nyame akuma issue 042.pdf

8/10/2019 Nyame Akuma Issue 042.pdf

1/62

NY ME KUM No 42 ecembwr 994

This is my fust issue of Nyame A k u m ndup front I have to apologize for its delayedappearance. The period of transition from JohnBower to me as editor took longer than I expect-ed. Right now I m being initiated into the worldof desktop publishing, and this has also caused adelay. But once this issue is completed, it willnot take me long to produce the next one (whichwill probably come out on time for June 1995).Then we will be back to the regular schedule.

I would like to provide some notes aboutthis issue. Since we held the biennial meetinglast spring, and also changed editors, resulting ina decrease in article submissions (which I hopeis temporary), we decided that my first issuewould contain the program and abstracts of themeeting. Not every member gets to attend themeeting; this way we will all be familiar withwhat was presented. I also asked Alan Morris toprovide n article describing the biennial meet-ing of the Southern African Association ofArchaeologists. he rest of the issue is taken upwith research reports. Of special interest isRobert Soper s description of new work at theNyanga site complex, which will be seen bythose attending the Panafrican congress inZimbabwe in June 1995.

As I said in my letter included with the lastissue, I m deeply honored to be editing Nyame

A k u m and hop to continue in the fine traditionof the first four editors: Peter Shinnie, NicholasDavid, David Lube11 and John Bower. The factthat thr of the four re based in the province ofAlberta, as I am, means that to some extent thebulletin has come home. I would also like to reit-erate John Bower s call for submissions. This isyour publication, and is unique in the broad rangeof African topics it includes-everything from cul-tural origins in the Oldowan to historic and eth-noarchaeological subjects. Working together, we

can make it a major source for the exchange ofinformation about researching the African past.


2/62

NYAMEAKUMA No. 4 December 994

Historical-Archaeological investiga-tions at the Bibease plantation sitenear Abokobi Eastern Accra PlainsGhana

w Bredwa-MensahDepartment of ArchaeologyUniversity of GhanaPO. Box 3Legon, Ghana

In March and April 1994, archaeological andhistorical research was conducted at Bibease, anearly nineteenth century Danish plantation site.This project was conducted as part of a larger

research program, Slavery and the DanishPlantation Archaeological Project initiated in1992. The field research was directed by thewriter, assisted by a crew of technical men con-sisting of Bosman Murey, Armah-Tagoe, R.K.Nobo and Ben Avorke, all staff of the Departmentof Archaeology, Legon. Other participants in theprogram were Rowland Apentiik, who representedthe Ghana Museums and Monuments Board, eightfinal year archaeology students and ten excavationlaborers recruited from the nearby Abokobi and

Sesemi villages.

Site location and historical background

The Bibease plantation is located in thefoothills of the Akuapem ridge (Figure I), near thevillage of Abokobi about 26 km north of FortChristiansborg, the headquarters of the Danishsettlements on the Gold Coast (Ghana). The east-em portion of the Akuapem ridge is characterizedby an escarpment which drops abruptly from

about 350 m above sea level in places to the low-lying and gently undulating Accra Plains (Dickson1972:8). It is in the gently rolling Accra Plainsthat the ruins of the Bibease plantation are locat-ed.

During the late eighteenth and early nine-.teenth centuries, the anes established plantation

agriculture in south-eastern Ghana (Jeppesen1966; Dickson 1971: 128; Kwamena-Poh1972:47). This was in response to the DanishRoyal Government's decision to abolish the slavetrade in 1792 (Norregard 1966). ibease was oneof the plantations established by the Danes to pro-duce agricultural products for export to Denmark.The plantation was started by a private trader,Peder Meyer, in the early years of th nineteenthcentury. He cultivated cotton, coffee, oranges,tamarinds, and other useful crops with the assis-

tance of his own private and company slaves. Theplantation included n African village where theslave workers lived and a stone building whichserved as the plantation owner's home.

The ruins of the Bibease plantation buildingwere planned by Henrik Jeppesen in 1960. Theywere relocated and drawn by our research team(Figure 2). The ruins have deteriorated consider-ably in the last 34 years.

