excluded from further analysis.

Two criteria were adopted in selecting the groves: (i) appreciable tree

cover (>50% of the area) and (ii) species richness. Accordingly, 15 groves were

analysed for biodiversity along with the attendant socio-cultural and ecological

traditions contributing to their survival (Tables 11, 33).

The data are presented under the following sections:

1. Descriptions of the grove: From the sociological view point, details of

geographical locations, temple structure, worship patterns and the demographic1

social structure associated with each of them are presented; the biocultural traits

like taboos, rites, rituals and festivals which are the part of the belief systems are

also described.

2. Plant Biodiversity and Vegetation Analysis: The plants occurring in

each grove along with the analytical data are presented grove-wise. Only those

woody species having stems 2 20 cm gbh were included in [he analysis, though

more species were recorded in a grove.

3. Florisitcs and importance of the groves: The groves are attributed

with tangible and intangible values Therefore, the presence of giant specimens,

RED category taxa and other significant features were specifically documented

and evaluated.

4. Threats and opportunities: Since the signs of degradation and adverse

human impacts were rampant everywhere, the kinds of threats posed to the

groves were noted. Wherever the positive signs towards preservation 1 restoration

were observed, they were also documented.

Description of the Groves

Geographical features

Of 163 Aiyanar 1 Amman temples having tree clusters outside their

respective villages, 15 groves were selected for detailed biocultural studies and

floristic analysis (Table 1 I ).Seven of them fall within Pondicherry territory; four

each occur in the intervening pockets of Cuddalore and Villupuram Revenue

Districts of neighbouring Tamil Nadu State.

Table 11: Salient features of the Scared Groves

Locality : CU: Cuddalore; PO: Pondicherry; VI: Villupuram. Water Source : Ri: River; La: Lake; Po: Pond; Ca: Canal. Surroundings : AF: Agriculture fields; PL: Plantations-(M0:Mango; CN:Coconut)

No.

1

2

3 4

5

6 7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Name

SK

KM

ST

KS

RP

NG

KU

SL

PA

KV

NM

MK

TP

M M

AA

Total

Size

(ha)

01.12

00.32

00.23 00.25

00.66

00.28

00.30

00.75

01.50

08.80

01.50

00.28

04.50

00.96

04.92

26.37

Locality (Distrlct)

PO

CU

PO

PO

PO

VI

VI

PO

VI

CU

PO

CU

CU

PO

VI

Nearestvlllage

Sandhikuppam

Keezhkumaramangalam

Sedarapet

Karasur

Ramanathapuram

Nagari

Kumalam

Silkaripalayam

Pannaikuppam

Krishnavaram

Nattamedu

Moorthikuppam

Thennampakkam

Mangalam

Alamarathukuppam

Water Source

Ri

Ri

La

La

Ca

Po

Po

Po

La

Po

Po Ri

La

Ri

PO

Surroundlngs

AF, PL (Mo)

AF, PL (CN)

AF

AF, PL (CN)

AF

AF

AF

AF

AF

AF

AF, PL (CN)

AF

AF, PL (CN)

AF, PL (CN) AF

Krishnavaram is the largest grove measuring 8.8 ha, while nine are small

scale groves measuring ca 1 ha, the other five are medium-sized. All of them are

surrounded by agricultural fields or plantations of mango or coconut trees,

typifying the 'Marudham' landscape (Plate 10). A perennial water source, a lake

or a pond provides adequate soil moisture in eleven of them; the other four are

situated on the river banks. Though the groves appear to have been originally

located far-off from the village, expansion of residential colonies, encroachment

of intervening 'poromboke' lands for settlements and conversion of agricultural

lands for other purposes have narrowed down the gap between the groves and the

villages. Sandikuppam grove is hardly 500 m away. In the case of

Keezhkumaramangalam, human activities are evident within the grove proper

itself.

Community structure

The community structure associated with the groves indicates the

domination of the two communities namely Vanniars and Scheduled caste

people. Nagari is an exception as it is wholly controlled by 162 house holds of

vanniars. Krishnavararn, Keezhkumaramangalam, Sedrapet and Pannaikuppam

have sizable populations of the scheduled caste (Table 12). Other villages have

mixed populations belonging to diverse castes viz. Naidu, Chettiar , Mudaliar,

Pillai and Reddiar. Agriculture is the major vocation but the land-holdings are

concentrated amongst the upper-caste people only. The scheduled caste people

Plate 10

Characteristic features observed in the groves of Pondicherry

I A tall stand of Tamarind and Mahua trees surrounded by green paddy

fields - a typical "Marudham grove".

.2 A fresh water lake adjoining the ThennampaWtam grove.

3 A mixture of evergreen and deciduous elements occurring in

Ramanathapuram grove (note the defoliated branches of Cretaeva besides

evergreen Alangium).

4 Salvadora persica - a salt tolerant species survives in Alamarthukuppam

grove.

mainly eke out their living as unskilled laborers. An insignificant minority

representing the entire social strata is employed in private or government. All the

groves are managed by the respective village committees

Table 12: Community structure associated with the groves

( No. I Name ( No. of 1 Population I Scheduled Caste 1 Total I Maior / house- I I M a Female / Male I Famale / 1

Source - District Census Hand Book of Population, 1991

AG: Agriculture; UL: Unskilled Laborers.

28

422

399

279

147

0

65

9

319

619

92

18

108

161

18

Temple complex

Aiyanar is the presiding deity in 12 groves. Invariably, he is associated

with his two wives Poorani and Porkalai, either on the same monolithic bass

relief or in separate stone carvings. Besides, Amman is the major deity in three

AGUL

AGUL AG.UL AG.UL

AG.UL

AG.UL

AG.UL AG.UL AG.UL

AG.UL AG.UL AG.UL

AG.UL

AG.UL

AG.UL

980 4ii 1 3147

381 3604

groves viz. Sandhikuppam, Karasur and Kirishnavaram (Table 13).

267

146

0

66 14

318

668

97

21

207

163 17

1540

1906

600

2158

554

3678

4121

686

893

1782

2258

875

Sedarapet has the rudiments of i d o l a t 3 and the most primitive form of

temples; the deity is installed on the floor without a roof (Plate 11.1). In two other

groves viz. Sandhikuppam and Nagari also the idol is placed in the open but

installed on a platform. Simple concrete structured temple are . present in

Kumalam, Pannaikuppam, Nattamedu and Karasur groves. Multiple shrines for

major and minor deities and minions are seen in Rarnanathapuram,

Silkaripalayam, Moorthikuppam, and Aalamarathukuppam groves. Ornate temple

complexes are seen in Krishnavaram, Thennampakkam and Mangalam groves

(Table 13; Plate 11.6).

Minor deities

The termitorium (called puthu locally) is also an object of veneration in

four groves. Almost all south Indian villages have symbohc worship of seven

Kannimars (The Seven Angels). These are common, rustic village deities,

represented mostly by amorphous stones or bricks and rarely by sculptures

(Plate 11.2). True to this village tradition, all except Thennampakkam have these

minor deities.

Influence of Aryan invasion and Vedic culture, integrating various Gods

into the primitive ethnic cultures is evident in most of the groves. Consequently,

Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, Lord Vinayaga also find a place in the temples within

the groves. This trend is evident in Krishnavaram, Mangalam, and

Thennampakkam groves (Table 13).

Plate 11

Evidences for evolution of idolatry and temples

1 Incipient form of idolatry - bricks installed on the floor to signify the deity

in Sedarapet grove.

2 Stone images lie in the open under the shade of a tree in a grove.

3 A monolithic granite carving installed in the open - Edayarpalayam

4 A Kaliamman idol in the form of a rice grain in Nagari grove.

5 Concrete images installed in the midst of the trees - Moorthikuppam

grove.

6 A typical concrete structure - symbolizing the sanctum at

Ramanathapuram grove.

Installation of giant concrete images of minions and animals is a later

development. The terracotta tradition - making clay images of horses and leaving

them as votive offerings in the groves during festivals, is strongly evident in

almost all the groves (Plate 11.1). Modernism is evident in the variety of animal

and minion images intalled (Plate 12.3).

Another feature of the temples, is the presence of metallic structures viz.

tridents,swords, knife,spear etc. (Table 13).

Belief systems

Worship pattern: Lighting of camphor is the commonest form of worship.

Every family customarily extends the first invitation of their domestic functions

to Aiyvlar or Amman only.

