Language Learning Strategies

M.Sajid us SalamM.Phil Linguistics

The Islamia University Bahawalpur

cupidlucid@gmail.com

Using Learning Strategies to Overcome Affective Barriers to Efficient Learning

Affective: Motivation; Anxiety; Willingness to communicate; Attitudes and Beliefs toward language learning.

But what are strategies? 

Definition

Learning strategies are "operations…to aid the:• acquisition, • storage, • retrieval, and • use of information. . .”

(Oxford, 1990, p.8)

Definition

LLS are the specific actions…to make learning

• easier, • faster, • more enjoyable, • more self-directed, • more effective, and • more transferable to new situations.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 8).

Operational Definition

LLS are the [purposeful steps] used by language learners to

• comprehend and process new information more deeply,

• to help to recall old information, and • apply knowledge and skills to facilitate

problem-solving. (Nyikos, 1991/[2003],

p.25).

Definition

LLS are "behaviors or thoughts that a learner engages in during… the learner's encoding process."

These strategies "are the techniques for the learner's conscious construction of language rules, vocabulary, pronunciation, discourse, and sociocultural understanding.

(Weinstein & Mayer, 1986, p. 315).  

Definition

Language learning strategies aresteps the learner takes to:

Facilitate the Storage

Retrieval --- Use

of language. What about stress, anxiety, lack of motivation?

Common Elements

Conscious Planful/Purposeful Task-oriented Not readily observable Focus on cognitive functions Coupled with social and affective

needs during communication

Focus on the Learner

Students are rarely shown HOW to learn and study (modeling)

Just told: “You must learn +memorize”

In reality, they must listen and read meaningfully, speak and write… so others can

understand

Oxford’s strategy types in taxonomy (1990)

Memory Strategies Cognitive Strategies Compensation Strategies Metacognitive Strategies Affective Strategies Social Strategies

Direct StrategiesI. Memory strategiesA. Creating mental linkagesB. Applying images and

soundsC. Reviewing wellD. Employing actionII. Cognitive strategiesA. PracticingB. Receiving and sending

messagesC. Analyzing and reasoningD. Creating structure for

input and output

III. Compensation strategies

A. Guessing intelligentlyB. Overcoming

limitations in speaking and writing

Indirect Strategies

I. Metacognitive strategies

A. Centering your learningB. Arranging and planning

your learningC. Evaluating your learning

II. Affective strategiesA. Lowering your anxietyB. Encouraging yourselfC. Taking your emotional

temperature

III. Social strategiesA. Asking questionsB. Cooperating with othersC. Empathizing with others

Learner Autonomy

By using selected, task-appropriate strategies, language students are viewed as being:

in transition to be autonomous, self-regulated learners, that is, learners who take significant

responsibility for their own learning.

Research has demonstrated That learners are actively involved

in their learning Use different kinds of strategies Have different beliefs about

strategy use and learning approaches

That several factors have powerful influence on strategy choice/use:

Motivation, proficiency, years of study, sex, major, if requirement

Major findings related to successful language learning:

The learner must be active in learning and practice.must begin to view the language as a system.must use the language in real communication. must monitor his interlanguage. must come to terms with the affective demands of language learning.

Adapted from Naiman et al (1978), p. 103

The good language learner: is guesser, but an accurate guesser! has a strong drive to communicate. is not often inhibited (a risk-taker).focuses on communication, but also attends to form.practices—and creates opportunities to do so.knows what is appropriate.monitors his own and the speech of others.attends to meaning.Actively participates (aloud and silently).

Rubin, 1975, p.45-47

All Learning VARIES with

TASK (Skehan) Age LEARNING STYLE (Reid) GENDER (Nyikos) CULTURE (Peacock & Ho) MOTIVATION (Dornyei) PROFICIENCY (Oxford & Nyikos)

Key Theories Guiding Learning Strategy Research

Information Processing Theory – Associative Learning (associate personally meaningful links, e.g. Keyword mnemonic), Depth of Processing (longer engaged the student, the deeper the processing and thus, memory)Sociocognitive Theory -(esp, in cooperative learning)

Research approaches to discover students’ strategies through tasks TASK- Must Memorize Given List While memorizing ask ss. to write

down what they notice they are doing to memorize.

(1) in a NARRATIVE form; and (2) in STEP-BY-STEP fashion. OR: Diagram the process

graphically (picture, arrows).

HOW TO LEARN BEST associate!