The current investigations were undertaken inpursuit of one main objective, namely to obtainarchaeological data that might provide insight intoslave life on the Bibease plantation.

Ground survey and excavation

Oral traditions collected in the Abokobi vil-lage -confirmed the existence of an African slavevillage at Bibease. Local guides pointed out thisarea to our research team. An intensive groundsurvey of the slave settlement revealed the follow-ing features: a large rubbish mound, isolated sur-face finds, mainly from locally produced pottery,and 5 baobab trees, Adasonia digitata that roughlydefined the extent of the slave settlement. Tracesof architectural remains were, however, not foundduring the survey. Excavation was focused on therubbish mound. A 2 x 2 m test unit and a trench3 m wide and 6 m long were dug across themound. The stratigraphy across the moundshowed four main levels that extended to a depthof 100 cm.

Artifact analysis

A substantial number of artifacts were recov-ered, which can be divided into two broad cate-gories: imported European artifacts, and locally


3/62

D

S

ST

N

SOU

H

E

S

N GH

ORT o

CASTLE

O PLANTATON

ODeF

e

Bro

e

Km

ja

y

n


4/62

NYAME AKUMA No 42 ecember 1994


5/62

NYAME AKUMA No 42 December 994

included items such as pottery, smoking pipes,beads, gunflints, cowries, bottle glass and metalobjects typical of late 18th and 19th centuryEuropean trade goods. The European ceramic ves-sels recovered included: a banded white waremug, two undecorated pearlware bowls and oneenamelled banded yellow ware bowl. A piece ofchocolate brown glazed ceramic jug was alsorecovered. These compare well to English typesexcavated by Chris DeCorse from 18th-19th Ccontexts at the Elmina old town, which are on dis-play in the museum of the Department ofArchaeology, Legon.

A large number (n=170) of imported claysmoking pipe fragments were recovered. A pre-liminary analysis based on criteria described byWalker (1975: 165-193) indicated that the pipeswere mainly from Holland and Britain. The Dutchpipes were characterized by small letters (e.g. Wand L or numbers (eg. 3 and 16) surmounted by acrown motif. There were also pictorial marks suchas the clover leaf and a shield with two rows ofstars representing the Gouda coat of arms. OneEnglish pipe was inscribed with the maker s name

and place of manufacture, W MORGAN LIVER-POOL, on the stem. All the smoking pipes aredated to the 18th-19th centuries.

Twenty beads were excavated. They includeda small number of European-made polychromeglass beads. Six of the beads were the muchdebated blue aggrey or akori beads. A single smallreddish-orange carnelian bead was found. Today,carnelian beads are produced in the Cambay andKhambat regions of India. They are known tohave been exported to West Africa via theMediterranean coast, the Horn of Africa and EastAfrica. Fifty cowrie shells representing twospecies (Cypraea moneta and Cypraea annulus)were recovered. Both types inhabit the IndianOcean (Edmunds 1978:36). Between the late 17thcentury and the early 19th century, large quantitieswere brought to West African by European traderswhere they served as a medium of exchange (York1972:93-101). Four English gunflints, one ofwhich was the platform type and the rest the

wedge type, were recovered. The presence of gun-flints seems to suggest that the slaves ownedfirearms.

liquor. One neck piece was part of a square bod-ied, mould schnapps bottle. Fragments of metalobjects (n=21) in relatively good condition wererecovered. These included six hand-wrought ironnails, a single hand-forged iron hinge, five ironknives of various shapes and sizes and a singlemetal button. Small lumps of iron slag suggestthat iron working may have occurred at the site.

The locally made materials represented in theartifact assemblage included pottery, faunalremains, daub fragments and stone objects.Domestic pottery provided the bulk of the finds(over 700 pieces). Preliminary analysis indicates

that the vessels represented were pots and bowls.Generally, the sherds were fairly well-temperedand well-fired. The pots were characterized byglobular bodies with angular necks. Bowls weredeep forms with everted or inturned rims whichoften accomodated a ledge around the entire max-imum diameter. Decorations were simple and few.They included simple incisions, punctates, rangeof dots and parallel horizontal grooves on the out-side of vessels. The vessels are similar to thoseproduced by Shai potters about 30 m away, in the

17th to 19th centuries (Quarcoo and Johnson1968; Anquandah 1992:4).