Another special feature is the tonsuring of head and ear-boring of the

eldest child in the grove (Plate 12.4). Villagers contribute and celebrate annual

festivals either during the local Adi month (July-August) or Chithirai (April and

May) (Plate 13.1).

Plate 12

Belief systems prevalent in the groves

I A termite mound surrounding the trunk of a neem tree as an object of

worship at Mangalam grove.

2 Lord Aiyappan riding on tlger on a five - feet tall concrete image in the

same grove.

3 Multiplicity of images at Alamarathukuppam - a stark evidence for

modernism.

4 Old values still survive; tonsuring of first child is a domestic ritual -

Thennampakkam grove.

Table 14: Belief systems prevalent In the groves

EB: Ear boring TN: Tonsuring PO: Pongal TH: Terracotta horses TC: Terracotta cradles, Toy child MS: Metallic structure CI: Concrete images Ch: Chittirai Av: Avani

Votive offerings: Childless couple, blessed with children, make concrete

images of their children and leave them in the grove which is exclusive to

Thrnnampakkam (Plate 13.3, Table 14).

Restrictions and taboos: There is no restriction on the basis of age, caste or

gender for entering the grove. While the villagers refrain themselves from cutting

the trees and collecting the fallen twigs, there are glaring evidences of defi ance

and exploitation. People wear foot-wear inside the grove but leave them before

worshiping the deities.

Plate 13

People - grove intersface at Thennarnpakkam

1 Hundreds of ada as war am (pipe) and Thavil (drum) artists assemble on the

first Monday of Tamil month 'Chitthirai' (April) to assert their group

identity.

2 Angapradatchanani a ritualistic rolling around the temple

3 Rows of concrete inlages of children arraigned to thank the Lord when

blessed with child.

Special forms of worship; In Krishnavaram grove, celestial marriage

function between Lord Murugan and Valli is performed by the devotees during

annual festival in the month of Avani (August - September). The ceremonial fire

raised for the marriage is used to ignite the wood-lot to prepare the fire-bed for

the ritualistic walking on fire. The devotees walk over the fire-bed in the presence

of Valli-Murugan adorned in marriage costumes and seated on a peacock chariot.

The priest holding the "Pookaragam" leads the walk on the holy fire and the

devotees follow.

The annual festival celebrated in Thennarnpakkam grove on the first

Monday of the Tamil Month Chittirai (April) every year is unique in several

aspects. Thousands of devotees from surrounding villages and from far-off places

congregate there. The day begins with An@pradt$shanam (rolling around the shrine)

by the elders (Plate 13.2) and is followed by, tonsuring of head (Plate 12.4) and

ear-boring of young ones. The most impressive feature is the day-long musical

extravaganza by hundreds of Nathaswara Vidhwans (Pipes) accompanied by Thavil

(drum) during the celestial marriage of Aiyanar and his consorts (Plate 13.1).

ARer the marriage, the decorated deities are taken in a procession through

the village. A night-long "Therukkoothu", a native-art form of drama entertains

the people within the grove. On the following day, the "manjal neerattu"

(sprinkling of holy humeric water) is performed signifying the conclusion of

festival.

Folk-tales associated with the groves

1. Sandhikuppam: A person who had no faith on Neelavazhiamman,

damaged the sculptures in the temple. The following night, the Goddess came to

his house and punished him by blinding his eye. He realized his mistake and

sought her pardon. He then regained his vision and became a faithful devotee

there after.

2. Karasur: Years ago, during an annual festival, the chariot carrying the

deity had to be abandoned in the grove due to heavy down-pour in the dead of

night. When the villagers went to the grove next morning the chariot along with

deity was missing. They presumed that it might have been washed away into the

near by lake. Saddened by the incident, the annual festival is not being celebrated

now a-days.

3. Pannaikuppum: A saint was living in the grove and he was alone. He

used to predict the future as an 'oracie' and became famous for his ('ArulvaWtu 7

divine predictions. When the saint attained 'Mukthi, 'they buried him in the north

eastern comer of the grove and planted a Peepal sapling on the graveyard. It has

now grown into a giant tree commemorating his memory (Table 34).

4. Krishnavaram: Pachaivazhiamman, the presiding deity, made a

'Lingam' out of the soil of the grove for her worship. Hence the name

'Mannatheswaran'. She conducted the mamage between her son Murugan and

Valli and the sacred marriage fire was used to ignite the wood for preparing the

'fire bed' which has became routine during the annual festival.

5. Thennampakkam: A Saint (Sadhu) named as Azhagar lived alone in the

densely wooded area. The passers-by used to see the Sadhu always around a well.

One day, the Sadhu narrated the glory of Lord Aiyanar to the villagers and then

said that he was merging with the Lord and jumped into the well. Later, the

villagers converted the well itself into a graveyard. Believing that saint was an

incarnation of Aiyanar, the guardian angel, they sanctified the grove and

developed a temple complex after his name Azhagar temple or Azhaghu

Muthaiyanar.

6 . Mangalam: A merchant was once carrying a cart load of pepper from

his native village to Pondicheny. The merchant had to pay entry tax at the toll-

gate (chavady) located near the grove. Since he didn't have money to pay as tax,

he appealed to Mangalam Aiyanar to save him from the cris~s. When he

approached the chavady, the authorities checked the load and found only charcoal

instead of pepper and hence did not levy any tax. Once he crossed the toll-gate,

there was only pepper and no charcoal. Overcome by the benevolence of God, he

vowed to start a regular worship in the Mangalam grove. The presiding deity was

thereafter known as 'Milagu Muthu Aiyanar'.

7. Alamarathukuppam: Aiyanar along with his minions used to invade the

neighbouring regions and conquer them. When he went to Malayalam (Kerela),

he removed the "Modi"- a magic material, with great difficulty. During another

mp, he again outwitted the Malayala magicians and caught them as captives.

While retuning to his native place along with the captives and minions, he had to

pass through Alamarathukuppam, which had dense cover of vegetation; they

stayed there over-night; when it dawned, they found the surroundings ideal and

pleasant, and therefore decided to stay permanently. The spot was, later

developed into a sacred place by the villagers.

PLANT BIODIVERSITY AND VEGETATION ANALYSIS

Two hundred species of plants belonging to 176 genera and 62 families

were enumerated from the 15 selected groves. As a rare occurrence, a Bryophyte,

Riccia sp. was present in the moist places of Krishnavaram grove.

Of the 200 species, 64 were trees, 44 shrubs, 59 herbs, 25 climbers, four

liana and four parasites (Table 15, 16). Family-wise, Fabaceae, Acanthaceae and

Capparaceae are the most specios4families with 27, 10 and 7 species respectively.

There were 191 Dicots and 9 Monocot species. Yet, 45 woody species with 20

cm gbh were considered for floristic and phytosociological analyses. I t included

38 genera belonging to 27 families. The floristic analyses are presented grove-

wise (Table 16-30; Fig. 3-17).

Table 15: Flora of the study areas

Table 16 : Habit-wise distribution of species in 15 Groves

OShrubs OHerbs EICllmbers H Llanas

Fig 3 : Life form pattern of plants of the 15 Sacred Groves.

1. Sandhikuppam Grove

Floristics

The Sandhikuppam sacred grove, dedicated to Neelavazhi Amman,

measured 1.12 ha. It had a total of 57 species representing 53 genera and 36

families (Table 16). Of these, trees accounted for 15 species in 14 families.

Thirteen species in 10 families were shrubs and 19 species in 15 families were

herbs. In addition, eight species in six families were climbers. Capparis

zeylanica was the only liana in this grove. Proportionately, trees constituted

26.50%; shrubs 22.80% and herbs 33.00% of the total species.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, Arecaceae with a monospecific member, Borassus

flabelllifer (IVI 220.95), was the most important family. With a height of ca 20

m, it is the tallest tree and accounted for most of the 230 stems (n=21 I; 91.74%)

enumerated. It was followed by Azadirachta indica (n=8, 3.47%). These two

species together accounted for 95.21% of the stand density, 13.7 m1(92.07%) of

basal area, and IVI of 257.31 (Table 17).

Biovolume data show that Borassus flabellijeer (1717.62 m3), Ficus

benghalensis (972.61 m3), Lannea coromandelica (39.69 m3) and Azadirachta

indica (34.62 m3) dominated the grove.

Table 17: Phytosoclologlcal analysis of woody taxa In Sandhlkuppam grove

Height class distribution of individuals (Fig. 4) shows that the higher

classes had fewer individuals and the maximum number of individuals among the

9 to 12 m categories. But the girth class distribution shows that more mature trees

occur in 60-90 and 90-120 cm classes. Maximum number of individuals were in

higher basal area classes because of the monospecific nature.

