Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 81

81

Observation of Circumstellar Disks: Dust and Gas Components

Anne DutreyObservatoire de Bordeaux

Alain Lecavelier des EtangsInstitut d’Astrophysique de Paris

Jean-Charles AugereauService D’Astrophysique du CEA-Saclay and Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris

Since the 1990s, protoplanetary disks and planetary disks have been intensively observedfrom optical to the millimeter wavelengths, and numerous models have been developed to in-vestigate their gas and dust properties and dynamics. These studies remain empirical and relyon poor statistics, with only a few well-known objects. However, the late phases of the stellarformation are among the most critical for the formation of planetary systems. Therefore, webelieve it is timely to tentatively summarize the observed properties of circumstellar disks aroundyoung stars from the protoplanetary to the planetary phases. Our main goal is to present thephysical properties that are considered to be observationally robust and to show their mainphysical differences associated with an evolutionary scheme. We also describe areas that arestill poorly understood, such as how protoplanetary disks disappear, leading to planetary disksand eventually planets.

1. INTRODUCTION

Before the 1980s, the existence of protoplanetary disks ofgas and dust around stars similar to the young Sun (4.5 b.y.ago) was inferred from the theory of stellar formation (e.g.,Shakura and Suynaev, 1973), the knowledge of our ownplanetary system, and dedicated models of the protosolarnebula. The discovery of the first bipolar outflow in L1551in 1980 drastically changed the view of the stellar forma-tion. In the meantime, optical polarimetric observations byElsasser and Staude (1978) revealed the existence of elon-gated and flattened circumstellar dust material around somepre-main-sequence (PMS) stars such as the low-mass T Tauristars. The T Tauri are understood to be similar to the Sunwhen it was about 106 yr old. A few years later, observationsfrom the InfraRed Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) found sig-nificant infrared (IR) excesses around many T Tauri stars,showing the existence of cold circumstellar dust (Rucinski,1985). More surprisingly, IRAS also showed the existence ofweak IR excess around main-sequence stars such as Vega,ε Eridani, or β Pictoris (Aumann et al., 1985). These excit-ing discoveries motivated several groups to model the spec-tral energy distribution (SED) of T Tauri stars (e.g., Adamset al., 1987) and Vega-like stars (Harper et al., 1984).

On one hand, for PMS stars, the emerging scenario wasthe confirmation of the existence of circumstellar disks or-biting the T Tauri stars, the gas and dust being residual fromthe molecular cloud that formed the central star (Shu et al.,1987). Since such disks contain enough gas (H2) to allow,in theory, formation of giant planets, they are often called

protoplanetary disks. During this phase, the dust emissionis optically thick in the near-IR (NIR) and the central youngstar still accretes from its disk. Such disks are also naturallycalled accretion disks.

On the other hand, images of β Pictoris by Smith andTerrile (1984) demonstrated that Vega-type stars or old PMSstars can also be surrounded by optically thin dusty disks.These disks were called debris disks or later planetary disks,because planetesimals should be present and indirect evi-dence of planets was found in some of them (β Pictoris).

In this chapter, we review the current observationalknowledge of circumstellar disks from the domain of theultraviolet (UV) to the millimeter (mm). We discuss in sec-tions 2 and 3 the properties of protoplanetary disks foundaround young low-mass (T Tauri) and intermediate-mass(Herbig AeBe) stars. In section 4, we summarize the prop-erties of transition disks that still have some gas compo-nent but also have almost optically thin dust emission in theNIR, objects that are thought to be in the phase of dissipat-ing their primary gas and dust. We present the properties ofoptically thin dust disks orbiting old PMS, zero-age-main-sequence (ZAMS) or Vega-type stars, such as the β Pictorisdebris disk in section 5. We conclude by reviewing futureinstruments and their usefulness for studying such objects.

2. PROTOPLANETARY DISKS:T TAURI STARS

Following the standard classification (see Boss, 2004),T Tauri stars typically present the SEDs of Class II objects.

82 Comets II

Evidence for disk features around these young stars comesprincipally from the following observational considerations:

1. A flat and geometrically thin distribution accounts forthe SED (produced by the dust emission) from the optical tothe millimeter (including the IR excess) because the extinc-tion toward most T Tauri stars is very low.

2. In the 1990s, adaptive optics (AO) systems on ground-based telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST)began to image these disks. Dust grains at the disk surfacescatter the stellar light, revealing the disk geometry of cir-cumstellar material, as in the case of HH30 (see Plate 2).

3. By mapping the CO J = 1–0 and J = 2–1 line emis-sion from the gas, large millimeter arrays such as OVROor the IRAM interferometers clearly demonstrate that thecircumstellar material has a flattened structure and is inKeplerian rotation.

Most T Tauri stars form in binary or multiple systems(Mathieu et al., 2000), and many observational results showthat binarity strongly affects the dust and gas distributionas a result of tidal truncations. The material can be in a cir-cumbinary ring as in the GG Tau disk (Dutrey et al., 1994)or confined in small, truncated, circumstellar disks. How-ever, for simplicity, we will focus here on properties of disksencountered around stars known as single.

2.1. Mass Accretion Rates

T Tauri stars with IR excess usually present optical emis-sion lines (e.g., Edwards et al., 1994). Studies of these linesreveal that the stars are still accreting/ejecting material fromtheir disk even if the main ejection/accretion phase is over.When they present strong Hα emission lines (equivalentlinewidth WHα

≥ 10 Å), they are called classical line T Tauristars (CTTs).

Observations show that the mass accretion rate (and themass ejection rate) decreases from the protostars to theClass III phases by several orders of magnitude (Hartmannet al., 1998; Boss, 2004). Despite the uncertainties result-ing from the various observational methods and tracers usedfor measuring both rates, there is a clear correlation betweenmass loss and mass accretion. Typical values for the massaccretion rate of a few 10–5 M /yr are found for Class 0 ob-jects, while T Tauri stars have lower values around 10–8 M /yr.Some protostars such as the FU Orionis objects even ex-hibit episodic outbursts with accretion rates as high as a few10–4 M /yr (Hartmann and Kenyon, 1996). Assuming amass accretion rate of ~10–8 M /yr, a T Tauri star of 0.5 Mwould accrete only 0.01 M in 1 m.y. Hence, most of theaccretion must occur in the protostellar phase.

2.2. Modeling the Spectral Energy Distribution

Global properties of disks can be inferred from the SED,but because of the lack of angular resolution, the results arestrongly model dependent and there is usually no uniquesolution. Moreover, many stars are binaries and SEDs arenot always individually resolved, leading to possible mis-interpretations.

Small dust particles (of radius a) are efficient absorbersof wavelengths radiation with λ ≤ a. In equilibrium betweenheating and cooling, at longer wavelengths they reemit acontinuous spectrum that closely resembles a thermal spec-trum. At short wavelengths, the scattering of the stellar lightby dust grains can dominate the spectrum, with the limitbetween the scattering and the thermal regimes beingaround ~3–5 µm. Very close to the star (~0.1–5 AU), thetemperature is sufficiently high (~500–1000 K), and theNIR/optical continuum can be dominated by the thermalemission of very hot grains.

Spectral energy distributions can be reproduced by mod-els of disks (e.g., Pringle, 1981; Hartman, 1998) that as-sume that (1) the disk is reprocessing the stellar light (pas-sive disk) or (2) the disk is heated by viscous dissipation(active disk). In both models, since there is no vertical flow, themotions are circular and remain Keplerian [ GM*/rv(r) = ,where M* is the stellar mass]. As a consequence the disk, inhydrostatic equilibrium, is geometrically thin with H << rwhere H is the disk scale height. For viscous disks, the vis-cosity ν is usually expressed by the so-called α parameterlinked to ν by ν = αcsH where cs is the sound speed. The ac-cretion remains subsonic with ν/r ~ αcsH/r << cs and α ~ 0.01.

Chiang and Goldreich (1997) have also developed amodel of the passive disk in which the optically thin upperlayer of the disk is superheated above the blackbody equi-librium temperature by the stellar light impinging on thedisk, which produces a kind of disk atmosphere. Both vis-cous heating and superheated layers seem to be necessary toproperly take the observations into account (D’Alessio et al.,1998, 1999).

Many observers interpret the SEDs assuming the diskis geometrically thin with simple power law dependenciesvs. radius for the surface density [Σ(r) = Σo(r/ro)–p] and thetemperature [Tk(r) = To(r/ro)–q]. In this case, there is noassumption about the origin of the heating mechanism, andthe results are compared to more sophisticated models simi-lar to those described above.

Dust disks are usually optically thick up, to λ ~ 100–200 µm, allowing us to trace the disk temperature. In ac-tive disks as in passive geometrically thin disks, the radialdependence of the temperature follows Tk(r) ∝ r –0.75.Beckwith et al. (1990) have found that typical temperaturelaws encountered in T Tauri disks are more likely given by∝ r –0.65–0.5. However, Kenyon and Hartmann (1987) haveshown that for a flaring disk, the temperature profile shouldbe as shallow as q = 0.5, closer to the observed values.

2.3. Dust Content

Longward of ~100 µm wavelength, the dust emissionbecomes optically thin. Observations at these wavelengthsare adequately explained by a dust absorption coefficientfollowing κν = κo[ν/1012(Hz)]β with β = 0.5–1 and κo =0.1 cm2 g–1 of gas + dust (with a gas to dust ratio of 100)(Beckwith et al., 1990). The spectral index is significantlylower than in molecular clouds, where β = 2. Compared tovalues found in molecular clouds, both β and κoshow that

Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 83

a significant fraction of the grains have evolved and startedto aggregate (Henning and Stognienko, 1996; Beckwith etal., 2000), grains may even have fractal structures (Wright,1987). Dust encountered in protoplanetary disks seems tobe a mixture of silicate and amorphous carbon covered byicy mantles (Pollack et al., 1994). The exact compositionis poorly known; recent VLT observations of broadbandabsorption features in the NIR begin to put quantitative con-straints on solid species located on grain mantles such as COor H2O (Dartois et al., 2002; Thi et al., 2002). These re-sults also confirm that many molecules may have condensedfrom gas phases of grains (see also sections 2.4 and 3) inthe cold (~20–15 K) outer portion of the disk. Very close tothe star, the dust mantles may be significantly different sincethe disk is hotter (~1000 K at 0.1 AU).

Optical/NIR interferometry is a powerful tool to trace theinnermost disk. Monnier and Millan-Gabet (2002) haveobserved several disks around T Tauri and Herbig Ae/Bestars. They found that the observed inner disk sizes (rin ~0.1 AU) of T Tauri stars are consistent with the presence ofan optically thin cavity for a NIR emission arising from sili-cate grains of sizes a ≥ 0.5–1 µm that are heated close totheir temperature of sublimation.