The faunal assemblage included both wildand domesticated animals. Analysis is still goingon, however tentative results indicate that identifi-able specimens included domesticated cattle (Bosspecies), pig (Sus scrofa), sheeplgoat(OvisKapra), and birds, possibly chicken andturkey. Wild animals included the royal antelopeNeotragus pygmaeus), giant rat (Cricetomys gam-bianus) and the grass cutter (Thryonomys swinde-rianus). Bones of marine and freshwater fish werealso recovered. Shells of two larger land snails,Archachatina and Achatina achatina-and a num-ber of molluscs were excavated.

Stone artifacts were mainly milling equip-ment. Two kinds, querns and balls, were recov-ered. The stones from which they were madecame from the nearly Akuapem mountains. Pieces.of clay daub, some with pole impressions, wereexcavated. Others were either too small or too fri-

able, making recovery difficult. These daub frag-ments suggest that the African slaves at Bibeaseprobably lived in wattle and daub buildings.

Bottle fragments (n=36) were also excavated,including four neck fragments. Three of thesecame from case bottles for containing intoxicating


6/62

NYAME AKUMA No. 42 December 994

onclusions

Although analysis of the archaeological datais still underway, some tentative conclusions canbe drawn about slave life on th Bibease planta-tion. The Bibease slaves primarily engaged in cul-tivating commercial crops for export to Denmark.Their daily tasks involved brush clearing, seedplanting, hoeing and harvesting of crops. Despitethe daily slave task which seemed to be backbreaking and time consuming, the accumulateddata seem to suggest that the Bibease slavesenjoyed some free time. The slaves spent their

free time fishing, hunting, collecting, cooking,drinking and smoking. They raised poultry andsmall animals like pigs, sheep and goats to supple-ment their food resources.

References

Anquandah, J.R.

1992 Accra Plains Dangmeland: a case studyin the eclectic approach to archaeologi-cal and historical studies. Archaeologyin hana 3: 1-8.

Dickson, K.B.

1972 Relief and drainage. In D. Brokensha,editor, Akwapim Handbook. Tema:Ghana Publishing Corporation, pp. 8-9.

1981 A Historical Geography of Ghana.Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

Edmunds, J.

1978 Seashells and other molluscs found onWest Afn can coast and estuaries. Accra.

Jeppesen, H.

1966 Danish plantageanlaeg pa Guldkysten,1788 1850. Copenhagen UniverstiyGeographical Institute.

Kwamena-Poh, M.A.

1972 History. In D. Brokensha, editor,Akwapim Handbook. Tema: GhanaPublishing Corporation, pp. 33-57.

Quarcoo A.K. and M Johnson1968 The pottery industry of the Shai people

of Southern Ghana. Baessler Archiv16: 47-81.

Walker, I.C.

1975 The potential use of European claytobacco pipes in West African archaeo-logical research. West Afn can J o u d ofArchaeology 5: 165-193.

York, R.N.

1972 Cowries as type fossils in Ghanaian

archaeology. West African Journal ofArchaeology 2: 93-101.

Norregard, G.

1966 Danish settlements in West Africa.Boston: Boston University Press.


7/62

No 42 ecember 1994YAME AKUMA

NIGERIA

Archaeological survey at Ipole-ljesa,Southwest Nigeria: a preliminaryreport

Akinwumi OgundiranDepartment of Archaeo/ogy/African StudiesCenterBoston UniversityBoston Massachussetts 22 15

U.S.A.

Introduction

The rainforest belt of West Africa provides aunique oppor tuni ty for archaeologica l s tudybecause occu pational continuity in time and spacebetween the late 'prehistoric'/ 'protohistoric' pop-ulations and the present occupants of the region is

often well demonstrated. This situation makesavailable a wealth of oral tradition and ethno-graphic resources which are usually useful notonly for site location but also for unraveling themeanings of material culture and archaeologicallandscape.