Girth-wise, Ficus benghalensis with 205 cm gbh was the stoutest

specimen. Borassus flabellifer was the dominant species with the maximum

number of individuals which occupy the top storey. Lannea coromandelica (190

cm gbh), and Calophyllum inophyllum (98 cm gbh) were other notable trees.

Undergrowth was restricted around the temple complex; it was dominated

by Glycosmis mauritiana; growth of herbs were suppressed by grazlng in most

places. Yet, regeneration of Borassus flabellifer was strongly evident.

Millingtonia hortensis was the only exotic species. This grove is extensively

diswbed by illegal sand quanying (Plate 16.5).

Based on the number and size of the individuals, the grove can be

classified as a mono-species palm grove, though the other plants seem to have

been introduced subsequently. Further, the higher number of stout trees represent

that it could be an old grove with good regeneration potential. Nevertheless, the

signs of sand quarying is a factor of concern. In general, the grove can be tenned

as a less disturbed Palmyra palm Grove.

Qlnh class (cml

Fig.4: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Sandhikuppam based on height, girth and basal area

2. Keezhkumaramangalam Grove

Floristics

The Keezhkumaramangalam grove, dedicated to Aiyanar, measured 0.32

ha and had a total of 40 species representing 36 genera and 27 families (Table

16). Of these, woody taxa accounted for 22 species in 17 families. Ten species in

nine families were shrubs and five species in four families were herbs. Two

species were climbers (Coccinia grandis and Jasmin urn angustifolium).

Capparis zeylanica was the only liana.

Vegetation analysis

Three woody species belong to Moraceae and Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae

and Sapotaceae are represented by hvo species each and the rest have by just one

species each (Table 15). Out of 40 species, only seven (17.5 %) of them are

woody taxa (>20cm gbh) indicating that the grove has a dense ground vegetation

with a sparse woody taxa.

The dominant woody taxon was Borassusjlabellifer (IVI 109.98). Out of

the 101 individuals enumerated, it had 43 individuals (42.57%), followed by

Alangium salivifolium (n=14, 13.86%), Azadirachta indica (n=13, 12.87%),

Atalantia monophylla (n=13, 12.87%) and Lepisanthes tetraphylla (n=l l ,

10.89%) These accounted for 51.49% in this grove. All these five species

accounted for 94.06% of the stand density, 5.7 m2 (85.97%) of basal area, and

IVI of 260.68 (Table 18).

Borassus flabellifer (355.52 m3), Ficus benghalensis (96.87 m3)

Aradirachta indica (80.31 m3) and Alanglum salivifolium (77.85 m') are the most

important trees in this grove on the basis of biovolume.

Table 18: Phytosociologlcal analysls of woody taxa In

Keezhkumaramangalam grove

Height class analys~s show that the most of the lnd~v~duals occur at 6 to 12

m level ~nd~cating that they are the emerglng trees. The g~rth class d~stnbut~on

shows that most of the indiv~duals belong to 20-120 cm class, only a few were In

140-220 cm classes (Fig. 5).

The 10 m tall Alanglum salvlfol~um recorded the largest gbh 220 cm,

Ficus benghalensrs was the stoutest tree measuring 2000 cm In gbh and had

prop roots emerging from a height of 18 m.

The canopy of this grove is covered but not continuously. Ev~dences of

gradual but continuous encroachment due to expanding the boundaries of

adjacent agricultural lands and human habitation are glaring.

This palmyra - dominated grove has a substantial number of four other

trees also. As most of the trees are medium-sized, this grove could have been

Initiated with a banyan tree around which other trees could have been raised

subsequently.

Helght class (m)

~ s n ~ area (ma)

Fig.5: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Keazhkumaramangalam based on height, girth and basal area

3. Sedarapet Grove

Floristics

The Sedarapet Aiyanar grove measured 0.23 ha. It is the smallest grove.

There were 60 species representing in 56 genera and 36 families (Table 16). Of

these, woody taxa accounted for 21 species in 17 families. Fourteen species in 11

families were shrubs, and 17 species in 13 families were herbs. In addition, seven

climbers, A b m precatorius (Fabaceae), Cissus vitiginia and Cissus

quadrangularis (Vitaceae), Coccinia grandis (Cucurbitaceae), Hemidesmus

indicus (Periplocaceae),, Jasminum angu stifolium (Oleaceae), Solanum

trilobatum (Solanaceae). Capparis zeylanica is a lone liana. Proportionately,

trees constitued 35%, shrubs 23.3% and herbs 28.3%.

Vegetation Analysis

Taxonomically, there were three woody species in Moraceae, while

Arecaceae and Rutaceae had two each (Table 15). The IVl values suggest that the

vegetation could be termed an association of Azadirachta indica (55.94),

Borassw flabellifer (34.23) and Santalum album (32.80). Out of the 53 stems

enumerated, Azadirachta indica with 16 individuals (30.18%), followed by the

individuals of Borassus j7abellijer (n=7, 13.20%), Santalum album (n=5,

!5.09%), Diospyros melanoxylon (n=6, 11.32%). These four species together

accounted for 69.81% of the stand density, 1.4 m2 of basal area, and IVI of

155.18 (Table 19).

F~cus benghalensis (BV = 266.25 m3) was a robust specrmen followed by;

Borassus flabellifer (57.05 m'), D~ospyros melonoxylon (38.88 m3) and

Azadirachta indica (22.35 m3).

Table 19: Phytosociologlcal analysis of woody taxa in Sedarapet grove

Height and grrth class had representation in all classes wrth a maximum at

the lower levels. It showed that they are young and emerging trees (Flg. 6).

Though it was the smallest grove in the study area, rt harboured many

srgnificant taxa. D~ospyros melanoxylon and Santalam album are evergreen

specimens normally restricted to ghats. Though only 8 sandal wood trees were

included rn the analysis, over 60 stems occur in thls grove but were younger trees

<20 cm gbh. Similarly, treelings of D~ospyros melonoxylog are also abundant

It could serve as a refug~um for these two evergreen taxa (Plate 15 3)

"..-

2 4 4-6 68 8-10 10-12

Halght class (m)

2 M O 40-60 60-80 80120 W 120

Olrth class (cm)

Fig.6: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Sedarapet based on height, girth and basal area

The vegetation was dense with almost closed canopy. The undergrowth

constituted by Glycosmis mauritiana was dense, besides the regenerating

saplings of Santalam album, Borassus flabellifer and Phoenix sylvestris. The

grove is situated a%dst the agricultural fiel+way from the village. Evidences of

human interference were minimum. It can be classified as fairly well preserved

grove.

4. Karasur Grove

The Karasur sacred grove, mearsuring 0.25 ha had a total of 32 species in

30 genera and 23 families (Table 16). Of these, 9 species in 8 families were

woody; eight species in 6 families were shrubs and 7 species in 6 families were

herbs. In addition, species like Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae), Ipon?ea

aquatica (Convolvulaceae), Capparis zeylanica (Capparaceae) , Tinospora

cordifolia (Menispermaceae), Jasminum angustifolium (Oleaceae) and Solanum

trilobatum (Solanaceae) were the climbers. The partial stem parasite, Cassytha

jliformis (Lauraceae) was twining around the branches of the neem tree.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, Arecaceae and Moraceae had two woody species each.

Out of 32 species recorded, only six woody species were analysed (20%). Ficus

hispida (Moraceae) and Borassusflabellifer (Arecaceae) were the most abundant

species with IVI values of 116.99 and 11 1.72, respectively. Apparently, the

grove was dominated by these two species.

Table 20: Phytoroclological analyslo of woody taxa In Karasur grove

Out of the 67 stems enumerated, Fiscus hispida (n=32, 47.76%) and

Borassus flabellifer (n=27, 40.29%), totally accounted for 88.05% of the stand

density, 3.73m2 of basal area (86.54%), and IVI of 228.71 (Table 20).

The biovolume pattern was also unilaterally in favour of Ficus hispida and

BorassusJabell@r, which together accounted for 435.87111' is a higher value.

Height class distribution (Fig. 7) showed that trees of 4-6 m and 10-12 m

classes were the maximum. The lower representation in other classes indicates

both degradation and the lack of regeneration. Such a pattern was also obtained

in girth class distribution, as more individuals occur in 40-50 cm gbh category.