At NIR and optical wavelengths, small dust particles alsoscatter the stellar light that impinges upon the disk surface,producing reflection nebulas imaged by optical telescopes.Plate 2 shows in false color the HH30 disk seen edge-on,which appears as a dark lane. The star ejects a jet perpen-dicular to the disk plane and is highly obscured by thematerial along the line-of-sight (visual extinction up to Av ≥30 mag). Only the disk surface or atmosphere (Chiang andGoldreich, 1997) is seen. Due to the high opacity, these datacannot allow us to estimate the dust mass distribution with-out making a priori (or external) assumptions about thevertical distribution. However, grains with a typical size ofaround a ~ 0.05–1 µm are responsible for scattering (Closeet al., 1998; Mac Cabe et al., 2002). Since forward scatter-ing is easier to produce than the backward scattering (e.g.,GG Tau) (Roddier et al., 1996), the disk inclination usuallyprovides a simple explanation for the observed brightnessasymmetry.

Estimating the gas and dust mass of these disks is doneby several methods (see also section 2.4) but is quite un-certain. Analyzing the SEDs in the optically thin part of thespectrum leads to T Tauri disk masses (gas + dust) rangingfrom 0.1 to 0.001 M (Beckwith et al., 1990). These deter-minations suffer from many uncertainties such as the valueof κo and the gas-to-dust ratio, which is usually assumedto have an interstellar value of 100. Moreover, the inner partof the disk is still optically thick (up to radii of ~10–30 AUat 3 mm). Resolved images of the thermal dust emissionobtained with millimeter arrays allow a separation of pos-sible opacity and spectral index effects. This procedure alsoestimates the surface density radial profile Σ(r) = Σ0(r/r0)–p.Typical values of p are around 1–1.5 (Dutrey et al., 1996).Such low values imply that the reservoir of the mass is inthe outer disk traced by submillimeter images. Assuming asingle surface density distribution from 0.1 to 500 AU, a disk

with p = 1 has only 10% of its mass located within r =10 AU, while with p = 1.9, the same disk has 50% of itsmass within the same radius.

In summary, a significant fraction of the grains in proto-planetary disks appear to be more evolved than in molecu-lar clouds, and coagulation processes have already started.However, the vertical dust distribution is not yet constrained.Moreover, observations at a given frequency are mainlysensitive to grains of size a ≤ a few λ (absorption or diffu-sion cross-sections cannot significantly exceed the geo-metrical cross-section, even for more complex grain featuresand aggregates) (Pollack et al., 1994; Krügel and Sieber-morgen, 1994). Only multiwavelength analysis of resolvedimages, from the optical to the centimeter domains, shouldallow us to reach conclusions about the dust sedimentation.Estimating the mass of the disks remains difficult. However,continuum millimeter images suggest that the reservoir ofmass is located at a large distance, r ≥ 30–50 AU. Using agas-to-dust ratio of 100, analyses of the dust emission in-dicate that the total (dust + gas) disk masses are in the range0.001–0.1 M .

2.4. Gas Content

In protoplanetary disks, molecular abundances are de-fined with respect to H2 since this is the main (gas) com-ponent, and the gas-to-dust ratio, which is not yet measured,is assumed to be 100, as in the molecular clouds. Severalgroups (Thi et al., 2001b; Richter et al., 2002) have recentlystarted direct investigation of H2 (thanks to its quadrupolartransitions in the near- and mid-IR region), but the most-used tracer of the gas phase remains CO.

Carbon monoxide is the most abundant molecule aftermolecular hydrogen. Its first rotation lines are observablewith current millimeter interferometers, allowing astrono-mers to trace the properties of outer gas disks. The currentsensitivity of millimeter arrays is limited and does not al-low the observation of CO lines for r ≤ 30–50 AU. Sincethe density is very high (n(H2) ≥ 106 cm–3), the J = 1–0 andJ = 2–1 CO lines are thermalized by collision with H2 in thewhole disk. Hence, a simple model of Keplerian disk as-suming LTE conditions is sufficient to derive the CO diskproperties (Dutrey et al., 1994).

CO maps reveal that disks are in Keplerian rotation(Koerner et al., 1993) and that many disks in Taurus-Au-riga clouds are large, with typical radii Rout = 300–800 AU(see Simon et al., 2000, their Fig. 1). Comparing resolvedCO maps to disk models by performing a χ2 minimizationof the disk parameters (Guilloteau and Dutrey, 1998, seetheir Fig. 1) provides useful information about the densityand temperature distributions. The temperature radial pro-files deduced from 12CO images are consistent with stellarheating in flared disks and the turbulence appears to besmall, less than 0.1 km s–1 (Dutrey et al., 2004). Since the12CO and 13CO J = 1–0 and J = 2–1 have different opaci-ties, they sample different disk layers. A global analysis ofthese lines permits the derivation of the vertical tempera-ture gradient. Dartois et al. (2003) have shown that in the

84 Comets II

DM Tau disk, the “CO disk surface,” traced by 12CO, islocated around ~3 H above the disk midplane; the 13CO J =2–1 samples material at about 1 H, while J = 1–0 is repre-sentative of the disk midplane. They also deduce a verticalkinetic gradient that is in agreement with disk models (e.g.,D’Alessio et al., 1999); the midplane is cooler (~13 K) thanthe CO disk surface (~30 K at 100 AU). This appears in theregion of the disk where the dust is still optically thick tothe stellar radiation while it is already optically thin to itsown emission, around r ~ 50–200 AU in the DM Tau case.Beyond r ≥ 200 AU, where the dust becomes optically thinto both processes, the temperature profile appears verticallyisothermal.

A significant fraction of the DM Tau disk has a tempera-ture below the CO freezeout point (17 K), but enough COin the gas phase remains to allow the J = 2–1 line of themain isotope to be optically thick. The chemical behaviorof molecules and coupling between gas and dust are poorlyknown. There have been only a few attempts to survey manymolecules in protoplanetary disks (Dutrey et al., 1997;Kastner et al., 1997; van Zadelhoff et al., 2001). Today, inaddition to 13CO and C18O, only the more abundant speciesafter the carbon monoxide are detectable, such as HCO+,CS, HCN, CN, HNC, H2CO, C2H, and DCO+. By studyingthe excitation conditions of the various transitions observedin the DM Tau disk, Dutrey et al. (1997) deduced molecularabundances indicating large depletion factors, ranging from5 for CO to 100 for H2CO and HCN, with respect to theabundances in the TMC1 cloud. They also directly meas-ured the H2 density; the total disk mass they estimated is afactor of 7 smaller than the total mass measured from thethermal dust emission. Both results suffer from uncertain-ties; only a more detailed analysis will allow the conclu-sion that the gas-to-dust ratio is lower than 100, even if suchbehavior is expected.

The chemistry of the gas phase in the inner disk is poorlyconstrained because of limited sensitivity (Najita et al.,2000). Models of nebulae irradiated by stellar radiation, in-cluding X-ray emission, suggest a complex chemistry (Glass-gold et al., 1997), even at relatively large radii (r ≥ 50 AU)(Najita et al., 2001).

Plate 1 summarizes the observable properties of a proto-planetary disk encountered around a T Tauri star of 0.5 Mand located at a distance of 150 pc.

2. 5. Illustration Through HH30

The HH30 observations, shown in Plate 2, give one ofthe most complete pictures of the material surrounding aPMS star. Optical and millimeter observations clearly tracethe same physical object. In Plate 2, the HH30 dust diskobserved in the optical by the HST (Burrows et al., 1996)is close to edge-on and appears as a dark lane; only the disksurface or atmosphere is bright. The jet emission is also seen,perpendicular to the disk plane. J. Pety (personal commu-nication, 2003) has superimposed in contours to this im-age the blueshifted and redshifted integrated emission (withrespect to the systemic velocity) of the 13CO J = 2–1 line

in the disk. The CO disk extends as far as the dust disk andthe velocity gradient is along the major disk axis, as ex-pected for rotation. 12CO J = 2–1 emission is also observedwithin the jet (extreme velocity). In the HH30 case the lowangular resolution of the data does not allow one to sepa-rate between the 12CO J = 2–1 emission associated with theoutflow, the cloud, and the disk. This is a common problemthat cannot be fully solved by current interferometric ob-servations. Selecting sources that are located in a regiondevoid of CO emission of the molecular cloud minimizesthe confusion.

Since the disk is seen edge-on, the vertical distributioncan be estimated from the optical observations of the dust(Burrows et al., 1996). The results are somewhat modeldependent, but one can conclude that the disk is pressuresupported (dominated by the central star) with the best fitgiven by H(r) ∝ r1.45. The authors estimate the surface den-sity law to be Σ(r) ∝ 1/r and the disk mass ~6 × 10–3 M .CO observations reveal that the disk is in Keplerian rota-tion around a central star of mass 0.5 M and has an outerradius of Rout = 440 AU. Interestingly, this is in agreementwith the best fit of the optical data, which gives Rout ~400 AU.

2.6. Proplyds

The disks we described so far are found in low-mass star-forming regions such as the Taurus-Auriga clouds. Physicalproperties of disks surrounding low-mass stars born insideclusters forming massive stars may be significantly differ-ent because they are exposed to the strong ambient UV fieldgenerated by nearby OB stars and can be photoevaporatedby it (Johnstone, 1998). This is the case for the proplyds,which are protoplanetary disks seen in silhouette against thestrong H II region associated to the Trapezium cluster inOrion A (e.g., McCaughrean and O’Dell, 1996).

3. DISKS AROUND INTERMEDIATE-MASSSTARS: HERBIG Ae/Be STARS

With masses in the range 2–8 M , Herbig Ae/Be (HAeBe)stars, massive counterparts of T Tauri stars, are the progeni-tors of A and B main-sequence stars. Since they are moreluminous and massive than the T Tauri stars, the surroundingmaterial is submitted to stronger UV and optical stellar flux.

Several Herbig Ae stars are isolated but located in nearbystar-forming regions (Taurus, R Oph); their observed prop-erties can be directly compared with those of T Tauri stars.This is not the case for Herbig Be stars because most ofthem are located at larger and uncertain distances (D ≥ 500–800 pc). Therefore, in this section we will mainly discussisolated Herbig Ae stars.

Like T Tauri stars, SEDs of HAeBe stars exhibit strongIR excesses. Optical and NIR observations (Grady et al.,1999) reveal that many of these objects are surrounded bylarge reflection nebulae (e.g., more than 1000 AU for theA0 star AB Auriga), revealing envelopes or halos (Leinertet al., 2001). However, there is now clear evidence that

Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 85

Herbig Ae stars are also surrounded by disks. In particular,resolved CO maps from millimeter arrays reveal that thecircumstellar material is also in Keplerian rotation [e.g.,MWC480, an A4 star (Manning et al., 1997) and HD 34282,an A0 star (Pietu et al., 2003)]. Millimeter continuum sur-veys also suggest that the total surrounding mass may havea tendency to increase with the stellar mass (see Natta et al.,2000, their Fig. 1). So far, one of the more massive Kepler-ian disks (~0.11 M ) has been found around an A0 HerbigAe star: HD 34282 (Pietu et al., 2003).