Th e present settlement of Ipole-Ijesa (hence-forth referred to as Ipole) in southwest Nigeria(Figure 1) is known in the traditions of the regionas survivor of the capital of a once dominantregional polity in Yorubaland (Smith 1976a:59;Peel 198354). Ipole exists today as a microcosmof its former self, a living settlement in the centerof relics of long gone generations. It lies withinlatitudes 7' 33' and 7' 34' North, and longitudes4 47' and 4' 49 ' East in the heart of the rainforestvegetation of southwest Nigeria, on a sloping ter-rain which rises in height eastwards, rangingbetween 335 an d 41 1 metres. The region aroundthe s i t e i s domina ted by amphibo le andgneisslbiotite schist rocks (Ekanade 1984:260)while the main soil type is the ferm ginous tropicalsoil (Barbour et.al. 1982:23).

The archaeological survey at Ipole w as a pio-neering investigation and it was partly stimulatedby the region's oral traditions. In addition, thelocation of the site in an area archaeologically

known (but less explored) to be of intensiveancient human m oveme nt is itself of significance.

For instance, Ipole lies midway between Iwo-Eleru and Ile-Ife (Figure 1). The former is a L aterStone Age site where the earliest known Negroidskeletal remains, dating to 11,000 years B.P.(?),have been found (Shaw and Daniels 1984:45).The latter is the earliest known Yoruba state withhuman occupation dating back to around A.D.560-800 (Willett 1973:137), and it is famous forits 10th-13th century A.D. naturalistic art in terra-cotta and bronze.

Discussion

Th e reconna is sance su rvey a t Ipo le w asgeared mainly towards the mapping of the maxi-mum extent the site attained in the course of itsexistence. In ad dition, we focused on identifyingcultural features and the collection of movablemate r i a l s fo r p re l imina ry examina t ion . Theessence of these was to prepare ground for futureintensive investigations and to make a start at ten-tative statem ents on w hat the site represents.

Wi th in the l imi t s o f the ob jec t ives andresources of the survey, the exercise was conduct-ed by traversing the landscape on foot with the a idof prismatic compass. At the beginning of thereconnaissance, a datum point was selected (seeFigure 2), the round-about platform at the centerof the extan t part of the site. It is easily accessibleand relatively permanent. An initial familiariza-tion tour of the site revealed that the resourcesavailable (manpow er and finance ) would not make

a systematic survey of the entire site feasible.Therefore, it was resolved to conduct a limitedsurvey. This was done by traversing the site fromthe datum point along eigh t bearings of 360 , 45',90 , 135 , 180 . 225 , 270 , and 315 ' .Measurements were done both by metric tapesand foot pacing.

The following features were identified: defen-sive embankment remains (ramparts), an aban-doned but well preserved house structure, a reli-gious center, expansive house remains in twolocations, as well as the remains of two localindustrial centers. By traversing approximately tothe northwest, northeast, southeast and southwestof the datum point, the remains of two defensiveembank ment systems were recogn ized, each w ithouter ditches. The dense fo rest vegetation did not


8/62


International oundaryite of Investigation

River

y In


9/62



10/62

NY ME KUM No 42 December 1994

peimit complete traversing of the vast outer ram-part. Hence, from each of the four points whereremains of the outer embankment were found,reconnoitering with the aid of prismatic comp asswas done o n the rampart in order to determ ine itsorientation. The maximum distance covered ateach of these four locations varies between 250and 400 metres. The result formed the basis forthe reconst ruct ion of the outer rampar t ( seeFig. 2). On the other hand, despite the visibilityand mobility problems posed by the vegetation,the small scale of the inner rampart made com-plete traversing possible for the determination ofits true shape and size. The plan that emerges forthe two ramparts tally with the usual ellipticalnature of defensive walls and embankments inYoruba areas and indeed in West Africa as a w hole(Smith 1976b: 129). In other parts of Yorubaland,Ozanne (1969:41-43) has demonstrated this circu-lar defensive wall plan to e the case for Ile-Ife;Ojo (1966a:135) has shown the same for Owo;and Agbaje-W illiams (1990:369) for Old Oy o andIpapo-Ile. On the basis of the reconstruction, theouter embankment is found to have a circumfer-

ence of about5

km enclosing approximately anarea of 2 km2. On the other hand, the inner onehas a circumference of 2.4 km and this encom-passes a landm ass of about 0.48 km 2.

