Observation

KNR 279Stumbo, 2002

Observation as Assessment

Therapist observes client’s behaviors Directly Indirectly

Primary reason is to record behavior Not perceptions/thoughts/feelings/motives like in interview Looks at behavior in as real life situations as possible

Typically uses recording systems to shorten time recording observations

Advantages? Disadvantages?

ADVANTAGES

Record behaviors that occur naturally in the environment

Generalize behaviors to community Can be used with children or others with

verbal or thought processing problems

DISADVANTAGES

Cost in staff time Fitting observer unobtrusively into setting Potential subjectivity or bias of observer Determining meaningful behaviors to observe Inability to determine meaning

Systematic Observation

Differs from casual observation Has a specific purpose

Collect data about clients

Targets certain behaviors Records behaviors systematically Has concerns of reliability & validity

USE SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION TO:

Document typical client performance or behavior

Document unusual behavior Confirm results of another assessment

Triangulation Compare clients’ behaviors

Steps to Developing Systematic Observations

Determine sample behavior that is important to observe

Determine procedures for collecting, organizing, & analyzing data

Who, where, for how long, under what circumstances, how many occasions

Record behavior immediately to minimize dependence on memory & preserve detail of behavior

Determine conditions under which behavior will be observed

Natural (e.g., community outing) or contrived Obtrusive or unobtrusive Mechanical (e.g., videotape) or human

Steps to Developing Systematic Observations

Determine data collection instrument Recording methods Recording techniques Pilot test Reliability Validity Protocol

Train staff as observers

OBSERVATIONAL RECORDING METHODS

Checklists Rating scales Anecdotal records Critical incident reports

CHECKLISTS

Record if present or absent Useful to assess mastery of concrete learning

tasks Leave little room for interpretations Easy to administer, score, interpret Inter-rater reliability tends to be high Difficult to define behaviors

RATING SCALE

Similar to checklists, but can indicate degree Fairly easy to administer and score if well-

constructed Hard to construct Personal biases enter into rating Between 4-6 points should be provided

ANECDOTAL RECORDS

Provide snapshots of actual behavior in natural situations that are significant indicator of total behavior

Allows recording of environment, antecedents, and consequences of behaviors

Allow recording in non-standardized form Can be time consuming Hard to be objective

ANECDOTAL RECORDS cont.

Difficulty in deciding level of detail to record Inconsistent wording used Difficulty collating and analyzing Determine in advance what to observe, but

be alert for unusual behavior Develop procedures for coding Train observers

Critical Incident Reports

Differ from anecdotal records Used to record unusual situations/behaviors Recording antecedents, behavior, and

consequences is required Factual information kept separate from

interpretation Often used in SRAs for behavior management

plans See Stumbo, 2002, p. 229

OBSERVATION RECORDING TECHNIQUES

Frequency/tally Duration Interval Instantaneous time sampling

Frequency/Tally

Records number of times a behavior occurs Behavior needs to be clearly defined Need to determine if behaviors are significant

enough to observe Can use if observe more than one person at

a time See Stumbo, 2002, p. 230

Duration

Used when length of behavior is important Stop watch can be used Behaviors must be clearly defined &

observable for a period of time See Stumbo, 2002, p. 231

Interval

Focuses on frequency and duration of behaviors

Determine size of intervals on basis of how often the behavior occurs

If behavior occurs in interval, mark is recorded

Stumbo, 2002, p. 232

Instantaneous Time Sampling

Used when observer enters & exits observation area periodically

Observer does not have time for lengthy observation

Many individuals can be observed at once Patterns of behavior is important Look for absence or presence of behavior

See Stumbo, 2002, p. 233