Since the medium is hotter than for T Tauri stars, onewould expect different behavior, in particular, a rich chem-istry. The limited sensitivity at present of molecular surveysat millimeter wavelengths does not allow one to distinguishsignificant differences, and outer disks (r ≥ 50 AU) of HerbigAe stars appear similar to “cold” outer disks found aroundT Tauri stars.

However, most of the differences should appear in thewarm material, closer to the star. Optical/NIR interferometricobservations by Monnier and Millan-Gabet (2002) revealedthat the observed inner radius of disks is usually larger forHAeBe stars than for T Tauri stars. This is understood interm of truncation by dust sublimation close to the star.They also found that grain sizes are similar for T Tauri andHAeBe stars. Dullemond et al. (2001) have shown that di-rect irradiation of Herbig Ae disks at their inner radius canexplain the bump observed at IR wavelengths in the SEDsof Herbig Ae stars. In a few cases, as for HD 100546, directdetection of H2 with the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Ex-plorer (FUSE) (Lecavelier des Etangs et al., 2003) revealsthe existence of warm (T = 500 K) molecular gas close tothe star (r ~ 0.5–1 AU).

The fact that HAeBe stars are hotter has also favored theuse of the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) to characterizethe geometry and the dust composition of the disk close tothe star. Bouwman et al. (2000) have performed a detailedspectroscopic study from 2 to 200 µm of the circumstellarmaterial surrounding AB Auriga (A0) and HD 163296 (A1).Their analysis of the SEDs, assuming an optically thin dustmodel, has revealed the existence of both hot (T ~ 1000 K)and cold (T ~ 100 K, most of the mass) dust components,while the NIR emission at 2 µm can be explained by thepresence of metallic iron grains. As in T Tauri disks, sub-stantial grain growth has occured, with grain size up to~0.1–1 mm. It is also important to note that comparisonsof the ISO spectrum of the Herbig Ae star HD 100546 withthose of Comet Hale-Bopp have revealed many similarities(Waelkens et al., 1999).

3.1. MWC 480: Similarities and Differenceswith a T Tauri Disk

MWC 480 is located at D = 140 pc, in the Auriga cloud.CO observations by Manning et al. (1997) have revealedthat the surrounding disk is in Keplerian rotation aroundan A4 star (Simon et al., 2000). The disk is large (Rout =600 AU) and inclined by about 35° along the line of sight.The stellar mass is around ~2 M . The temperature deduced

from the optically thick 12CO J = 2–1 line (which probesabout three scale heights above the disk midplane) is T ~60 K at R = 100 AU; this is significantly larger than thetemperature of ~30 K found for T Tauri disks using thesame tracer. Interestingly, the disk is not detected in the NIRin scattered light. Augereau et al. (2001a) have deduced thateither the dust emission at 1.6 µm is optically too thin to bedetected, or there is a blob of optically thick material closeto the star that hides the outer disk from the stellar radia-tion. Knowledge of the disk scale height is required tochoose between these possibilities. The existence of suchblobs is also favored by SED models of several Herbig Aestars (Meeus et al., 2001, their Fig. 8).

Near-infrared and CO/millimeter detections are not nec-essarily linked: The T Tauri DM Tau has the best knowndisk at millimeter wavelengths, but the disk was only re-cently detected in the NIR by performing deep integrationwith the HST (Grady et al., 2003). Keeping this in mind,the MWC 480 disk appears very similar to a T Tauri disk,at least for the outer part (r ≥ 50 AU), although it is hotterand perhaps somewhat more massive.

3.2. UX Orionis Phenomenon

Some HAeBe stars, such as UX Orionis, have a verycomplex spectroscopic, photometric, and polarimetric vari-ability that has been, in some cases, monitored for years.The variability has usually a short periodicity on the order of~1 yr and can be as deep as two magnitudes in the V band.

It is very tempting to link this phenomenon to planetaryformation; the variability could be caused by clumps of ma-terial (such as clouds of protocomets) located in the inner-most disk and orbiting the star. Natta and Whitney (2000)have developed a model in which a screen of dust sporadi-cally obscures the star; this happens when the disk is tiltedby about 45°–68° along the line of sight. One clearly needsmore sensitive multiwavelength data at high angular reso-lution on a large sample of Herbig Ae stars to distinguishamong the various models.

4. FROM PROTOPLANETARYTO PLANETARY DISKS

On one side, one finds massive gaseous protoplanetarydisks around T Tauri and Herbig Ae stars, and on the other,one finds dusty planetary disks around young main-se-quence stars. A natural question is then whether there aredisks in an intermediate state. If so, what are their obser-vational characteristics? Limited by the sensitivity of cur-rent telescopes, we know of only a few examples of objectsthat can be considered to be “transition” disks.

4.1. Surprising Case of BP Tau

BP Tau is often considered as the prototype of CTTs. Ithas a high accretion rate of ~3 × 10–8 M /yr from its cir-cumstellar disk, which produces strong excess emission inthe ultraviolet, visible, and NIR (Gullbring et al., 1998). It is

86 Comets II

also very young [6 × 105 yr (Gullbring et al., 1998)]. De-spite these strong CTT characteristics, its millimeter proper-ties are very different from those of other T Tauri stars sur-rounded by CO disks.

Recent CO J = 2–1 and continuum at 1.3-mm images fromthe Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimétrique (IRAM)array have revealed a weak and small CO and dust disk(Simon et al., 2000). With a radius of about =120 AU, thedisk is small and in Keplerian rotation around a (1.3 ± 0.2)(D/140 pc) M mass star. A deeper analysis of these CO J =2–1 data (Dutrey et al., 2003) also shows that the J = 2–1transition is marginally optically thin, contrary to what isobserved in other T Tauri disks. The disk mass, estimatedfrom the millimeter continuum emission by assuming a gas-to-dust ratio of 100, is very small (1.2 × 10–3 M ) (for com-parison, a factor of 10 below the minimum initial mass of thesolar nebula). By reference to the mass deduced from thecontinuum, the CO depletion factor can be estimated; thisleads to a factor as high as ~150 with respect to H2. Eventaking into account possible uncertainties such as a lowergas-to-dust ratio or a higher value for the dust absorptioncoefficient, the CO depletion remains high compared toother CO disks. Finally, the kinetic temperature derived fromthe CO data is also relatively high, about ~50 K at 100 AU.

Both the relatively high temperature and the low diskmass suggest that a significant fraction of the disk mightbe superheated (above the blackbody temperature), similarto a disk atmosphere (e.g., Chiang and Goldreich, 1997)(see also section 2). With reasonable assumptions for thedust grain properties and surface density, one can then es-timate the fraction of small grains (a = 0.1 µm) still presentin the disk to reach τV = 1 in the visible at the disk mid-plane. Since it corresponds to a total mass of small grainsof about 10% of the total mass of dust derived from themillimeter continuum data (1.2 × 10–5 M ), this is not in-compatible with the current data, but should be confirmedby optical and NIR observations.

It is also interesting that the CO content of BP Tau is toohigh to result from evaporation of protocomets [falling evap-orating body (FEB) model; see also section 5]. Consideringthe total number of CO molecules in the disk and the COevaporation rate of an active comet such as Hale-Bopp, afew times 1011 large comets similar to Hale-Bopp would besimultaneously required to explain the amount of CO gaspresent in the BP Tau disk. This is well above the number ofFEBs falling on β Pictoris per year (a few hundred).

Taken together, the unusual millimeter properties suggestthat BP Tau may be a transient object in the phase of clear-ing out its outer disk.

4.2. Ambiguous Case of HD 141569

HD 141569 is a B9 star located at ~100 pc. The positionof the star close to the ZAMS in the HR diagram and thepresence of an IR circumstellar excess lead many authorsto classify it as an HAeBe star. This was reinforced by thepresence of circumstellar gas later detected by Zuckermanet al. (1995) and by the identification of emission features

tentatively attributed to PAH (Sylvester and Skinner, 1996,and references therein) that are frequently observed in SEDsof HAeBe (e.g., Meeus et al., 2001). But the lack of ex-cess in the NIR, the lack of photometric variability, the faintintrinsic measured polarimetry (Yudin, 2000), and mostimportantly, the low disk-to-star luminosity ratio (8.4 × 10–3)correspond to the description of a Vega-like star. BothHAeBe and Vega-like classes show a large spread of ages.With an age of 5 m.y. (Weinberger et al., 2000), HD 141569falls at the common edge of the two categories.

HD 141569 is among the few stars that show a spatiallyresolved optically thin dust disk in the NIR. Contrary to theβ Pictoris disk, the inclination of the HD 141569 disk on theline of sight offers the opportunity to investigate both theradial and azimuthal profiles of the dust surface density ingreat detail. Using coronagraphic techniques, the HST iden-tified a complex dust structure seen in scattered light ofabout 10 times our Kuiper belt size (~500 AU) (Augereauet al., 1999). Mid-infrared thermal emission observationsonly partly compensate for the lack of constraints on theinnermost regions (<1" ≡ 100 AU) masked by the HST coro-nagraph (Fisher et al., 2000). Both data help to sketch outthe overall dust distribution, as summarized in Fig. 4 ofMarsh et al. (2002). The dust appears depleted inside ~150 AUcompared to the outer regions. The outer disk has a complexshape dominated by two nonaxisymmetric and not accu-rately concentric wide annulii at 200 and 325 AU (Mouilletet al., 2001) respectively. Interestingly, the furthest ring ismade of grains smaller than the blowout size limit, whichtheoretically points out the presence of cold gas in the outerdisk (Boccaletti et al., 2003). Surprising, an arc that is ra-dially thin but azimuthally extended over ~90° is locatedat about 250 AU, precisely between the two major ring-likestructures. This information about the disk morphology isvery valuable because it indicates the impact of internal(planets?) and/or external gravitational perturbations (stel-lar companions?) (Augereau and Papaloizou, 2004).

The detection of a substantial amount of cold gas asso-ciated with an optically thin dust disk is also unusual (Zuck-erman et al., 1995). Recent millimeter interferometric obser-vations of HD 141569 reveal the gaseous counterpart of theextended disk resolved in scattered light (see Plate 3). TheCO gas in rotation shows a velocity gradient consistent withthe major axis of the optical disk. Interestingly, hot gas (CO)is also detected by high-resolution mid-IR spectroscopy,which reveals the gaseous content of the inner disk (Brittainand Rettig, 2002) at a few tens of AU from the stars.

The HD 141569 disk possesses NIR properties close tothose of the β Pictoris disk and mid-IR and millimeter prop-erties close to those of an Herbig Ae disk, so it seems rea-sonable to consider it as a transition disk.