The house structure is in a good state ofpreservation. In size, the structure covers a landarea of 429.8 m2. Its construction is in a typicaltraditional architectural style commonly found inthe rainforest of Yorubaland, quadrangularlyshaped, having outer and inner courtyards, withthe rooms forming a ring round the inner court-yard (Ojo 1966a:132). There is as yet no strongindependent mea ns for co nfirming local traditionsthat say that the building functioned as a palace orthe seat of government at Ipole's peak in powerand size. Nevertheless, the claims by informantsthat the outer wall and the building were con-structed at the same time suggests that the 2 mlarge Ipole was administered from this building.The central location of the building in relation tothe outer rampart conforms with the traditionalsettlement spatial configuration in Yorubaland inwhich the king's official residence is alway s posi-tioned at the center of the town (Ojo 1966b:30;Akinola 1967:349). Moreover, between the outerand the inner ramparts, substantial house ruinswere identified in two locations locally identifiedas Ijakuro and Osogbo ruins. The extent of house

ruins in each location was determ ined by 'pac ing'round the boundaries of the built-up areas. Thisgives a circumference of 1.05 km for Ijakuro and0.4 km (400 m) for Osogbo.

An ash mound 7.5 m. in circumference withan height of 1.45 m. lies 200 m away from, and195' southwest of, the datum point. Broken potf r a g m e n t s w it h d y e s t a i n e d i n n e r p a r t w e r eretrieved from the mound. The rimsherds collect-ed were reconstructed to be vats, a kind of longtrunk-deep pot ethnographically known to be awell favored vessel for cloth dying in the Yorubaarea. The ash, the vat, and the dye stain serve as

indicator that the mound area was a dye-makingand/or possibly, cloth-dyeing center. Similarly,iron slag and granite stone anvils along withnumerous metal objects denote a smithing andprobably smelting center. In addition, there is anagglomeration of granite stones, three iron rattles,two iron gongs, and seve ral pieces of iron objects,the location of which is today observed as thetemple of Ogun (the Yoruba god of iron) in Ipo le.

Surface collections were made from fifteenlocations, labeled A to 0 on the s i te map(Figure 2). All these collections came from out-side the present living area. Five categories ofmaterials were found: pottery, grinding stones,cowry and snail shells, sheep/goat bones, and ironobjects including iron slag. The collection wasmade indiscriminately and the pottery objectscon st i tu te 89 .6 of the to ta l f inds . W hat i spresently considered significant about the potterycollection is the almost total absence of maize cobroulette decoration on the potsherds collectedbetween the inner and outer embankments, butfound here only at location L (the Osogbo houseruins) . S tanton and Wil le t t (1963:122) havestrongly, and somew hat convincingly, argued thatmaize was introduced to West Africa from theAmericas in the 16th century A.D. They alsonoted that there were two routes of introduction:across the Sahara and from the West Africancoast. In either case, we do not know how long ittook for the penetration of the crop into the hight ree canopy in ter iors where Ipo le i s located .

Although the pottery collection was arbitrary andnot systematically determined, our inability tocome across this type of decoration at the inter-vening area between the outer and the innerembankments apart from location 0 tentativelysuggests that, most part of this area was occupied


11/62


before the introduction of maize, and/or at a peri-od when the crop was just making an inroad into

the area of Ipole. A related possibility is that, thiswide expanse of land was abandoned and possiblyoccupied at different points in a long stretch oftime.

The cowry shells are another indicator ofchronology. Out of the sixteen collected, only oneis a species of Cypraea moneta while the restbelong to the Cypraea annulus species. Both areIndian Ocean species (Johnson 1970: 17; York1972:94). C moneta is smaller, has an angularoutline and it is native to the Maldive Islands inthe Indian Ocean. On the other hand, C annulusis bigger with a smooth, ovoid outline and it isindigenous to the East African island of Zanzibar.C. moneta was the first to amve in West Africa.They were imported from Asia and theMediterranean world across the Sahara. By the1 lt h century A.D., C moneta was reportedlybeing used as currency in the Western Sudan butwe do not presently know how far they penetratedfurther south into the rainforest region.Meanwhile, it was not until the 17th century thatC annulus was introduced by the Portuguesetraders through the coasts, and by the 19th centuryit had virtually displaced C moneta in West Africa(York 1972:lOO). The distribution of the cowryshells collected is of interest. The only C monetafound came from location B while the othersC annulus were collected from locations A , B ,G , J , K , and L . It is difficult to suggest any