This is one of the smallest grove and is dominated by Ficus hispida, and

Borassus flab4Yer. The two trees of Ficus benghalensis, one each on the

eastern and western side of the grove grow luxuriously and dominated the

physiognomy providing an almost continuous canopy.

Leptadenia reticulata a climber of girth 17 cm gbh was a rare observation.

Amorphophalus sylvaticus of Araceae family, a rare herb not noticed in any of

the present study sites was present in this grove. The aerial roots of Tinospora

cordifolia was seen profusely. The wiry green stems of Cassythajliformis were

parastic on Azadirachta indica trees.

Seedlings of Polyalthia suberosa, an evergreen member of the dry

evergreen forests dominated the ground vegetation. Cascabela thevetia was also

observed.

Height class (m)

Girth class (cm)

Basal area (ma)

Fig.7: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Karasur based on height, girth and basal area

5. Ramanathapuram Grove

Floristics

The Ramanathapuram sacred grove measured 0.66 ha and recorded 56

species from 54 genera and 35 families (Table 16). Among them, woody taxa

accounted for 21 species in 16 families. Twelve species in 11 families were

shrubs and 15 in 12 families were herbs. In addition seven climbers in 6

families were also recorded. They are Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae),

Gymnema sylvestre (Asclepiadaceae), Coccinia grandis (Cucurbitaceae), Mukia

maderaspatana (Cucurbitaceae), A b m precatorius (Fabaceae), Jasminum

auriculatum (Oleaceae), and Cissus quadrangularis (Vitaceae). Capparis

zeylanica was the only liana. Trees constituted with 37.5%, shrubs 21.43% and

herbs 26.79%.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, three woody taxa belonged to Moraceae two each to

Arecaceae, Rutaceae and Sapindaceae (Table 15). Out of 21 woody species. 15

species (71.43%) were in > 20cm gbh category. Alangium salvfoiurn (n=50)

(Alangiaceae), Azadirachta indica (n=16) (Meliaceae) and Parnburus missionis

(n=16) (Rutaceae) were the dominant species.

Out of the 112 stems enumerated Alangium salvijoium with 54 stems

(44.64%), followed by 16 stems of Azadirachta indica and Pambums missionis

,n=16, 14.28% each). These three species totally accounted for 73.21% of the

stand density, 8.06111' of basal area (63.06 %), and 183.58 of IVI. The biovolume

accounted for 995.58m3. But the biovolume a single tree of Tamarindus indica

(508.94m" over shadowed all other trees (Table 21).

Table 21: Phytosociological analysis of woody taxa In Rarnanathpurarn grove

The IVI values of Alangium salvifolium (85.68), Azadirachta indica

(63.71) and Pamburus missiork (34.19) shows that this grove is an assemblage of

these three species. Stages of regeneration were also prominent.

Maximum number of trees belonged to 6-8m height class. Tall trees and

treelings were very few. Likewise, more individuals occur in 20-40 cm girth

class category indicating that they are still growing (Fig. 8).

Tamarindus indica with 600 cm gbh and 15m height was stoutest

specimen, followed by Azadirachta indica (gbh 380 cm) (Plate 16.2). The

undergrowth was dense with dominant bushes of Glycosmis mauritiana

(Rutaceae). Crateava adansonii, is a rare species in this region.

Fig.8: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Ramanathapuram based on height, girth and basal area

6. Nagari Grove

Floristics

The Nagari sacred grove measured 0.28 ha and had a total of 30 species

representing 29 genera and 19 families (Table 16). Of these, woody taxa

accounted for 15 species in 12 families. Five species in 5 families were shrubs

and 8 species in 6 families were herbs. A single climber, Aristolochia indica and

the parasite Cuscuta reflexa on Morinda pubescens tree were the other notable

components. Proportionately, trees constitute 50%, Shrubs 16.67% and herbs

no2gs0 Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, three woody species belonged to Moraceae, and two to

Arecaceae. Of the 30 species, only nine (33.33 %) of them were woody taxa were

above 20 cm gbh. Arecaceae represented by Burassus flabellifer (IVI 100.81)

was the dominant family.

Table 22: Phytosoclologlcal analyals of woody taxa In Nagarl grove

Out of the 80 stems enumerated, Borassusjlabellifer (n=45, 56.25%)

and Azadirachta indica (n=45,20%) were dominant. These two species together

accounted for 76.25% of the stand density, 72.83% (10.13 m2) of basal area, and

187.13 of IVI (Table 22).

Species-wise, Azadirachta indica (877.30 m3), Borassus flabellifer

(602.33 m3) and Ficus benghalensis (315.70 m3) are the most voluminous in this

grove.

Class-wise distribution shows that the most of the individuals belong to 14

to 16 m in height classes and 80-120 cm girth classes indicating that they are

fairly mature trees (Fig. 9). A stout neem tree of gbh 415 cm and height of 15 m

was recorded in this site, while a palm tree reached 19 m.

This grove is located adjacent to the main road but is surrounded by the

agriculture fiel4on the other side. Interestingly, taller trees were on the southern

half of the grove where a shallow pond is present. An irrigation canal also passed

through the grove. Ground vegetation was moderate with eight herbs and five

shrubs. The grove is small and heterogeneous composition adds to its botanical

value.

Glrth class (cm)

Bas81 area (m')

Fig.9: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Nagari based on height, girth and basal area

7. Kumalam Grove

Floristics

The Kurnalam grove measured 0.30 ha and contained 27 specles

representing 25 genera and 20 families (Table 16). Of these, woody taxa

accounted for 18 species in 14 families. Shrubs and herbs were sparse wlth 3 ano

5 species, respectively. Ar~stolochra indica was the only climber.

Proportionately, trees constitute 66.67%, Shrubs 11.1 1% and herbs 18.52%.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, Arecaceae was represented by three specles while

Fabaceae and Rutaceae had two species each. The dominant woody taxa was

Borasus flabellifer (IVI 95.50). Only ten of the 27 species were analysed

floristically.

Table 23: Phytosoclologlcal analysls of woody taxa In Kumalam grove

Out of the 310 stems enumerated, Bormsus flabellifer was the most

populous (n=154, 49.67%), followed by Azadirachla lndica (n=71, 22.90 %)

These two species together accounted for 72.58% of the stand density, 16.27 m2

(61.88%) of basal area, and 165.58of IVI (Table 23).

Biovolume data show that Borassusflabellifer (1060.55 m3), followed by

Azadirachta indica (855.76 m3) and Ficus benghalensis (724.92 m') are the most

important trees in this grove. Pamburus missionis (174.31 m3) and Phoeni*

sylvestris (165.10 m" also contributed substantially to the physiognomy and

phytosociology.

Height class distribution shows that most of the individuals belong to a t 4

tof4m class indicating that they are the emerging trees, despite the dominance of

Borassusflabellijer. In girth class distribution, most of the individuals occur in

60-80 cm category (Fig. 10). A stout Ficus benghalensis tree with a gbh 250 cm

and 14 m height was present in this site.

This grove is surrounded by the agricultural field in all sides.

cindergrowth was dense, dominated by GIycosmis mauritiana. Saplings of

Borassusflabellijer were sprouting together, testifying to the interest initiated by

the villagers in maintaining the population of palms. An hydrophyte, Nelumbo

nucijera grows in the pond which was located at the southern side of the grove.

Though the tree formation was dense, encroachment by the farmers continues.

The luxuriance of Pamburus missionis is an interesting feature here. In genrral,

this grove, though small in size, is seemingly heterogeneous and well preserved

too.

4-6 6-8 &10 10.12 12-14 14-16 16.16

Helght ell88 (rn)

7 .' .a, *I, Q, B'Q '+J% vQIsu, b Gllth class (cm)

Flg.10: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Kumalam based on height, girth and basal area

8. ~ilkaripyalayam Grove

Floristics

The ~i lkar icalayam sacred grove measured 0.75 ha with a total of 74

species representing 70 genera and 40 families (Table 16). Of these, 23 species in

14 families were woody. Nineteen species in 14 families were shrubs and 24 in

18 families were herbs. Eight climbers were also present. As a whole, trees

constituted 30.14%, Shrubs 26.03% and herbs 32.88%.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, there were seven woody species in Fabaceae, three in

Moraceae, and two each in Annonaceae and Arecaceae. Overall, out of 74

species only 13 (17.5%) were fit for the analysis. Borassus flabellifer of

Arecaceae was the dominant taxa (n=36,32.14 %).