4.3. Puzzle of Weak-Line T Tauri Stars

Weak-line T Tauri stars (WTTs) have a SED that presentsa weak IR excess; unlike CTTs, they do not exhibit strongoptical emission lines (with WHα

≤ 10 Å). As such, they areusually considered to be the evolved counterpart of the

Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 87

CTTs stars and are classified as Class III objects surroundedby an optically thin NIR disk (a few ~107 yr).

However, several studies show that a significant fractionof the WTTs have ages on the same order as those of CTTs(Stahler and Walter, 1993; Grosso et al., 2000). Amongthem, one interesting example is the case of V836 Tau: Thisstar presents the optical properties of WTT stars; its milli-meter characteristics are very similar to those of BP Tausince it is also surrounded by a compact CO disk (Duvertet al., 2000). Its observed properties are also very similar tothose of the BP Tau disk. More recently, Bary et al. (2002)have reported H2 detection around DOAr 21, a WTT locatedin ρ Oph that is even more puzzling.

We have only a few examples of transition disks, andeach of them exhibits very different properties that are de-pendent upon the observational approach (optical vs. milli-meter/submillimeter observations). This clearly demonstratesthat only multiwavelength studies can allow the retrieval ofthe physical properties of these objects. The scenario bywhich massive disks dissipate and perhaps form planets ispoorly constrained today.

5. PLANETARY DISKS

Since the lifetime of massive protoplanetary disks isobserved to be less than a few ~107 years, we should nota priori expect disk structure beyond that age. As circum-stellar disks evolve, their mass decreases. When the disksdissipate, the material becomes less bright, less dense, andapparently more difficult to detect. Infrared excess detectionof material around nearby main-sequence stars (Aumann etal., 1985) leads to the conclusion that the lifetime of thethin disks is longer than that of massive disks. Since the timespent at these late stages is longer, this provides the oppor-tunity to detect evolved disks in the solar neighborhood (lessthan ~100 parsecs) around stars older than few 107 years.These disks are less dense than protoplanetary disks, buttheir proximity allows us to observe them in great detail.The disks seen around main-sequence stars are now believedto be the visible part of more massive systems in which mostof the mass is preserved in the form of planetesimals andeven planets. There, planetary formation is either at the endor already finished (Lagrange et al., 2000).

The duration of the “planetary disk” phenomenon is solong (see below) that by nature they are obviously not theremaining material of the protoplanetary disks. It is nowclear that these planetary disks have been replenished withmaterial from a preexisting reservoir. As we will see below,the basic process needed to sustain these disks is based onthe release of dust and/or gas by colliding asteroids and/orby evaporating planetesimals. These disks are thus also de-scribed as debris disks or second-generation disks.

5.1. Dust in Planetary Disks

First detected by IRAS because of their infrared excess,the dust component of planetary disks is the easiest part todetect. The spectral energy distribution of main-sequence

stars with circumstellar material shows infrared excess above~10 µm, from which it is possible to have some indicationabout the dust size, spatial distribution, and total mass, orsimply information about the fraction of stars harboring suchplanetary disks (Backman and Paresce, 1993). More recentISO surveys of nearby stars show that about 20% of thestars have infrared excess attributed to circumstellar material(Dominik, 1999) with a typical lifetime of about 400 m.y.(Habing et al., 1999, 2001).

For an extremely small fraction of these disks, it is pos-sible to image the dust. These images are produced by thescattered light at visible wavelengths, or by images of theinfrared thermal emission of the warm part of the disk at 10or 20 µm. The first historical image of such a disk was theimage of the disk of β Pictoris obtained with coronographicobservations of the scattered light (Smith and Terrile, 1984).Imaging is difficult; indeed, β Pictoris remained the onlydisk imaged until the late 1990s (see, e.g., Lecavelier desEtangs et al., 1993; Kalas and Jewitt, 1995; Mouillet et al.,1997a; Heap et al., 2000), when new instruments allowedobservers to image a few other disks by the detection of thescattered light (Schneider et al., 1999) (Fig. 1) or by thedetection of the thermal emission in the infrared [aroundHR 4796 (Jawardhana et al., 1998; Koerner et al., 1998)]or in the submillimeter [images of Vega, Fomalhaut, andβ Pictoris have been obtained by Holland et al. (1998), andimages of ε Eridani by Greaves et al. (1998)].

Observations of the dust provide important constraintson the spatial structure of the disks. For example, the mor-phology of the β Pictoris disk and the inferred spatial dis-tribution have been analyzed in great detail (Artymowicz etal., 1989; Kalas and Jewitt, 1995). Images revealed unex-pected properties, such as the presence of a break at~120 AU in the radial distribution of the dust, the warp ofthe disk plane, and various asymmetries. All asymmetricfeatures are often attributed to gravitational perturbation ofmassive bodies such as Jupiter-mass planets (Lecavelier desEtangs et al., 1996; Lecavelier des Etangs, 1997b; Augereauet al., 2001b).

Fig. 1. Image of dust scattered light in the HR 4796 ring ob-served with the Hubble Space Telescope (Schneider et al., 1999).

88 Comets II

The most intriguing characteristic of the inner portionof the β Pictoris disk is the so-called “warp,” which consistsof a change of the inclination of the midplane of the diskinside about 80 AU. This warp is explained by the presenceof a planet on an inclined orbit with the same inclination asthe tilt of the inner disk (Mouillet et al., 1997b). The meas-ured warp distance allows one to constrain Mp × Dp

2, whereMp and Dp are the mass and the distance of the perturbingplanet. In the case of β Pictoris we have

MpDp2 ≈ 2 × 10–3 M*(10 AU)2(t/107 yr)–1

If the age of the system is t ~ 2 × 107 yr (Barrado y Navas-cués et al., 1999), then a Jupiter-mass planet at 10 AU andinclined by 5° from the disk plane can easily explain theobserved warp.

Similarly, in the case of HR 4796, sharp truncation ofthe ring structure is observed (Fig. 1) (Schneider et al.,1999). The presence of a ring is expected to shed light onthe physical phenomena that occurs at places where plan-ets are typically supposed to form. However, there is stillno general agreement on the interpretation of this trunca-tion, which could be produced by the gravitational pertur-bations of a planet (e.g., Wyatt et al., 1999) or by drag ofthe dust by the gas component of the disk (Klahr and Lin,2001; Takeushi and Artymowicz, 2001).

A key point concerning disks around main-sequence starsis that the lifetime of the dust is shorter than the age of thesesystems (see Artymowicz, 1997, p. 206, Fig. 8). In the β Pic-toris disk, dust particles are destroyed by collisions betweengrains, which produce submicrometer debris quickly elimi-nated by the radiation pressure. In the less-dense disks, suchas the ε Eridani ring (Greaves et al., 1998), the Pointing-Robertson drag is the dominant process, which also elimi-nates the dust on a timescale shorter than the disk age. Asthe lifetime of the dust is very short, one must consider thatthe observed dust is continuously resupplied (Backman andParesce, 1993). It is generally thought that the debris disksare substantial disks of colliding planetesimals [see Back-man et al. (1995) for an analogy with a collision in the solarsystem Kuiper belt]. These disks can thus be considered asthe signature of complete planetary systems that, like ourown solar system, contain interplanetary dust, asteroid-likekilometer-sized bodies, and probably comets and planets.The visible part of these disks is only the fraction of mate-rial having the largest cross section, showing the presenceof invisible but more massive objects.

5.2. Gas Disks Around Main-Sequence Stars

Although apparently more difficult to interpret, the gascomponent of the planetary disks provides the opportunityfor the most detailed modeling of circumstellar processes.In particular, the β Pictoris spectroscopic variability is nowwell explained in many details by the evaporation of com-etary objects close to the star (see section 5.3).

In contrary to emission from more massive disks, emis-sion lines from the gaseous planetary disks are, in most

cases, below the detection limit of current instruments. Mo-lecular transitions at millimeter wavelengths are too faintto be detected. They give only upper limits on the gas con-tent (Dent et al., 1995; Liseau, 1999). Detections of infra-red emission of H2 at 17 and 28 µm around main-sequencestars have been reported by ISO (Thi et al., 2001a,b). How-ever, these detections have been challenged by groundbasedobservations at 17 µm, which show no detection with threetimes better sensitivity (Richter et al., 2002). FUSE obser-vations also showed that if the ISO detection of H2 emis-sion around β Pictoris is real, then this H2 is not distributedwidely throughout the disk (Lecavelier des Etangs et al.,2001). The HST detection of Fe II emission lines in the diskof β Pictoris is marginal and yet to be confirmed (Lecavelierdes Etangs et al., 2000). Finally, the only strong detectionof emission from the gaseous component in a planetary diskhas been performed by Olofsson et al. (2001). With high-resolution spectroscopy of the β Pictoris disk, they clearlydetected the resonantly scattered Na emission through theNa I doublet line at 5990 and 5996 Å. The gas can be tracedfrom less than 30 AU to at least 140 AU from the centralstar. Unfortunately, this observation remains unique. Thisdefinitely presents a new field of observation with an origi-nal technique. Although emission spectroscopy of tenuousgas disks is difficult, absorption spectroscopy is much moresensitive. In planetary disks seen nearly edge-on, the cen-tral star can be used as a continuum source, and the detec-tion of absorption lines offers the opportunity to scrutinizethe gaseous content in details.

A few months after the discovery of the dust disk aroundβ Pictoris, its gaseous counterpart was discovered throughthe Ca II absorption lines (see Fig. 2) (Hobbs et al., 1985;Vidal-Madjar et al., 1986). Because one absorbing componentis seen identically in all observations and at the same radialvelocity as the star (20 km s–1), it is called the “stable” gascomponent. This stable gas is composed of small amountsof neutral Na and Fe, as well as large amounts of singlyionized species such as Ca+, Fe+ Mg+, Mn+, and Al+. Theoverall composition is close to solar (Lagrange et al., 1998).Ultraviolet spectroscopy leads to the detection of two verypeculiar elements: C I and the CO molecule, which bothhave short lifetimes. On the other hand, the OH moleculewas not detected with a relatively tight upper limit (Vidal-Madjar et al., 1994). The numerous electronic transitionsof CO in the ultraviolet give constrains on the column den-sity, temperature (~20 K), and a very unusual isotopic ratio12CO/13CO = 15 ± 2 (Jolly et al., 1998; Roberge et al., 2000).