INFINFOO

EVENTS SHAPES COLORS IMAGES

EMOTIONS/ FEELINGS

Movements TIME OF DAY

SIMILAR ToNative Lang MEMORIES

OF Events

NOISES CONTEXT SETTING PEOPLE

Research Approaches to discovering learner strategies

Oral interviews and Questionnaires

ObservationVerbal Report via Think AloudDiaries and dialogue journalsRetrospective studies via

interviews or stimulated recall

Oral Interviews and Questionnaires

Degree of Structure

High Low

Advantages lends itself to statistical analysis

respondents free to pursue personal interest

Disadvantages too simplisticmay suggest a “preferred” response

too much informationtoo individualized, therefore difficult to determine patterns

High (e.g., group interview or

questionnaire)

Low (e.g., case study)

Advantages time and costpotential for generating and testing hypotheses

more detailuseful insights

Disadvantages responses influenced by social desirability or shynessmay not transfer well from one setting to another

difficult to generalize unless a large number are gathered

Number of respondents

Observation

Advantages impartial, objectivelikely to be more quantitative

Disadvantages inability to produce descriptions of internal or mentalistic strategieslikely to derive data only on more verbal studentsbias inherent in an observer’s descriptionstudent behavior may change with observer’s presence

Verbal Report(e.g. Think-aloud protocol)

Advantages dependent on the information processing model as a frameworkworks best as a complement to other means of researchhas a strong, historical foundation of usehigh correlations with subsequent behaviorreveal what information is attended to while performing tasks

Disadvantages cognitive processing is inaccessible because it is unconscious, therefore researchers must raise respondents’ level of awareness or only measure consciously accessible processesprobes may force the subject to produce a verbal response not closely related to actual thought processes because of a lack of verbal skills or L2 abilityintrusive effecttake too much time, e.g., 20 minutes to explain 1.5 second of thought

Diaries & Dialogue Journals

Advantages find out what is significant to learnersinformation may be inaccessible through other research techniquescan be kept anywhere by anyone

Disadvantages volume of datapotentially random nature of the entries ss. may not mention language learning strategies at allsmall number of subjects restricts generalizability

Retrospective Studies

Advantages more objective because of distance from experiencemore likely to be summarystudents can gain important personal insights about language learning strategies that worked for them

Disadvantages memory deterioration between the experience and the study, therefore should be considered anecdotalindividualistic and possibly distorted

We have looked at research approaches, now let’s look at the research on affective side of learning.

Anxiety (Horowitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986)

Cooperation (Naughton, 2006) Motivation (Dornyei, 2001) Willingness to communicate Attitudes and Beliefs toward language

learning (Horwitz;

Social Strategies

Join the group Pretend you understand everything Count on your friends to help

Also called Communication Strategies

Used by Children (Wong-Filmore 1976 /79)

More Social strategies

Suggestions for the classroom Cooperating with Others

increases performance, fluency awareness and self-concept

Strategies: Cooperate with peers Cooperate with proficient users and

native speakers (who can scaffold, negotiate meaning, provide i+1)

Social/Affective strategies

Ask Questions for clarification or verification for correction and support

- to find out appropriateness - to find alternatives Use discourse markers to signal

need for assistance: “I wonder if…” “Could you please…”

Affective support strategies Empathizing with Others

to develop cultural awareness and understanding

become aware of own and others’ feelings

Takes off stress and anxiety when empathy gained

Affective:

In the classroom: Lower the anxiety level – learner plays

music while studying Use encouragement – Give the

students a social reward (smile, praise, handshake, high 5)

Have them reward themselves for successfully completing a task

Social + Affective

Ask questions Encourage learners to always ask for clarification or verification

Cooperation and Empathy Invite students to develop understanding of others

“If anyone can do this, you can!” “Good job!” “Nice try!”

Speaking strategies

Teacher: “it is OK to make mistakes”Model to ss how to say: “please slow down” Say that again, please Could you repeat that again?Conversation Management Strategies “Ok, I think you are saying…” “so in other words…”

Metacognitive The KEY! Center the learning –> Show the

student how to link new information with already known material

Arrange and Plan –> Help student to set outlines, goals

Identify –> Ask the learner “How did you learn that?” This enables them to know their own learning strategies.

How to find out your students’ language learning strategies Ask ss to write a short essay or simply

ask: How do you study vocabulary? - grammar?- What do you do when you need to talk

to a partner in class? How often read? What enjoy reading? * What are tips for fellow

students?

Discover cont.

Give a TASK: Ask students to tell you or a partner how they complete the task. memorize vocablary

Give students a quiz or test, when done, ask them to write

down next to the item how they remembered the item,

What did you do to write better or read correctly?

Ask students to reflect on how they completed the task:

memorize vocabulary study grammar

jot down next to

reading passage study and/or take a quiz

Strategies promote:

Language competence Risk-taking + confidence Memory and retention Self-monitoring Good study habits Awareness of strengths and

individual differences

Resources-Websites Prof. Andrew Cohen’s Strategies-

based Instruction web page:http://www.carla.umn.edu/bibliography/strategies.html

Styles-and Strategies-Based Instruction: A Teachers' Guide

http://www.carla.umn.edu/resources/working-papers/index.html

http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/motivating/strategytable.htm

Further readings on strategies

Please see handout with references.

Thank you!

Questions, please!