Table 24: Phytosoclologlcal analysis of woody taxa In ~ i l k a r l ~ a l a y a m grove

Out of the 112 stems enumerated Borassus flabellifer (n=36, 32.14%),

Azadirachta indica (n=26,23.21 %) and Madhuca longifolia (n=10, 8.92%) were

the most populous trees. These three species together accounted for 64.28% of

the stand density, 24.85 m2(70.83%) of basal area, and IVI of 181.16 (Table 24).

Massive trees of Madhuca longifalia (1827.82 m'), Azadirachta indicu

(1448.06 m3), Ficus benghalensis (894.72 m3), Tamarindus indica (367.57 m3)

and Borassusflabellifer (281.03 m') were an attraction of the grove.

Most of the individuals occurred 6 - 8 m or 12 - 16 m height classes.

Whereas girth class distribution was reversed, most of the individuals occurred in

80-100 cm class (Fig. 11). Madhuca longifolia with a gbh of 500 cm (height 15

m) was a magnific~ent specimen. In fact, five of the ten trees were equally

impressive, robust specimens (Plate 15.1).

This grove is swounded by the agriculture fields. There is a pond on the

eastern side of the grove but now it is fully silted. Exotic species like Cascabelo

'hevetia, Delonix elata, Delonix regia, Cassia siamea, Leucaena leucocephala,

Carica papaya and MiNingtonia horiensis had been planted in the low lying

silted area. The climber Gloriosa suberba occured frequently. A dense

undergrowth of shrubs, of Glycosmis mauritiana, and Polyalthia suberosa was a

distinct feature of the grove. Sida schimperiana was another notable taxon.

The grove was dominated by massive tree, with a dense and continuous

canopy but for the clearings. It is an old one where (misplaced) the enthusiasm of

the authorities is evident in introducing non-grove species.

Halght clus (m)

30

25 ). - I :: 6 10 4

5

0

% '% $1. " 7 $ ~ $ * 7 $ 7 ~ * 7 4 ~ \ ~ 2 ~ h a , ~ 2 ~ ~ J S

Glrth class (cm)

Flg.11: Frequency distribution of woody texa of Silkaripalayam based on height, girth and basal area

9. Pannaikuppam Grove

The Pannaikuppam sacred grove measured 1.50 ha and had 55 species

representing 48 genera in 36 families (Table 16). Of these, woody taxa accounted

for 23 species in 14 families. Twelve species in 9 families were shrubs and 13

species in 11 families were herbs. Six climbers and a parasite Cuscuta rejIexa

growing on Morinda pubescens were also recorded. Proportionately, trees

constitute 41.82%, shrubs 21.82% and herbs 23.63%.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, Fabaceae was the dominant family with six species,

followed by three in Anacardiaceae, two species each in Annonaceae, Arecaceae

and Moraceae. Out of 55 species, only 15 woody taxa (27.27%) were sampled

for floristic analysis. This grove had the dominant species, Mangifera indica (IVI

77.001.

Table 25: Phytosoclologlcal analysis of woody taxa In Pannalkuppum grove

Out of the 83 stems enumerated, Mangifera indica (n=19, 22.89%)with

high BV (1415.52 m'), followed by Madhuca longifolia (n=16, 19.28% BV:

1182.36 m3) accounted for 42.17% of the stand density. They also had a total

basal area of 19.70 m2 (71.29%) and IVI of 142.02. Pithecolobium dulce

(740.321 m3) is another. important tree. A robust specimen of Lannev

coromandelica (189.37 m3) was also part of the grove (Table 25).

Height class distribution of individuals (Fig. 12) showed that higher

classes had fewer individuals upto 14-16 m. Only two extreme girth classes were

well represented. The intermediate classes had very few individuals. Similar

pattern also reflected in basal area pattern. The glaring gaps in the analytical data

indicate that trees are young and maturing with a few old trees.

The grove is surrounded by the agriculture fields. A lake is situated on the

southern side of the grove. Shrub vegetation is restricted around the temple

~omplex (0.50 ha). A part of the grove site was cleared and transformed to

agriculture field and leased out by the temple authorities. Regeneration of

Madhuca longifolia is common. Polyalthia suberosa showing good regeneration

potential was also common. An old Ficus religiosa (gbh 820 cm; height 18 m)

was a notable giant specimen.

25-

0, CB 5-8 8-10 10-12 12.14 14.16 15-18 15-20

H e l ~ h t class (m)

{ 10

? 5

0

Clrth class (em)

Fig.12: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Pannaikuppam based on height, girth and basal area

10. Krishnavaram Grove

The sacred grove in Krishnavaram measured 8.80 ha, it is the largest in the

study area. It had 92 species representing 81 genera in 41 families (Table 16). Of

these, woody forms accounted for 29 species in 17 families; 25 species in I4

families were shrubs, 19 species in 13 families were herbs. Comparatively, the

climbers were abundant with 16 species in 10 families. Capparis zeylanica was

the only liana. Cassytha filiformis (Lauraceae) and Dendrophthoe falcata

(Loranthaceae) were parasite on Morinda pubescens and Gmelina asiatica,

respectively. In all, tree members accounted for 31.5%, shrubs 27.8%, herbs

2 1.1 % of the total.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, there were seven woody species in Fabaceae, followed by

four species in Arecaceae and three in Rubiaceae. Moraceae and Bignoniaceae

were represented by two species each. Twelve families were monospecific

Table 26: Phytosoclologlcal analysls of woody taxa In Krlshnavaram grove

Out of 29 woody species only five qualified (>20 cm gbh) for analysis.

IVI value of B o r m w flabellifer was 204.80, followed by Azadirachta indica

(66.78). Numerically, Borassus flabellifer (n=177, 71.95%) and Azadirachta

indica (n=62, 25.20%) were predominant. These two species together constitute

91.15% of the stand density, basal area is 10.13 m2 (94.49%) and IVI of 271.58

(Table 26).

Biovolume data reflect the robustness of three dominant species Borarsus

falbellifer (1 187.28 m'), Ficus benghalensis (40.67 m3) and Azadirachta indica

(34.02 m3).

In height class distribution, maximum individual were in 10-14 m class.

Like wise, more individuals belonged to 80-100 cm girth class. Representation

was maximum in higher class indicating the maturity of the specimens. It is also

reflected in the basal area pattern due to the robustness of the dominant species

(Fig. 13).

There was a pond in the center which was the target clay-mining in

unrestricted manner. The grove was cleared for celebrations, construction and

fire-walking causing large-scale destructions of vegetation (Plate 17).

In general, the grove was low statured or unstructured vegetation, wherein

the tree species had not attained the natural growth dimensions. Most of the

specimens were stunted with the treelings exhibiting axillary sprouting.

Along the periphery of the grove, a number of thickets were seen,

indicating a diachronic disturbance. The bryophyte Riccia sp. was observed in

moist places during monsoon months. Two young trees of Corypha macropoda,

a rare monocarpic palm were an added attraction.

7 7 %o % % qa7% 7Q7e0

Girth class ism)

Fig.13: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Krishanavaram based on height, girth and basal area

11. Nattamedu Grove

Floristics

The Nattemedu sacred grove measured 1.50 ha It had a total of 65 species

distributed in 59 genera and 37 families (Table 16). Of these, woody species

totalled 30 in 18 families; 15 species in 14 families were shrubs, and 14 more in

10 families were herbs. Four species in four families were climbers. Capparis

zeylanica was the only one liana. Viscum orientale (Loranthaceae), growing on

Thespesia populnea was a parasite. Of the recorded taxa trees constituted

45.31%, shrubs 23.43%, herbs 21.88%.

Vegetation analysis:

Taxonomically there were eight woody taxa in Fabaceae, followed by

three species in Arecaceae; Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae and Moraceae were

represented by two species each. The other families were represented by only one

species each.

Out of 29 woody taxa, 20 (68.96%) were having >20 cm gbh and analysed

loristically. IVI value of Borassus flabellifer was 88.30, followed by

Azadirachta indica 53.43 and Cocos nucifera 32.47, which were the dominant

species. Out of 187 stems enumerated, Borassus flabellifer (n=71, 37.96%),

Azadirachta indica (n=53, 28.34%) and Cocos nucifera (n=21, 11.22%) together

constituted 77.54% of the stand density, basal area of 6.54 m2 (61.17%) and IVI

of 174,20(Table 27).

Biovolume data express the robustness of these three dominant species,

with 444.17 rn', 142.47 m3, 92.86 m3 respectively. Lepisanthes tetraphylla with

just four trees had a biovolume of 120.60 m3 and dominated the biovolume

pattern.