Circumstellar gas signatures similar to those of β Pictorisones are also seen around some other main-sequence stars.It should be noted, however, that in the rare cases where aCa II (or, e.g., Fe II) line at the star radial velocity has beendetected toward other stars like HR 10, these stars have beenidentified because they also show either spectral variabil-ity, or the presence of over-ionized species, or redshiftedoptically thick absorption lines. This lack of detection ofonly the circumstellar absorption at the systemic velocitymay be caused by possible confusion with the interstellarmedium. The first main-sequence star discovered to have a

Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 89

very similar spectroscopic behavior to β Pictoris is HR 10(Lagrange et al., 1990). This star shows variable redshiftedor blueshifted absorption lines (Lagrange et al., 1990; Welshet al., 1998), and a central component seems relativelystable. Very highly excited levels of Fe+ have been detected,proving that the gas is not interstellar but circumstellar. Red-shifted optically thick Mg II lines have also been detectedand interpreted as small clouds of excited gas falling towardthe star (Lecavelier des Etangs, 1998).

51 Oph is an interesting case because circumstellar dustis present simultaneously with the gas: 51 Oph presents acomplex system with dusty infrared excess due to cold dust,silicate emission features, absorption lines by overionizedspecies (Grady and Silvis, 1993), Fe+ at excited levels, anabnormal Mg II line-intensity ratio, and finally a possible de-tection of C I in the circumstellar gas (Lecavelier des Etangs

et al., 1997b). Links between these gas and dust featureshave yet to be understood.

5.3. Beta Pictoris Disk: A Cometary Disk

The β Pictoris disk has certainly been the most fruitful forsurprises and discoveries. In addition to the gaseous stablecomponent, variable absorption features have been detectedand surveyed since 1984 (Fig. 2). Features that are slowlyvariable are confined most of the time to one or two compo-nents redshifted by 10–30 km s–1 relative to the star. Al-though such structures seem to be changing in both velocityand strength (by about ±10 km s–1 in velocity and large fac-tors in strength), they nevertheless remain very comparableduring a few consecutive hours, often from one day to thenext and even sometime over weeks.

Some other components present strong variability, in par-ticular in the Mg II and Al III lines. These components arealso observed in the Ca II and Fe II line as weak and broadabsorptions spread over a few tens of kilometers per sec-ond. The changes are observed on a very short timescale,hours or even less. These features are mostly strongly red-shifted, with shifts that could reach 300–400 km s–1. Thesehighly varying features were detected only in ionized spe-cies, including highly (over-)ionized ones like Al++ andC+++, completely unexpected in such a relatively “cool”stellar environment. The rapid changes make these featuresdifficult to track.

These spectral variations are interpreted with a scenarioof star-grazing comets. The presence of strong redshiftedionized gas is difficult to understand, since the very highradiation pressure should expel it very quickly. The vari-able absorption lines are almost always redshifted, corre-sponding to infalling gas seen in absorption against thestellar continuum (in an edge-on disk). The gas must thenbe injected with very high inward radial velocity. There isonly one simple way to produce this situation, namely theevaporation of grains moving toward the star. Since theradiation pressure acts on grains, they must be injected withhigh velocity, through the evaporation from more massivebodies for which the gravitation is much larger that the ra-diation force. This model has been developed in great de-tail (Beust et al., 1990, 1991a,b), and can be referred to asthe “evaporation of star-grazing comets.” Indeed, the strongvariability in the circumstellar lines of the ionized elementslike Fe+, Al++, C+++, and Mg+ is now attributed to the evapo-ration of kilometer-sized, “cometary-like” bodies falling to-ward the star; this is the “falling evaporating bodies (FEB)”scenario. The over-ionized variable species Al++ and C+++

cannot be produced by photoionization, but Beust and Tag-ger (1993) showed that they can be formed by collisionalionization in the coma surrounding these FEBs.

Among the different phenomena that can be explainedby this model, one can stress the observation of abnormalline ratio in doublet features. For example, although theMg II doublet has an intrinsic oscillator strength ratio of 2,the measured ratio is exactly 1, even for unsaturated lines(Vidal-Madjar et al., 1994). This proves that the absorbing

Fig. 2. (a) Ca II spectrum of β Pictoris (Lecavelier des Etangs,2000). The stable component is visible at 20 km s–1 heliocentricvelocity. This spectrum shows two variable redshifted components:one sharp absorption at low velocity and one broad absorptionline at high velocity (>100 km s–1). (b) Simulation of Ca II absorp-tion lines produced by a FEB at large distance. The line is red-shifted and sharp, with a profile very similar to the profile of theredshifted variable lines observed in the β Pictoris spectrum.

90 Comets II

gas cloud is optically thick (ratio = 1) but does not cover thetotal stellar disk (the lines are not saturated). This behavior isdirectly explained by the FEB model, which produces clump-iness of the absorbing clouds (Beust et al., 1989). Similarratios have also been detected in redshifted absorptions to-ward other “β Pictoris-like stars.”

With several hundreds of FEBs per year, the frequency isseveral orders of magnitudes higher than that of Sun-graz-ing comets in the solar system. Planetary perturbations arethought to be the process responsible. Direct scattering byclose encounters with a massive planet does not seem to beefficient unless the planet eccentricity is very high (Beust etal., 1991b). Beust and Morbidelli (1996) proposed a genericmodel based on a mean-motion resonance with a single mas-sive planet on a moderately eccentric orbit (e = 0.05). In-deed, a test particle trapped in the 4 : 1 resonance with sucha planet becomes star-grazing after =10,000 planetary revo-lutions. This model explains not only the preferred infalldirection, but also the radial velocity-distance relation ob-served in the FEBs.

Many other stars show redshifted absorption lines (HR2174, 2 And, etc.). All these detections of redshifted absorp-tion lines raise the question of the explanation for the quasi-absence of blueshifted events. In the β Pictoris case, it isbelieved that the orbits of the star-grazing comets alwayspresent approximately the same angle to the observer (be-cause the gas is seen in absorption against the stellar con-tinuum in an edge-on disk). However, when observed onseveral stars, some blueshifted orientation should be ex-pected. Given the very impressive fit between the β Pictorisobservations and the FEB model, it is likely that the β Pic-toris FEB phenomenon is somehow particular, and that otherstars present either real infall on the star or their evaporatingbodies may be generally destroyed before they reach theperiastron (Grinin et al., 1996). In the latter case, the pro-cess needed to place these bodies on very eccentric orbits inless than one orbital timescale remains to be discovered.

Another class of cometary-like object might also be pres-ent around β Pictoris. Collision of planetesimals are believedto continuously resupply most of the dusty disks aroundmain-sequence stars. In the case of β Pictoris, a significantpart of the disk can be also produced by the evaporation ofkilometer-sized bodies located at several tens of AU fromthe central star (Lecavelier des Etangs et al., 1996). Indeed,in the β Pictoris disk, CO evaporates below 120 AU fromthe star. If bodies enter that region, they start to evaporateand eject dust particles. These particles are subsequentlyspread outward in the whole disk by the radiation pressure.The distribution of their eccentric orbits gives a dust surfacedensity similar to that observed around β Pictoris. This alter-native scenario for the production of dust in the β Pictorisdisk easily explains any asymmetry even at large distances,because a planet in the inner disk can influence the distribu-tion of nearby parent bodies, producing the outward spreadof dust (Lecavelier des Etangs, 1998).

The observed CO/dust ratio is another argument in favorof this scenario. An important characteristic of the β Pictorisdisk is the presence of cold CO and C (Vidal-Madjar et al.,

1994; Roberge et al., 2000). CO and C I are destroyed byultraviolet interstellar photons (extreme UV flux from thestar is negligible). Like the dust, they have lifetimes shorterthan the age of the star (tCO ~ tCI ~ 200 yr). A mechanismmust replenish CO with a mass rate of MCO ~ 1011 kg s–1.The corresponding dust/CO supplying rate is Mdust/MCO ≈ 1.This is very similar to the dust/CO ratio in the material sup-plied by evaporation in the solar system. This similarity pro-vides an indication that the β Pictoris dust disk could besupplied by evaporating bodies orbiting at several tens ofAUs from the star, much in the same way as Chiron evapo-rates at dozen of AUs from the Sun.

5.4. Toward a Global Picture

Disks around main-sequence stars are probably relatedto the presence of young planetary systems in a phase ofstrong activity. They show that the planetary systems arestill active and evolve after their formation.

There are still many unknowns. This new field of as-tronomy is still a collection of different objects that do notcorrespond to an evolutionary scheme, and a global pictureis still to be created. It is clear that the many different namesused for these disks, which we elected to call the “plane-tary disks,” show that there is not an unique understandingof the phenomenon. Some authors refer to the “Vega phe-nomenon,” often to explain the infrared excess. The term“β Pictoris phenomenon,” used because of the number ofdifferent phenomena observed around that star, is even moreconfusing. “Kuiper disk,” “cometary disk,” or alternatively“debris disk” refer to evidence concerning the different ori-gins of these disks. It is not yet clear if the many piecesshown here correspond to the same puzzle. New observa-tions and theoretical works will be needed to resolve theseissues in the next decade.

6. FUTURE OBSERVATIONS

The examples given in the previous sections clearly dem-onstrate that the frontier between the different classes of ob-jects is not well constrained, partly because the statistics arestill too poor to provide a quantitative understanding of someof the observed properties. Since very few disks have beenresolved so far, deriving a timescale and a detailed evolu-tionary scheme from protoplanetary to planetary disks re-mains speculative. Moreover, when it comes to the proto-planetary phase, our understanding is crudely limited to thecold outer disks (r ≥ 50 AU).

Throughout this chapter, the examples used have illus-trated that only multiwavelength studies of disk propertieswill allow astronomers to properly incorporate in theirmodels all the physical processes involved in the observedphenomena.

6.1. Challenge for Protoplanetary/Transition Disks

In protoplanetary disks, most of the material lies in therelatively cold outer part of the disks. Hence resolved sub-

Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 91

millimeter observations, obtained with large millimeter ar-rays such as ALMA, will provide the best tool to investi-gate this reservoir of mass (r > 20–50 AU). In particular,ALMA will observe large samples, providing statistics ondisk properties and frequency. Of course, to study the hotterinner disk, where planets form (0.1 ≥ r ≥ 10 AU), optical,NIR, and mid-IR interferometry techniques are required. Assoon as they will be able to produce images (even with afew baseline numbers), instruments such as AMBER andMIDI on the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI),or the Optical Hawaiian Array for Nanoradian Astronomy(OHANA), will add to our understanding of the dust prop-erties and composition. Images (or a reasonable UV cover-age) are necessary in order to choose between all the exist-ing models of dust disks; in particular, they should allow usto disentangle the geometry, temperature, and opacity ef-fects. Figure 3 summarizes which part of the disk can beinvestigated, depending on the instrument used. A combina-tion similar to “ALMA and VLTI” would efficiently samplethe global disk properties. A necessary step to understandhow planets form is to view the gaps that are created byprotoplanets. For this purpose, images are definitely re-quired, either at submillimeter or NIR wavelengths. In itslarge configuration, ALMA will have baselines up to 14 km,providing an angular resolution of ~0.03" (or 4 AU at theTaurus distance) at λ = 1.3 mm. Hydrodynamics coupledto radiative transfer simulations of the dust emission at350 GHz by Wolf et al. (2002) show that ALMA will be ableto resolve a gap created by a proto-Jupiter, located at 5 AUfrom a star at D = 150 pc. Concerning the gas content, inspectral lines near λ = 1.3 mm, ALMA will be about 30times more sensitive than the IRAM array and quantitativechemical studies could begin. Multitransition analyses wouldeven allow observers to measure abundance gradients in the

disk. Protoplanetary disks are indeed H2 disks, and directinvestigation of the H2 distribution and mass remains themost direct way to study how protoplanetary disks dissipate.This domain will strongly benefit from satellites such as theSpace Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF)/Spitzer Space Tele-scope (SST) and the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).Finally, the current knowledge of protoplanetary disks isbiased by the sensitivity limitations, and we can image onlythe brighter disks. Disk clearing is poorly constrained. TheALMA sensitivity will allow many other objects similar toBP Tau, and even optically thin dust disks in the NIR, tobe imaged in the submillimeter.

