observation qualitative research methods. observation observation in research is a research tool...

Observation

Qualitative Research Methods

Observation

• Observation in Research

Is a research tool when:1. it’s systematic2. it addresses a specific research question3. is subject to the checks and balances in

producing trustworthy results

Observation


Training includes:1. learning to pay attention2. writing descriptively3. taking disciplined field notes4. knowing how to separate details from trivia5. using rigorous validation methods

Observation


“Qualitative researchers, like others whose roles demand selective attentiveness – artists and novelists, . . . pay special attention to a few things to which others ordinarily give only passing attention.”

(Walcott, 1992, p. 22-23)

Observation• Why Observation?

1. An outsider will notice things that have become routine to the participants themselves

- fresh perspective

2. Used for triangulation

3. Makes it possible to record behaviors as they happen

Observation• Why Observation?

4. Provides a context to the situations as well as specific examples/incidents

5. Participants may not be able or willing to discuss the topic being studied

Observation• To Observe or Not to Observe? 1. Is the topic too sensitive?

- i.e., prejudice

2. Can you actually observe the phenomenon?

3. Do you have a lot of time?

4. Not sure of what you’re looking for?

Observation• What to Observe When Observing? 1. Physical Setting:

- physical environment- the context of the setting- what the environment was designed for- space allocation- objects, resources, technology- colors- etc.

Observation• What to Observe When Observing?

2. The Participants:- Who - Why- How many - Relevant characteristics- Patterns & frequencies of interaction


3. Activities & Interactions:- What’s going on?- How are people interacting?- How are the people and activities connected?- When did activity begin/how long did it last?- Is it seemingly typical activity or unusual?


4. Conversation:- Content- Who’s speaking/who’s listening- Direct quotes/paraphrase/summarize- Note silences and nonverbals


5. Subtle Factors:- Informal and unplanned activities- Symbolic and connotative meanings of words- Nonverbals (including dress and physical space)- Unobtrusive measures such as physical cues- What does not happen


6. Your own behavior:- How is your role affecting the scene?- What do you say and/or do?- Your thoughts

Observation• 3 Stages

1. Entry

2. Data Collection

3. Exit

Observation• 3 StagesEntry:1. Gaining entry may be difficult

- use mutual acquaintances if possible

2. Be prepared to answer the following questions:- What are you actually doing?- Will you be disruptive

Observation• 3 StagesEntry:

- What are you going to do with your finding?- Why us?- What will we get out of this?

(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007, p. 87-88)

Observation• 3 StagesData Collection:1. Don’t expect too much from the first few

days

2. The more comfortable you are in your surroundings, the longer you will be able to collect data/observe

Observation• 3 StagesData Collection:3. For the first couple of days on site:

- Don’t take things personally- Have someone introduce you- Keep the first observation fairly short- Be relatively passive and unobtrusive- Act and dress appropriately - Be friendly and honest, but not too detailed in explaining what you are doing there

Observation• 3 StagesExit:1. Develop exit/disengagement strategy

- best to gradually phase out, rather than abruptly stop coming

2. There’s no predetermined amount of time that you should spend at a site

Observation• Types of ObservationsDirect (Reactive) Observation: People know you

are watching them

- People may react to being watched- Overcome with longitudinal observation

Observation• Types of ObservationsDirect (Reactive) Observation:

2 typesContinuous Monitoring: observing subject(s) and recording as much of their behavior as possible

- often used in organizational settings

Observation• Types of ObservationsDirect (Reactive) Observation:

2 typesTime Allocation: researcher randomly selecting a place and time and then recording what people are doing when they are first seen and before they see you

- Overcome sampling problems by using nonrandom locations but randomly visiting them at different time

Observation• Types of Observations

Unobtrusive Observation: individuals DO NOT know they are being studied

- replication is difficult- some concerns with external validity- ethical issues

Observation• Types of ObservationsUnobtrusive Observation:

2 Types:

Behavior Trace Studies: involves finding things people have left behind and interpreting what they mean

(i.e., University of Arizona Garbage Project)

Observation• Types of ObservationsUnobtrusive Observation:

2 Types:

Disguised Field Observations: the researcher pretends to join or actually is a member of a group and records data about that group

- ethical concerns

Observation• Role of the Observer

“Every field work role is at once a social interaction device for securing information for scientific purposes and a set of behaviors in which an observer’s self is involved. . . He [is] continually introspective, raising questions about the information and the developing field relationship, with a view to playing the field work role as successfully as possible”

(Gold, 1958, p. 218)

Observation• Role of the Observer Researchers are rarely total participants or

total observer

Being born into a group or already being a member of a group does not necessarily make it a good fit for studying

Sometimes the only way to gain access to a group is to be a member

Observation• Role of the Observer

Being an observer is a process of role definition, negotiation and renegotiation.

The challenge is to find a balance between being a participant and an observer

Observation• Role of the Observer4 Roles:

- Complete participant- Participant as observer- Observer as participant- Complete observer


Complete participant: researcher is a member of the group being studied

- Adv = insider information- Disadv = loss of perspective


Participant as observer: the researcher’s activities, which are known to the participants, are subordinate to the researcher’s role as a participant

- active membership


Observer as participant: observer observes, yet interacts closely with group members to establish an insider’s identity without participating in the activities constituting the core of group membership

- peripheral member


Complete observer: researcher is either hidden from the group or is in a completely public setting

Observation• Field NotesFunction of Detailed Field Notes1. To identify and follow processes in witnessed events2. To understand how members themselves characterize

and describe particular activities, events, and groups3. To convey members’ explanations for when, why, or

how particular things happen and , thereby, to elicit members’ theories of the cause of particular happening

4. To identify the practical concerns, conditions, and constraints that people confront and deal with in their everyday lives and actions

Observation• Field NotesGeneral Requirements:1. Pay attention and concentration2. Shift from wide angle to narrow angle3. Take substantial notes while observing4. After each session of observation take time

to reflect on what you saw

Observation• Field NotesRequirements for Notes:1. Date, time, and location2. Number pages3. Record specific details and facts (who, what,

where, when, how, etc)4. Approximate transcriptions of conversations

and language used

Observation• Field NotesRequirements for Notes:5. What texts are involved6. Draw a diagram of the setting and trace

movements through it7. Leave room to incorporate data remembered

at a later date8. Be highly descriptive in your notes

Observation• Field NotesRequirements for Notes:9. Take field notes as soon as possible if not taking

them during the actual observation10. If possible tape record reflective notes to yourself

about the observation- feelings, hunches, reactions, initial interpretations, speculations, & working hypothesis

11. Do not talk to anyone about the observation before your notes are taken/recorded

Observation• Field Notes6 Groups of Questions for Field Note Analysis:1. Who are the people and what are they trying to

accomplish?2. How exactly do they do this? What specific means

and/or strategies do they use?3. How do members talk about, characterize, and

understand what is going on?4. What assumptions are they making?5. What do I see going on here? What did I learn from

these notes?6. Why did I include them?

observation qualitative research methods. observation observation in research is a research tool...

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