Table 27: Phytosocloiogical analysis of woody taxa In Nattamedu grove

Height class distribution of individuals (Fig. 14) shows a f a~r i - 8 ,

representation in all classes, but it IS more in,10-12 m class due to Borassus

flabellifer. Girth class distribution also reflects the above trend with more

individuals in 80-100 cm category. Lep~santhes tetraphylla had the maxlmum

gbh of 310 cm, but height wise, palmyra palms were taller (14 m).

This grove was supported by a big pond having water throughCout the

year. Nelumbo nucifera, the lotus plant, grows luxuriously. The presence of

exotic and cultivated species like Cocos nucifera, Delonix elata, Delonix regia,

Albizzia lebbeck, Bombax ceiba, Peltophotum pterocarpum, Tectona grandis,

Mangifera indica is a notable feature. Ground vegetation is sparse. The

frequency of human visits was high since the grove was situated close to the

village and on a main road.

% bb % *BB I%?+ %Q '%@ 'Q,+, 'b Glrlh class (ern)

Fig.14: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Nattarnedu based on height, girth and basal area

12. Moorthikuppam Grove

Floristics

Moorthikuppam grove measured 0.28 ha and had a total of 24 species

distributed in 23 genera and 19 families. Among these, tree species numbered

seven belonged to seven families (33.33%), seven shrubs in seven families

(29.16%), seven herbs in seven families (29.16%). Woody climbers, Capparis

zeylanica and Vallaris solanacea were supported by Ficus benghalensis trees.

Vegetation analysis

All the seven families were represented by a single species each, but only

four species qualified for analysis.

Table 28: Phytosociologlcal analysis of woody taxa In Moorthlkuppam grove

Out of 144 stems enumerated, Borassus flabellifer accounted for 114

individuals (79.62%) and Azadirachta indica had 22 stems (15.27%). These two

dominant species together accounted for 94.44% of the stand density, 6.48 m2

(33.06%) of basal area and 187.5 1 IVI (Table 28).

The biovolume data reflects the dominance of BorasswJlabelli/er (834 m3),

and Azadirachta indica (22.30 m3). Interestingly, the biovolume of Ficus

benghalensis (n=5 ) was 1710.40 m3, which is due to robustness.

Height class distribution (Fig. 15) showed that the maximum number of

individuals were in l%l+ m class, with only meagre representation in other

classes; it indicates the degradation of the grove. Girth-wise, more individuals

occurred in 80-100 cm class.

A banyan tree was 14 m tall and stout (gbh 650 cm). A rare woody

climber Vallaris solanacea of Apocynaceae growing on Ficus benghalensis was

also recorded.

In general, the grove was highly degraded with luxurious shrubs and

ground vegetation. The tree canopy was very much discontinuous. A mud road

leading to the village passes through this grove. Incidentally, the soil was

moistened continuously by water through the seepage from the irrigation canal

and agricultural fields surrounding the grove. Borassusflabellijer being tall and

monopodial, troops out of the sparse can-opy formed by Alangium salvijolium,

Ficus benghalensis, Azadirachta indica. Polyalthia suberosa (Annonaceae)

which occurs rarely in plains was a taxon of botanical importance.

This grove with just four qualified species, is a typical example for the

high degree of human impact. The diversity is low and the trees are old and

degenerate. Perhaps, it was a palm grove into which other native species had

been introduced over the years. Though the topography is ideal for its survival,

its morbid state is perplexing.

80

70

j: !

30

z0 20

10

0 4-6 6 8 610 10-12 12-14 14-16

Height ciaas (m)

80

80

Y 7o 5 60

! :: 30

= 20

10

0 2040 4040 8MIO 80-100 > 100

Girth claaa (em)

Fig.15: Frequency distribution of wody taxa of Moorthikuppam based on height, girth and basal area

13. Thennampakkam

Floristics

Thennampakkam grove dedicated to Azhagumuthu Aiyanar measured

4.50 ha and had a total of 23 species distributed in 21 genera and 18 families of

Angiosperms. Among these, 15 were woody taxa in 13 families, four shrubs in

four families, and three herbs in three families and a liana were recorded.

Proportionately, trees accounted for 65.21%, shrubs 17.39%, and herbs 13.04%.

Vegetation analysis

Three farhes Anacardiaceae,Fabaceae and Moraceae had two species

each. Out of 140 total stems enumerated, Tamarindus indica (n=48, 34.28%),

Madhuca longifolia (n=32, 22.86%) and Borassus Jabellifer (n=26, 18.57%)

dominated the vegetation. These three dominant species together constituted

75.71% of the stand density, 40.14 m2 (75.4%) of basal area and 190.65 of IVI.

Table 29: Phytosoclologlcal analysis of woody taxa in Thenampakkam grove

The dominance of Tamarindus indica (2364.92 m'), Madhuca longifolia

(1972.88 m? and Borassusflabellijer (191.19m3) is reflected by the biovolume

pattern. In addition, five trees of Ficus benghalensis measured 566.17 m3 and

Mangifera indica with seven stems covers 395.50 m3 (Table 29).

Height class distribution of individuals (Fig. 16) showed that higt.er

classes had fewer individuals. Maximum number of individuals were in 10-12 m

height classes. In the girth class distribution, maximum number of individuals

were in 80-100 cm gbh category. A few classes were unrepresented. Maximum

individuals were in higher basal area classes and few of them concentrated in

lower frequency. The trees are either mature specimen or emerging ones. A tree

of Tamarindus indica reaching 14 m had a gbh of 360 cm.

In general, the grove was an assemblage of selective trees but is highly

disturbed due to the pressures from pilgrimage; the grand celebrations of the

annual festival and heavy congregation of devotees are the major causes. The

ground vegetation was very sparse too.

The tree canopy was less dense. Many trees have been cut by the

management committee to pave way for festivities. Incidently, the vegetation

received adequate water from the adjoining lake; the wet agricultural fields also

keeps the soil moist. Further, an irrigation canal is also passed through the grove.

The soil is fertile, and soil-moisture is consistently adequate but the grove is

degenerating. This is one grove where the cultural considerations have trampled

conservation ethos.

Flg.16: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Thennampakkarn based on height, girth and basal area

14. Mangalam Grove

The Mangalam sacred grove dedicated to Milagumuthu Aiyanar (0.96 ha)

had a total of 64 species distributed in 59 genera and 37 families. Among them,

woody taxa accounted for 24 species in 17 families. Fourteen species in 12

families were shrubs and 17 in 12 families were herbs. In addition, five climbers

in 5 families were also recorded. Besides, two liana, Capparis zeylanica and

Dem's scandens growing on Ficus benghalensis and Madhuca longfolia,

respectively, were also found. Two parasites, Cassythafilfomis on Asadirachta

indica tree, and Cuscuta reflera on Morinda pubescens tree were also recorded.

Vegetation analysis

Arecaceae was represented by three species followed by two each in

Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae and Rutaceae.

Table 30: Phytosociologlcal analysis of woody taxa In Mangalam grove

1 ~ 0 1 Famllv I Smclms llndl RD / RF I BA I RBA ! IVI 1 BV 1

Out of the 144 stems enumerated, Borassus flabellifer with 51 stems

(35.41%), Madhuca logifolio (n=34, 23.61%) were the dominant species,

followed by Cocos nucifera (n=18, 12.5%) and Azadirachta indica (n=13,

9.02%), accounted for 80.55% of the stand density, 6.99m2 (57.01%) of basal

area and 199.13 of IVI. The biovolume pattern is also dominated by these four

species; the robustness of Tamarindus indica (n=8, 692.73 m') also adds to the

richness of the grove (Table 30).

Height class distribution showed the maximum number of individuals in

12-14 m class; upto this class the number of individuals gradually increase but

higher classes had fewer individuals. Similarly, in the girth class distribution

also, with 80-)CO cm class has the maximum number of individuals. More trees

were in the higher basal area class and a few of them were in the lower

frequency. A gap in the intervening classes indicatq the human interference,

especially, the selective removal of trees from the site

(Fig. 17).

In general, the vegetation was dominated by the trees of Borassus

Jabellifer, Madhuca longifolia, Cocos nucifera and Azadirachta indica. A mud

road has been laid through the grove which increased the frequency of human

visits. A mammoth liana, Derris scandens with a girth of 82 cm was a notable

specimen. The shrub layer was dominated by Atalantia monophylla and ground

vegetation was sparse. A termite mound adjacent to a neem tree is protected

inside the temple complex (Plate 12.1).