6.2. Challenge for Planetary Disks

By extrapolation from ISO results on the occurrence ofdebris disks around main-sequence stars, and according tothe Hipparcos catalog, one can predict ~102 and ~103 plan-etary dust disks around (hypothetical) stars younger thanabout 0.5 G.y. within 20 pc and 50 pc radii of the Sun re-spectively. These stars are close enough that they are notlimited by angular resolution considerations, but their disksare simply too tenuous to be detected with current instru-ments. This points out a crucial need for an enhancement insensitivity combined with high-angular-resolution techniques.Precise disk shapes, fine structures, and asymmetries as re-vealed by imaging may indeed be signposts of undetectedgravitational companions, such as planets perturbing the un-derlying disk of kilometer-sized bodies that release the ob-served short-lived dust.

The observational techniques discussed below are sum-marized in Plate 4. In the NIR, high-contrast imaging withsingle-aperture telescopes is required to detect faint dustdisks very close to a bright star. For instance, new genera-tions of adaptive optics systems and new concepts of corona-graphic masks are currently under study, with the prime goalbeing detection of faint objects from the ground, ideallydown to planets (e.g., VLT/Planet Finder). At these wave-lengths (but also in the mid-IR), the innermost regions ofplanetary disks will nevertheless remain unreachable with-out the help of interferometry (e.g., Keck I and VLTI). Re-solving the material within the very first AU around youngmain-sequence stars and ultimately producing images byNIR and mid-IR interferometry are attractive challenges inthe near future. In the mid-IR, single-aperture telescopessuffer an unavoidable decrease in spatial resolution. The pre-dominant gain at these wavelengths will mostly come fromfuture spacebased telescopes, particularly the 6-m JWSTand SST, with increases of two or three orders of magni-tudes in detection thresholds. While current high-resolutionimagers in the mid-IR are limited to disks around nearbystars younger than a few tens of millions of years, JWST’sMid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) should resolve debris disksaround 1-G.y.-old A-type stars at 50 pc. In the millimeter,ALMA will permit the detection of an unresolved (but op-tically thin) clump of dust of 10–2 M orbiting a star up to100 pc away in only 1 h of observing time (see also ALMA,2004).

Fig. 3. This montage summarizes the observable properties of aprotoplanetary disk encountered around a T Tauri star located at150 pc. This illustrates which region of the disk is sampled de-pending on the telescope in use.

92 Comets II

More and more observational efforts will certainly befocused on the gas in order to provide a better understand-ing of its timescales and dissipation processes. Since the gascontent of young planetary disks is yet badly constrained,anticipating future results might be very speculative. How-ever, the ALMA sensitivity would allow to detect, in 1 hof observing time, a CO column density of a few 1012 cm–2

in a beam of 2.5" (planetary disks are close to us, and henceangularly extended) assuming a linewidth of 3 km/s. This iswell below the CO column density of 1015 cm–2 detectedby Vidal-Madjar et al. (1994) in β Pictoris. Depending onthe gas geometry, the distance and the evolutionary statusof the disk, ALMA would allow astronomers to place someimportant constraints on various gas model distributions inplanetary disks.

Acknowledgments. We thank A.Vidal-Madjar for fruitful com-ments. Figure 3 has been reproduced with the kind permission ofH. Beust. A.D. would like to thank S. Guilloteau for a long termand fruitful collaboration. M. Simon is also acknowledged for acareful reading of the manuscript. Many thanks to J. Pety, whoprovided material for HH30 (Plate 2 and recent millimeter results).J.C.A. thanks the CNES for financial support.

REFERENCES

Adams F. C., Lada C. J., and Shu F. H. (1987) Spectral evolutionof young stellar objects. Astrophys. J., 312, 788.

ALMA (2004) Science with ALMA. Available on line at http://www.eso.org/projects/alma/science/.

Artymowicz P. (1997) β Pictoris: An early solar system? Annu.Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 25, 175.

Artymowicz P., Burrows C., and Paresce F. (1989) The structureof the β Pictoris circumstellar disk from combined IRAS andcoronagraphic observations. Astrophys. J., 337, 494–513.

Augereau J. C. and Papaloizou J. (2004) Structuring theHD 141569 A circumstellar dust disk. Impact of eccentricbound stellar companions. Astron. Astrophys., 414, 1153.

Augereau J. C., Lagrange A. M., Mouillet D., and Ménard F.(1999) HST/NICMOS2 observations of the HD 141569 A cir-cumstellar disk. Astron. Astrophys., 350, L51.

Augereau J. C., Lagrange A. M., Mouillet D., and Ménard F.(2001a) HST/NICMOS2 coronagraphic observations of the cir-cumstellar environment of three old PMS stars: HD 100546,SAO 206462 and MWC 480. Astron. Astrophys., 365, 78.

Augereau J. C., Nelson R. P., Lagrange A. M., Papaloizou J. C. B.,and Mouillet D. (2001b) Dynamical modeling of large scaleasymmetries in the β Pictoris dust disk. Astron. Astrophys., 370,447–455.

Aumann H. H. (1985) IRAS observations of matter around nearbystars. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 97, 885–891.

Backman D. E. and Paresce F. (1993) Main sequence stars withcircumstellar solid material: The Vega phenomenon. In Pro-tostars and Planets III (E. H. Levy and J. I. Lunine, eds.),pp. 1253–1304. Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.

Backman D. E., Dasgupta A., and Stencel R. E. (1995) Model ofa Kuiper belt small grain population and resulting far-infraredemission. Astrophys. J. Lett., 450, L35.

Barrado y Navascués D., Stauffer J. R., Song I., and Caillault J.-P.(1999) The age of β Pictoris. Astrophys. J. Lett., 520, L123–L126.

Bary J. S., Weintraub D. A., and Kastner J. H. (2002) Detection ofmolecular hydrogen orbiting a “naked” T Tauri star. Astrophys.J. Lett., 576, L73.

Beckwith S. V. W., Sargent A. I., Chini R. S., and Guesten R.(1990) A survey for circumstellar disks around young stellarobjects. Astron. J., 99, 924.

Beckwith S. V. W., Henning T., and Nakagawa Y. (2000) Dustproperties and assembly of large particles in protoplanetarydisks. In Protostars and Planets IV (V. Manning et al., eds.),p. 533. Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.

Beust H. and Morbidelli A. (1996) Mean-motion resonances as asource for infalling comets toward β Pictoris. Icarus, 120, 358–370.

Beust H. and Tagger M. (1993) A hydrodynamical model forinfalling evaporating bodies in the β Pictoris circumstellar disk.Icarus, 106, 42.

Beust H., Lagrange-Henri A. M., Vidal-Madjar A., and Ferlet R.(1989) The β Pictoris circumstellar disk. IX — Theoreticalresults on the infall velocities of Ca II, Al III, and Mg II. Astron.Astrophys., 223, 304–312.

Beust H., Vidal-Madjar A., Ferlet R., and Lagrange-Henri A. M.(1990) The β Pictoris circumstellar disk. X — Numerical simu-lations of infalling evaporating bodies. Astron. Astrophys., 236,202–216.

Beust H., Vidal-Madjar A., Ferlet R., and Lagrange-Henri A. M.(1991a) The β Pictoris circumstellar disk. XI — New Ca II ab-sorption features reproduced numerically. Astron. Astrophys.,241, 488–492.

Beust H., Vidal-Madjar A., and Ferlet R. (1991b) The β Pictorisprotoplanetary system. XII — Planetary perturbations in thedisk and star-grazing bodies. Astron. Astrophys., 247, 505–515.

Boccaletti A., Augereau J. C., Marchis F., and Hahn J. (2003)Ground-based near-infrared imaging of the HD 141569 circum-stellar disk. Astrophys. J., 585, 494.

Boss A. P. (2004) From molecular clouds to circumstellar disks.In Comets II (M. C. Festou et al., eds.), this volume. Univ. ofArizona, Tucson.

Bouwman J., de Koter A., van den Ancker M. E., and WatersL. B. F. M. (2000) The composition of the circumstellar dustaround the Herbig Ae stars AB Aur and HD 163296. Astron.Astrophys., 360, 213.

Brittain S. D. and Rettig T. W. (2002) CO and H3+ in the proto-

planetary disk around the star HD141569. Nature, 418, 57.Burrows C. J. and 15 colleagues (1996) Hubble Space Telescope

observations of the disk and jet of HH30. Astrophys. J., 473,437.

Chiang E. I. and Goldreich P. (1997) Spectral energy distributionsof T Tauri stars with passive circumstellar disks. Astrophys. J.,490, 368.

Close L., Dutrey A., Roddier F., Guilloteau S., Roddier C., North-cott M., Ménard F., Duvert G., Graves J. E., amd Potter D.(1998) Adaptive optics imaging of the circumbinary disk aroundthe T Tauri binary UY Aurigae: Estimates of the binary massand circumbinary dust grain size distribution. Astrophys. J.,499, 883.

D’Alessio P., Canto J., Calvet N., and Lizano S. (1998) Accretiondisks around young objects. I. The detailed vertical structure.Astrophys. J., 500, 411.

D’Alessio P., Calvet N., Hartmann L., Lizano S., and Cantó J.(1999) Accretion disks around young objects. II. Tests of well-mixed models with ISM dust. Astrophys. J., 527, 893.

Dartois E., d’Hendecourt L., Thi W., Pontoppidan K. M., andvan Dishoeck E. F. (2002) Combined VLT ISAAC/ISO SWS

Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 93

spectroscopy of two protostellar sources. The importance ofminor solid state features. Astron. Astrophys., 394, 1057.

Dartois E., Dutrey A., and Guilloteau S. (2003) Structure of theDM Tau outer disk: Probing the vertical kinetic temperaturegradient. Astron. Astrophys., 399, 773.

Dent W. R. F., Greaves J. S., Mannings V., Coulson I. M., andWalther D. M. (1995) A search for molecular gas componentsin prototypal Vega-excess systems. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc.,277, L25–L29.