44 6-8 b l O 10-12 12-14 14-16 16-18 18-20

Helghl class (m)

50 45 40

9 : f ;: g 15

10 5 0

% tL, % '%+ '+J.% "7sb'sh.B""4,""4,% Olrth class (cm)

Fig.17: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of Mangalam based on height, girth and basal area

15. Alamarathukuppam Grove

Alamarathukuppam grove measured 4.92 ha.It is one of the larger groves

and had 79 species distributed in 60 genera and 36 families. Among them, woody

taxa accounted for 28 species in 17 families. Fifteen species in nine families were

shrubs and 22 species in 11 families were herbs. Ten climbers in five families are

also recorded (Table 16). Two woody climbers, Capparis zeylanica and Derris

scandens were also present. Cuscuta reJIera and Cassytha fi lijbrmis were the

two parasites observed on Morinda pubescens and Lepisanth~ s tetraphylla,

respectively. Proportionately, trees accounted for 35.44%. shrubs 18.98%, and

herbs 27.84% of the constituent species.

Vegetation analysis

Taxonomically, Fabaceae and Moraceae had five species each. Four

belonged to Arecaceae and three to Rutaceae.

Out of the 123 stems enumerated, Borassus flabellifer (n = 43) and

Azadirachta indica (n = 24) together accounted for 63.41% of the stand density,

6.24 m2 (64.06%) of basal area, and 173.36 of IVI (Table 31).

Madhuca longifolia (364.36 m3), Borassus Jabellifer (150.5 m3) and

Syzygium cumini (1 18.63 m3), dominated the biovolume pattern.

Height class dishbution (Fig. 18) shows that the maximum individuals in

4-8 m range due to appearance of the medium-sized trees and the maximum girth

range in 2 0 4 0 cm. Mature trees seemed to be rare. A Sy&um cumini tree

measured 320 cm gbh.

Table 31: Phytosoclologlcal analysis of woody taxa In Alamarthukuppam grove

17

18

18

A pond located nearby was the perennial source of water. Ground

vegetation represented by 22 species and was moderately dense. These are more

luxurious than the shrubs. The shrub vegetation was dominated by Phoen~x

pusilla, which have formed of small thickets. A portion of the grove 1s saltlsh and

swampy wherein Salvadora persica, a mangrove species dominated. A rare

species Ficus amplissima is recorded in this grove. Two young specimens

Corypha macropoda also grow, inside. Another rare, leafless succulent

Sarcostemma intermedium (Asclepiadaceae) growing on Phoenrx pusllla was a

component of the thickets.

The grove is heterogeneous in composition and has a fairly thick

vegetation. Nevertheless, axing of wood and grazing are quite common,

threatening its survival.

SALVADORACUE

SAPINDACEM

SAPOTACEAE

Sdvwdmpsraics

LspiranULs tetnphflla

M a d h u o s ~ l d

TOW

8

1

11

123

8 50

0 81

884

100.00

8 57

1 43

1143

100.00

0 07

0 01

382

9.71

0 74

0 06

3031

100.00

15 82

2 30

5068

300.00

3 48

0 31

36138

M9.80

Height cia88 (m)

%o %, % 7Q7+%7'07fQ7@7Q7~7%Zs,A%

Girth cia88 (em)

~ w a i area (ma)

Flg.18: Frequency distribution of woody taxa of AlamaraUlukuppam based on height, girth and basal area

FLORISTICS AND IMPORTANCE OF THE GROVES

Since the groves have been attributed with several values (viJe

Introduction), the- present conservation status of the 15 groves was also

assessed. Alongside, their social, ecological and botanical values were also

studied.

On the basis of overall appearance, composition and IVI (>140) of the

constituents, the groves can be broadly categorized into mono - species or multi -

species groves. Three of them were palmyra groves (Sandhikuppam,

Krishnavararn, Moorthikuppam) and Thennarnpakkarn was a tamarind grove.

Other eleven groves were multi - species groves (Table 32) yet, eight of them

also had sizable populations of Borassusflabellifer. The Karasur grove appeared

to be banyan grove but had two other highly dominant plants.

The presence of old as well as young trees is a positive indication of the

healthy status. Occurrence of seedlings and treelings points to the regeneration

potential. The extent of human impacts were quantified (Fig. 19). Based on these,

the groves are classified into four categories viz. well preserved (>70% of plant

cover), partially preserved (50% of plant cover), degraded (40% of plant cover)

and mostly degraded (<25% of plant cover). The ground vegetation is very poor

in the last category (Table 32).

The groves at Sedarapet, Karasur, Rarnanathapuram, Nagui, Kumalam

and Silkaripalayam can be graded as well preserved; Sandhikuppam,

Pannaikuppam and Nattamedu are partially preserved and the remaining five are

degraded. Thennampakkam grove is mostly degraded with >75 % clearance.

Floristics

In a total sampled area of 26.37 ha 52 woody species with 2132

individuals (>20cm gbh) were recorded in 15 groves. These species belonged to

3 1 families and 44 genera. The most common families were Fabaceae (14 species),

Arecaceae and Moraceae (five species each). The most abundant species was

Borassusflabellifer (n=1025), a sturdy tree characteristic of the semi - arid zone.

It was present in the coastal as well as interior groves. It is followed by

Azadirachta indica, a brevi - deciduous tree with great religious and economical

importance.

Frequency-wise, the neem is the only tree present in all the groves. The

banyan tree is present in all the groves except in Pannaikuppam. The Palmyra

tree is present in 13 of them. Though 52 woody species occurred in the groves,

only five of them had IVI exceeding 50.0.

Distribution-wise, Alangium salvifolium, Diospyros melanoxylon,

Madhuca longifolio, Pamburus missionis, Polyalthia suberosa, Syzygium cumini,

Lepisanthes telraphylla and Atalantia monophylla are significant (Table 17-3 1,

Plate 15). Presence of spines, prickles and thorns offers protection against

herbivores. Among the 136 woody species, there were 27 armed species.

Based on the leaf habit, there were 34 evergreens and 29 deciduous

species, only four were brevi - deciduous. There was no correlation between the

distribution of these taxa and size of the grove. Karasur, one of the smaller

groves, had five evergreens. Sarcoslernrna intermedium is leafless cladode

whereas Asparagus racernosus had phylloclades.

The relative abundance of climbers provides a clue to the status of the

formation. The maximum number of climbers were present in Krishnavaram

grove (16 spp.) which is the largest (8.8 ha) grove. The other groves, namely

Nagari, Kumalarn had only one climber each and Keezhkumaramangalam,

Moorthikupparn had two each (Table 16).

Values

Characteristically, the groves had tall and robust trees which reflects the

diachronic protection enjoyed by them. Such giant specimens, which make the

groves a museum, belong to different species. The Silkaripalayam grove had

several Mahua trees (Madhuca longifolia) and almost all of them exceeded 350

cm in gbh, and 15 m in height; the largest one measured 520 cm girth and was

18 m tall. Like-wise, Pannaikuppam grove had large mango trees (340 cm gbh,

height 14 m), Mahua (450 cm18 gbh; 15 m tall), Odhian (22 cm gbh, 18 m tall) and

Polyalthia suberosa (22 cm gbh, 6 m tall). Isolated specimens had also attained

the maximum growth in some groves: F i w religiosa, (1250 cm gbh, 18 m tall)

in Pannaikuppam, Ficus benghalensis (2000 cm gbh, 18 m tall), Alangium

salvifolium (220 cm gbh, 10 m tall) and in Keezhkumaramangalam, Tamarindus

indica (600 cm gbh, 18 m tall) and Cretaeva adansonii (130 cm gbh, 12 m tall)

in Ramanathapuram; Pamburus missionis (155 cm gbh, 12 m tall) in Kumalam;

S)eygium cuminii (350 cm gbh,l2m tall) in Themampakkam, Salvadora persica

(56 cm gbh, 5 m tall) in Alamarathukuppam (Plate 10.4) and Lepisanthes

tetraphylla (3 10 cm gbh, 8 m tall) in Nattarnedu. Further two giant lianas Derris

scandens (83 cm girth) in Mangalam and Capparis zeylanica (28 cm girth) in

Ramanathapuram (Table 34; Plates 14,lS) were also recorded.

Diospyros melanoxylon, Santalum album and Pamburus missionis are

typical evergreen taxa which had been recorded from seven of the 15 groves. At

Sedarapet there were 60 Santalum album seedlings, which suggests that the soil

and climate had suited its proliferation. Crataeva adansonii is a typical

deciduous tree in four groves (Table 15.2).

Key-stone species which is characteristic to every region contribute to the

biodiversity. Ficus benghalensis is such a species recorded in 14 groves

(Plate 15.2). Sarcostemma intermedium, the leafless succulent, at Krishnavaram,

Amorphophallus sylvaticus, an aroid at Karasur and Riccia sp. the thalloid

bryophyte at Krishnavaram had limited distribution.

Santalum album is an endangered taxon, and Polyalthia suberosa is a rare

one observed only in six groves; the salt tolerant taxon Salvadora persica was

present only in Alamarathukuppam grove (Table 34).

Table 32 : Conse~ation status of Sacred Groves

Tamarindus in& Madhoca bngifdla

status --. DO: Degraded, MD: Mostly dogradrd, PP: Partially p r e ~ ~ ~ e d , WP: W@II Preserved

Table 33 : Plants of conservation I botanical slgnlflcance occurring In the sacred groves

Crataeva adansonii

Pdyelthia subemsa

RMda sp. S m t e m m a biermedium

m ia lum album

Alangiom salvifdium

Aradi&ia i n a h cap~afi ZBYIM~

Craeeva aderuMii

Denis scandens

F m s benghalensis

Fiars religwsa

Lepimthes ietaphyiia

Madhuca hgifolia

Pamburus miw'onis

PoryJthia s u b e m Syzygim m i n i !

Tamarindus indim

Prove i---- Karasur Krishnavaram

Alamarathukuppam

Ramanathapuram

Alamarathukuppam

Sedarapet

Alamarathukuppam

Silkaripalayam

Rarnanalhapuram

Kumakm

Karasur, Pan~lk~ppam

Mruthlkuppam

Kridrnavaram

Aiamarathukuppam

sdarapet

Kmzhkumaramangalam

Napari Rama~thapuram

Ramanathapuram

Mangakm

Kmzhkumararnangalam

Pan~lkuppam

NaHarnedu

Silkaripalayam

Kumalam

Pannaikuppam

TherI~mpakkam

Ramanathapuram

1 Aiamarathukuppam

AII groves except 1 p a n d w m

Rare 1 occasional

I I Relict

i Occasional

Western Ghat laxan

Rare I "

/ Endangered

gbh helphl (cm) (m) 220 10

415 14

28 Liana

130 12

82 Llano

2000 18

1250 18

310 8

520 15

155 12

28 8

350 12

I 600

I8

Plate 14

Values of the groves

1 Poles of Lonnea originally planted for erecting a thatched shed for a

festival, now grown into tall trees at Pannaikuppam.

2 A mammoth neem tree (gbh 380 cm) at Ramanathapuram grove.

3 A giant liana of Derrir scandens (girth 83 cm) at Mangalam grove

4 A cluster of abandoned palmyra palm fruits grown into seedlings in

Kumalam grove

Plate 15

Values of the groves

1 An age-old Mahua tree at Silkaripalayam grove.

2 Ficus benghalensis the key-stone species at Thennampakkam grove

3 A cluster of Diospyros rnelanox)~lon - gene bank value to Sedarapet grove

4 An old - lady-processing seeds of Mahua for oil extraction at Mangalani

grove.

Plate 15

THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES

The cultural and sociological integrity which has protected the sacred

groves through the millennia shows signs of weakening everywhere. The nature

and extent of the human impacts which are threatening their existence and

survival were analysed in the study area under the following heads as suggested

by Malhotra et al. (2001).

1. Commercial forestry

2. Developmental projects

3. Degeneration of belief system

4. Sanskritisation

5. Pilgrimage and tourism

6. Removal of biomass

7. Encroachment

8. Modemisation and market forces

9. Fragmentation and perforation

None of the groves studied has been exploited for commercial foreshy

practices; nor they have been converted to residential colonies except

Keezbkumanunangalam grove. Appropriation for development projects like laying

highways or rail roads is also absent. However, ~ifskritisation, fragmentation,

perforation and encroachment are discernible. Biomass extraction is done

stealthily and for festival related purposes (Table 34; Fig.19; Plates 16, 17).

Plate 16

Factors of degradation of sacred groves

1 A large patch cleared for festivities at Alamarathukuppam grove

2 A part of grove cleared and levelled for cultivation - Pannaikuppam grove.

3 A mud path leading to the village bisects the grove at Ramanthapuram

grove.

4 A herd of buffaloes freely grazing in Alamarathukuppam grove.

5 Scars of sand quanying in Sandhikuppam grove.

6 Introduction of alien species and axing the originals at Embalam grove.

Plate 17

Factors of decline of sacred groves

1. Palm trees axed for making fire-bed during the annual festival-

Krishnavaram grove.

2. Large scale conversion of grove proper for cultivation (note the temple

and the isolated trees reminding the existence of a grove; the desolate

shrine is in the background - Silkaripalayam.

3. A small pond originally, now a mini-lake, result of clay mining at

Krishnavaram grove.

Plate 17

Table 34: Range of human Impacts on the sacred groves

No.

9

10

11

Others=SQ: sand quarying, En : encroachment, NGS : introduction of non

Gmvt

12

13

14

grove species. ST : sanskritisation, CL : clearance

PA

KV

NM

The religious affinities of the stake-holders has remained unchanged.

Total ana

MK

TP

MN

Consequently no grove or part of it has given way to other belief systems.

1.50

8.80

1.50

Sanskritisation is the integration of Hindu religious gods and worship

Pllprlmagt 6

0.23

4.50

0.96

patterns into the native belief systems (Chandran and Hughs, 1987). This has led

24

1050

42

Rtmonl of

28

40

559

DO

15000

210

Fngrnsntalion

72

1200

1200

Men1 of Human

+ t

+

+ t

+

t

t

t

t

t

t

75

485

280

330

1220

920

.

.

.

. 58

-

. 7680

36

.

.

.

I NGS

90

360

-

4189

25078

1968

2000

863 .

27.92

28.49

13.12

- .

1400 NGS

- 125 ST

37

520

2718

22.60

270360.06

28.29

to the erection of modem temple structures with or without Hindu Gods and

Godesses (Plate 11.6). Of the fifteen groves, only two groves have suffered

heavily - there are three shrines covering 125 m2 for Shiva, Saneeswaran, and

Azhagar in Themampakkam. In Mangalam, shrines for Ganapathy and

Anchaneeyar have been built on 35 m2 area. Among the remaining 13 groves,

only in Sedarapet the idol remains installed on the ground and is open to the sky,

a small area is cleared for worship/rituals (Table 34). In the two groves,

Sandhikuppam and Nagari, concrete structures have been built but the invasion IS

minimal; only platform have been raised on which the idols are erected (Plate

1 I). Temples of varying complexity have been built in the remaining 10 groves.

Obviously, temples have been raised after destroying the vegetation. It is

maximum at Krishnavaram extending to 1500 m2, and substantial 1200 m2 each

in Thennampakkarn and Mangalam (Fig.19).

Removal of biomass is the major form of resource harvest from the groves

but only in the form of fallen twigs and branches. Nonetheless, it is restricted to

festivities only. Otherwise, the logs are left undisturbed for fear of reprisal by the

angered god.

Fragmentation of the habitat can be caused by civic or agricultural

activities in the rural atmosphere. Accordingly, roads have been laid either along

or inside the groves in all except Sedarapet which is surrounded by the agricultural

fields on all sides. Irrigation canals pass through four groves. Ponds have been

El human impacts Hgrove species I nongrove species

Fig. 19: Proportion of areas covered by plants and human impacts

dug up in four more; it occupied almost 0.75 ha in Krishnavaram. The original

smaller pond in Nattamedu grove has now been expanded covering 0.36 ha.

The lure of short-term commercial gains has eroded the integrity of five

groves. In four of them, parts of the grove have been leased out for agricultural

purposes. The village committee intends to raise funds for the annual festivals.

An unscrupulous farmer has raised a vegetable garden (90 m2) within the grove

in Moorthikupparn. In Sandhikupparn, quarrying of sand has consumed a

substantial portion (1396 mt) of the groves.

Opportunities

The Departments of Agriculture and Forest have planted saplings of trees

(Table 34) (Fig.19) in Nattamedu and Silkaripalayam like, Delonix elata, Delonix

regia, Cassia siamea, Kigelia pinnata, Tectona grandis and Leucaena

leucocephala. Introduction of non-grove species is alien to the concept of sacred

groves. The local people or voluntary agencies feign ignorance of schemes for

development and maintenance of the groves.