Dominik C. (1999) ISO Observations of Vega-like stars. In SolidInterstellar Matter: The ISO Revolution (L. d’Hendecourt etal., eds.), p. 277. EDP Sciences/Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Dullemond C. P., Dominik C., and Natta A. (2001) Passive irra-diated circumstellar disks with an inner hole. Astrophys. J., 560,957.

Dutrey A., Guilloteau S., and Simon M. (1994) Images of the GGTauri rotating ring. Astron. Astrophys., 286, 149.

Dutrey A., Guilloteau S., Duvert G., Prato L., Simon M., SchusterK., and Ménard F. (1996) Dust and gas distribution aroundT Tauri stars in Taurus-Auriga. I. Interferometric 2.7 mm continuumand 13CO J = 1–0 observations. Astron. Astrophys., 309, 493.

Dutrey A., Guilloteau S., and Guélin M. (1997) Chemistry ofprotosolar-like nebulae: The molecular content of the DM Tauand GG Tau disks. Astron. Astrophys., 317, L55.

Dutrey A., Guilloteau S., and Simon M. (2003) The BP Tau disk:A missing link between Class II and III objects? Astron. Astro-phys., 402, 1003.

Duvert G., Guilloteau S., Ménard F., Simon M., and Dutrey A.(2000) A search for extended disks around weak-lined T Tauristars. Astron. Astrophys., 355, 165.

Edwards S., Hartigan P., Ghandour L., and Andrulis C. (1994)Spectroscopic evidence for magnetospheric accretion in clas-sical T Tauri stars. Astron. J., 108, 1056.

Elsasser H. and Staude H. J. (1978) On the polarization of youngstellar objects. Astron. Astrophys., 70, L3.

Fisher R. S., Telesco C. M., Piña R. K., Knacke R. F., and WyattM. C. (2000) Detection of extended thermal infrared emissionaround the Vega-like source HD 141569. Astrophys. J. Lett.,532, L141.

Glassgold A. E., Najita J., and Igea J. (1997) X-ray ionization ofprotoplanetary disks: Erratum. Astrophys. J., 485, 920.

Grady C. A. and Silvis J. M. S. (1993) The circumstellar gas sur-rounding 51 Ophiuchi — A candidate proto-planetary systemsimilar to β Pictoris. Astrophys. J. Lett., 402, L61–L64.

Grady C. A., Woodgate B., Bruhweiler F. C., Boggess A., Plait P.,Lindler D. J., Clampin M., and Kalas P. (1999) Hubble SpaceTelescope imaging spectrograph coronagraphic imaging of theHerbig AE star AB Aurigae. Astrophys. J. Lett., 523, L151.

Grady C. A., Woodgate B., Stapelfeldt K., Padgett D., StecklumB., Henning T., Grinin V., Quirrenbach A., and Clampin M.(2003) HST/STIS coronagraphic imaging of the disk of DMTauri. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc., 34, 1137.

Greaves J. S., Holland W. S., Moriarty-Schieven G., Jenness T.,Dent W. R. F., Zuckerman B., McCarthy C., Webb R. A.,Butner H. M., Gear W. K., and Walker H. J. (1998) A dust ringaround ε Eridani: Analog to the young solar system. Astrophys.J. Lett., 506, L133–L137.

Grinin V., Natta A., and Tambovtseva L. (1996) Evaporation ofstar-grazing bodies in the vicinity of UX Ori-type stars. Astron.Astrophys., 313, 857–865.

Grosso N., Montmerle T., Bontemps S., André P., and FeigelsonE. D. (2000) X-rays and regions of star formation: A combinedROSAT-HRI/near-to-mid IR study of the ρ Oph dark cloud.

Astron. Astrophys., 359, 113.Guilloteau S. and Dutrey A. (1998) Physical parameters of the

Keplerian protoplanetary disk of DM Tauri. Astron. Astrophys.,339, 467.

Gullbring E., Hartmann L., Briceno C., Calvet N. (1998) Diskaccretion rates for T Tauri stars. Astrophys. J., 492, 323.

Habing H. J., Dominik C., Jourdain de Muizon M., Kessler M. F.,Laureijs R. J., Leech K., Metcalfe L., Salama A., SiebenmorgenR., and Trams N. (1999) Disappearance of stellar debris disksaround main-sequence stars after 400 million years. Nature,401, 456–458.

Habing H. J., Dominik C., Jourdain de Muizon M., Laureijs R. J.,Kessler M. F., Leech K., Metcalfe L., Salama A., SiebenmorgenR., Trams N., and Bouchet P. (2001) Incidence and survival ofremnant disks around main-sequence stars. Astron. Astrophys.,365, 545–561.

Harper D. A., Loewenstein R. F., and Davidson J. A. (1984) Onthe nature of the material surrounding Vega. Astrophys. J., 285,808.

Hartmann L. (1998) Accretion Processes in Star Formation. Cam-bridge Astrophysics Series Vol. 32, Cambridge Univ., Cam-bridge.

Hartmann L. and Kenyon S. J. (1996) The FU Orionis phenom-enon. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 34, 207.

Hartmann L., Calvet N., Gullbring E., and D’Alessio P. (1998)Accretion and the evolution of T Tauri disks. Astrophys. J., 495,385.

Heap S. R., Lindler D. J., Lanz T. M., Cornett R. H., Hubeny I.,Maran S. P., and Woodgate B. (2000) Space Telescope imagingspectrograph coronagraphic observations of β Pictoris. Astro-phys. J., 539, 435–444.

Henning T. and Stognienko R. (1996) Dust opacities for proto-planetary accretion disks: Influence of dust aggregates. Astron.Astrophys., 311, 291.

Hobbs L. M., Vidal-Madjar A., Ferlet R., Albert C. E., and GryC. (1985) The gaseous component of the disk around β Pic-toris. Astrophys. J. Lett., 293, L29–L33.

Holland W. S., Greaves J. S., Zuckerman B., Webb R. A.,McCarthy C., Coulson I. M., Walther D. M., Dent W. R. F.,Gear W. K., and Robson I. (1998) Submillimetre images ofdusty debris around nearby stars. Nature, 392, 788–790.

Jayawardhana R., Fisher S., Hartmann L., Telesco C., Pina R., andFazio G. (1998) A dust disk surrounding the young A starHR 4796A. Astrophys. J. Lett., 503, L79.

Johnstone D., Hollenbach D., and Bally J. (1998) Photoevapora-tion of disks and clumps by nearby massive stars: Applicationto disk destruction in the Orion Nebula. Astrophys. J., 499, 758.

Jolly A., McPhate J. B., Lecavelier A., Lagrange A. M., LemaireJ. L., Feldman P. D., Vidal Madjar A., Ferlet R., MalmassonD., and Rostas F. (1998) HST–GHRS observations of CO andC I fill in the β-Pictoris circumstellar disk. Astron. Astrophys.,329, 1028–1034.

Kalas P. and Jewitt D. (1995) Asymmetries in the β Pictoris dustdisk. Astron. J., 110, 794.

Kastner J., Zuckerman B., Weintraub D. A., and Forveille T.(1997) X-ray and molecular emission from the nearest regionof recent star formation. Science, 277, 67.

Kenyon S. J. and Hartmann L. (1987) Spectral energy distributionsof T Tauri stars — Disk flaring and limits on accretion. Astro-phys. J., 323, 714.

Klahr H. H. and Lin D. N. C. (2001) Dust distribution in gas disks:A model for the ring around HR 4796A. Astrophys. J., 554,1095–1109.

94 Comets II

Koerner D. W., Sargent A. I., and Beckwith S. W. W. (1993) Arotating gaseous disk around the T Tauri star GM Aurigae.Icarus, 106, 2.

Koerner D. W., Ressler M. E., Werner M. W., and Backman D. E.(1998) Mid-infrared imaging of a circumstellar disk aroundHR 4796: Mapping the debris of planetary formation. Astro-phys. J. Lett., 503, L83.

Krügel E. and Siebenmorgen R. (1994) Dust in protostellar coresand stellar disks. Astron. Astrophys., 288, 929.

Lagrange A.-M., Beust H., Mouillet D., Deleuil M., Feldman P. D.,Ferlet R., Hobbs L., Lecavelier des Etangs A., Lissauer J. J.,McGrath M. A., McPhate J. B., Spyromilio J., Tobin W., andVidal-Madjar A. (1998) The β Pictoris circumstellar disk.XXIV. Clues to the origin of the stable gas. Astron. Astrophys.,330, 1091–1108.

Lagrange A.-M., Backman D. E., and Artymowicz P. (2000) Plane-tary material around main-sequence stars. In Protostars andPlanets IV (V. Manning et al., eds.), p. 639. Univ. of Arizona,Tucson.

Lagrange-Henri A. M., Beust H., Ferlet R., Vidal-Madjar A., andHobbs L. M. (1990) HR 10 — A new β Pictoris-like star?Astron. Astrophys., 227, L13–L16.

Lecavelier des Etangs A. (1998) Planetary migration and sources ofdust in the β Pictoris disk. Astron. Astrophys., 337, 501–511.

Lecavelier des Etangs A. (2000) Models of β Pictoris and disksaround main-sequence stars (invited review). In Disk, Plan-etesimals, and Planets (F. Garzón et al., eds.), p. 308. ASPConference Series 219, Astronomical Society of the Pacific,San Francisco.

Lecavelier des Etangs A., Perrin G., Ferlet R., Vidal Madjar A.,Colas F., Buil C., Sevre F., Arlot J. E., Beust H., Lagrange-Henri A. M., Lecacheux J., Deleuil M., and Gry C. (1993)Observation of the central part of the β-Pictoris disk with ananti-blooming CCD. Astron. Astrophys., 274, 877.

Lecavelier des Etangs A., Vidal-Madjar A., and Ferlet R. (1996)Dust distribution in disks supplied by small bodies: Is theβ Pictoris disk a gigantic multi-cometary tail? Astron. Astro-phys., 307, 542–550.

Lecavelier des Etangs A., Vidal-Madjar A., Backman D. E., DeleuilM., Lagrange A.-M., Lissauer J. J., Ferlet R., Beust H., andMouillet D. (1997a) Discovery of C I around 51 Ophiuchi.Astron. Astrophys., 321, L39–L42.

Lecavelier des Etangs A., Deleuil M., Vidal-Madjar A., Lagrange-Henri A.-M., Backman D., Lissauer J. J., Ferlet R., Beust H.,and Mouillet D. (1997b) HST-GHRS observations of candidateβ Pictoris-like circumstellar gaseous disks. Astron. Astrophys.,325, 228–236.

Lecavelier des Etangs A., Hobbs L. M., Vidal-Madjar A., BeustH., Feldman P. D., Ferlet R., Lagrange A.-M., Moos W., andMcGrath M. (2000) Possible emission lines from the gaseousβ Pictoris disk. Astron. Astrophys., 356, 691–694.

Lecavelier des Etangs A., Vidal-Madjar A., Roberge A., FeldmanP. D., Deleuil M., André M., Blair W. P., Bouret J.-C., DésertJ.-M., Ferlet R., Friedman S., Hébrard G., Lemoine M., andMoos H. W. (2001) Deficiency of molecular hydrogen in thedisk of β Pictoris. Nature, 412, 706–708.

Lecavelier des Etangs A., Deleuil M., Vidal-Madjar A., RobergeA., Le Petit F., Hébrard G., Ferlet R., Feldman P.D., DésertJ.-M., and Bouret J.-C. (2003) FUSE observations of H2 aroundthe Herbig AeBe stars HD 100546 and HD 163296. Astron.Astrophys., 407, 935.

Leinert Ch., Haas M., Abraham P., and Richichi A. (2001) Halosaround Herbig Ae/Be stars — More common than for the less

massive T Tauri stars. Astron. Astrophys., 375, 927.Liseau R. (1999) Molecular line observations of southern main-

sequence stars with dust disks: α PS A, β Pic, ERI andHR 4796 A. Does the low gas content of the β PIC and ε ERIdisks hint of planets? Astron. Astrophys., 348, 133–138.

Mannings V. and Sargent A. I. (1997) A high-resolution study ofgas and dust around young intermediate-mass stars: Evidencefor circumstellar disks in Herbig AE systems. Astrophys. J.,490, 792.

Marsh K. A., Silverstone M. D., Becklin E. E., Koerner D. W.,Werner M. W., Weinberger A. J., and Ressler M. E. (2002)Mid-infrared images of the debris disk around HD 141569.Astrophys. J., 573, 425.

Mathieu R. D., Ghez A. M., Jensen E. L. N., and Simon M. (2000)Young binary stars and associated disks. In Protostars andPlanets IV (V. Mannings et al., eds.), p. 703. Univ. of Arizona,Tucson.

McCabe C., Duchêne G., and Ghez A. M. (2002) NICMOS im-ages of the GG Tauri circumbinary disk. Astrophys. J., 575,974.

McCaughrean M. J. and O’Dell C. R. (1996) Direct imaging ofcircumstellar disks in the Orion Nebula. Astron. J., 111, 1977.

Meeus G., Waters L. B. F. M., Bouwman J., van den Ancker M. E.,Waelkens C., and Malfait K. (2001) ISO spectroscopy of cir-cumstellar dust in 14 Herbig Ae/Be systems: Towards an un-derstanding of dust processing. Astron. Astrophys., 365, 476.

Monnier J. and Millan-Gabet R. (2002) On the interferometricsizes of young stellar objects. Astrophys. J., 579, 694.

Mouillet D., Lagrange A.-M., Beuzit J.-L., and Renaud N. (1997a)A stellar coronograph for the COME-ON-PLUS adaptive opticssystem. II. First astronomical results. Astron. Astrophys., 324,1083–1090.

Mouillet D., Larwood J. D., Papaloizou J. C. B., and LagrangeA. M. (1997b) A planet on an inclined orbit as an explanationof the warp in the β Pictoris disc. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc.,292, 896.

Mouillet D., Lagrange A. M., Augereau J. C., and Ménard F.(2001) Asymmetries in the HD 141569 circumstellar disk.Astron. Astrophys., 372, L61.

Najita J. R., Edwards S., Basri G., and Carr J. (2000) Spectros-copy of inner protoplanetary disks and the star-disk interface.In Protostars and Planets IV (V. Mannings et al., eds.), p. 457.Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.

Najita J. R., Bergin E. A., and Ullom J. N. (2001) X-ray desorp-tion of molecules from grains in protoplanetary disks. Astro-phys. J., 561, 880.

Natta A. and Whitney B. A. (2000) Models of scattered light inUXORs. Astron. Astrophys., 364, 633.

Natta A., Grinin V., and Mannings V. (2000) Properties and evo-lution of disks around pre-main-sequence stars of intermediatemass. In Protostars and Planets IV (V. Mannings et al., eds.),p. 559. Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.

Olofsson G., Liseau R., and Brandeker A. (2001) Widespreadatomic gas emission reveals the rotation of the β Pictoris disk.Astrophys. J. Lett., 563, L77–L80.

Piétu V., Dutrey A., and Kahane C. (2003) A Keplerian diskaround the Herbig Ae star HD 34282. Astron. Astrophys., 398,565.

Pollack J., Hollenbach D., Beckwith S., Simonelli D. P., RoushT., and Fong W. (1994) Composition and radiative propertiesof grains in molecular clouds and accretion disks. Astrophys.J., 421, 615.

Pringle J. E. (1981) Accretion discs in astrophysics. Annu. Rev.

Dutrey et al.: Gas and Dust Components of Circumstellar Disks 95

Astron. Astrophys., 19, 137.Richter M. J., Jaffe D. T., Blake G. A., and Lacy J. H. (2002)

Looking for pure rotational H2 emission from protoplanetarydisks. Astrophys. J. Lett., 572, L161–L164.

Roberge A., Feldman P. D., Lagrange A. M., Vidal-Madjar A.,Ferlet R., Jolly A., Lemaire J. L., and Rostas F. (2000) High-resolution Hubble Space Telescope STIS spectra of CI and COin the β Pictoris circumstellar disk. Astrophys. J., 538, 904–910.

Roddier C., Roddier F., Northcott M. J., Graves J. E., and Jim K.(1996) Adaptive optics imaging of GG Tauri: Optical detectionof the circumbinary ring. Astrophys. J., 463, 326.

Rucinski S. M. (1985) IRAS observations of T Tauri and post-TTauri stars. Astron. J., 90, 2321.

Schneider G., Smith B. A., Becklin E. E., Koerner D. W., MeierR., Hines D. C., Lowrance P. J., Terrile R. J., Thompson R. I.,and Rieke M. (1999) NICMOS imaging of the HR 4796A cir-cumstellar disk. Astrophys. J. Lett., 513, L127–L130.

Shakura N. I. and Sunyaev R. A. (1973) Black holes in binarysystems. Observational appearance. Astron. Astrophys., 24,337.

Shu F. H., Adams F. C., and Lizano S. (1987) Star formation inmolecular clouds — Observation and theory. Annu. Rev.Astron. Astrophys., 25, 23.

Simon M., Dutrey A., and Guilloteau S. (2000) Dynamical massesof T Tauri stars and calibration of pre-main-sequence evolu-tion. Astrophys. J., 545, 1034.

Smith B. A. and Terrile R. J. (1984) A circumstellar disk aroundβ Pictoris. Science, 226, 1421–1424.

Stahler S. W. and Walter F. M. (1993) Pre-main-sequence evolu-tion and the birth population. In Protostars and Planets III (E.Levy and J. I. Lunine, eds.), pp. 405–428. Univ. of Arizona,Tucson.

Stapelfeldt K. R., Burrows C. J., Koerner D., Krist J., WatsonA. M., Trauger J. T., and the WFPC2 IDT (1995) WFPC2imaging of GM Aurigae: A circumstellar disk seen in scatteredlight. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc., 27, 1446.

Sylvester R. J. and Skinner C. J. (1996) Optical, infrared and milli-metre-wave properties of Vega-like systems — II. Radiativetransfer modelling. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 283, 457.

Takeuchi T. and Artymowicz P. (2001) Dust migration and mor-phology in optically thin circumstellar gas disks. Astrophys.J., 557, 990–1006.

Thi W. F., Blake G. A., van Dishoeck E. F., van Zadelhoff G. J.,Horn J. M. M., Becklin E. E., Mannings V., Sargent A. I., vanden Ancker M. E., and Natta A. (2001a) Substantial reservoirsof molecular hydrogen in the debris disks around young stars.Nature, 409, 60–63.

Thi W. F., van Dishoeck E. F., Blake G. A., van Zadelhoff G. J.,Horn J., Becklin E. E., Mannings V., Sargent A. I., van denAncker M. E., Natta A., and Kessler J. (2001b) H2 and COemission from disks around T Tauri and Herbig Ae pre-mainsequence stars and from debris disks around young stars: Warmand cold circumstellar gas. Astrophys. J., 561, 1074–1094.

Thi W. F., Pontoppidan K. M., van Dishoeck E. F., Dartois E., andd’Hendecourt L. (2002) Detection of abundant solid CO in thedisk around CRBR 2422.8-3423. Astron. Astrophys., 394, L27.

van Zadelhoff G.-J., van Dishoeck E. F., Thi W.-F., and BlakeG. A. (2001) Submillimeter lines from circumstellar disksaround pre-main sequence stars. Astron. Astrophys., 377, 566.

Vidal-Madjar A., Ferlet R., Hobbs L. M., Gry C., and Albert C. E.(1986) The circumstellar gas cloud around β Pictoris. II.Astron. Astrophys., 167, 325–332.

Vidal-Madjar A., Lagrange-Henri A.-M., Feldman P. D., Beust H.,Lissauer J. J., Deleuil M., Ferlet R., Gry C., Hobbs L. M.,McGrath M. A., McPhate J. B., and Moos H. W. (1994) HST-GHRS observations of β Pictoris: Additional evidence for in-falling comets. Astron. Astrophys., 290, 245–258.

Waelkens C., Malfait K., and Waters L. B. F. M. (1999) CometHale-Bopp, circumstellar dust, and the interstellar medium.Earth Moon Planets, 79, 265.

Weinberger A. J., Rich R. M., Becklin E. E., Zuckerman B., andMatthews K. (2000) Stellar companions and the age ofHD 141569 and its circumstellar disk. Astrophys. J., 544, 937.

Welsh B. Y., Craig N., Crawford I. A., and Price R. J. (1998)β Pic-like circumstellar disk gas surrounding HR 10 andHD 85905. Astron. Astrophys., 338, 674–682.

Wolf S., Gueth F., Henning T., and Kley W. (2002) Detectingplanets in protoplanetary disks: A prospective study. Astro-phys. J. Lett., 566, L97.

Wright E. (1987) Long-wavelength absorption by fractal dustgrains. Astrophys. J., 320, 818.

Wyatt M. C., Dermott S. F., Telesco C. M., Fisher R. S., GroganK., Holmes E. K., and Piña R. K. (1999) How observations ofcircumstellar disk asymmetries can reveal hidden planets: Peri-center glow and its application to the HR 4796 disk. Astrophys.J., 527, 918–944.

Yudin R. V. (2000) Analysis of correlations between polarimetricand photometric characteristics of young stars. A new approachto the problem after eleven years’ study. Astron. Astrophys.Suppl. Ser., 144, 285.

Zuckerman B., Forveille T., and Kastner J. H. (1995) Inhibitionof giant planet formation by rapid gas depletion around youngstars. Nature, 373, 494.

96 Comets II