chronological implication based on the only oneC moneta shell but in the light of the wider distri-

bution of the fifteen C annulus cowries, there areindications that Ipole was occupied before the19th century. It is hoped that, the follow-up exca-vations will shed light on the broad aspects of thesite s antiquity.

The limitation of the investigation to surveymakes it impossible at present to know whetherthe two defensive embankments were constructedand functioned within the same period or theyrepresent different phases in the settlement historyof the site. It was, however, the general practice inthe precolonial Yomba towns that two or three cir-cuit of walls were built for fortification purposes(Smith 1976b:132). We do not know what externalthreats necessitated the construction of theembankments at Ipole. Settlement walls andembankments have always been interpreted as

defensive expressions while neglecting their prob-able ideological roles as means of forging social

harmony among heterogeneous populationsbrought together under circumstances of force andconquest. In this light, it may be more rewardingto regard the Ipole walls from these two perspec-tives. Nevertheless, the construction of theembankments at Ipole is a testimony to an appre-ciable degree of political centrality.

onclusions

The presence and abundance of potsherds inalmost every part of the area encompassed by theouter wall suggests a large human populationwithin the walls of the settlement at any particu-lar period. According to Ojo (1966b:23), the sizeof a settlement at a particular time is directlyreflected in the settlement wall in use at the timein question. Using this model, the period ofIpole s apogee referred to in oral traditions maybe that when, at least, the outer ramparts were inuse. While we do not presently know when the

process of this sociaYstate formation that broughtabout a 2 km2 Ipole began, we are also in the darkon how long the hegemony (widely acclaimed inregional accounts) lasted. Meanwhile, by situatingthe result of our survey and the traditions in Ipolewith what is already known of the Ife-Old Oyo-Ilesa-Benin interactions (see Figure 1) in the 16thand 17th centuries, there are strong indicationsthat we are dealing with a site which once attaineda metropolitan status and served as capital of akingdom up till the last decades of the 16th centu-

ry At the point of its eclipse, it was about 2 squarekilometers in size and its outermost rampart wasapproximately 5 kilometers long. From the histor-ical analysis of Peel (1983:19-30), we know thatsometime in the first half of the 17th century therewas a massive migration out of Ipole as a result ofpopular revolt; the Owari dynasty established inIpole lost political and regional hegemonic powersand the regional political center shifted to thenearby Ilesa. One is inclined to suggest that thisevent triggered off repercussions which now

reduced Ipole to a village size of approximately.00407 km2. 4070 m2).

We have been able to make some meaningout of the survey at Ipole because of the integra-tion of local voices (in the form of oral traditions)within a broad regional perspective. This is a nec-


12/62

NYAME A KUMA No 42 December 994

essary step, an approach that archaeologists work-ing in sub-Saharan Africa are increasingly realiz-

ing Schm idt 1983), especially in situations wherethere is continuity in traditions between the pastbeing studied and the present. The usual divisionbetween the past and the presen t considerably nar-rows down as we appreciate the value of the latterin en riching our understanding of the former. Thenext phase of investigations will address the issueof chronology not only in terms of establishingthe antiquity of the site but in giving us a lead inthe reconstruction of the settlement history ofIpole. The chronology will alsobe related to those

of Ife and the Old Oyo areas where state forma-tion processes were activated by at least the 10thAkinjogbin and Ayandele 1980: 124) and 15th

century A.D. respectively Babayemi 1968:8-11).Such regional contextualization will stimulatequestions and answers on the nature of interac-tions among po lities in pre-colonial Yombaland.

cknowledgements

I am indebted to both Dr. Babatunde Agbaje-Williams and Mr. Hassan Raji for their efforts inintroducing me to the site. The hospitality of theOgboni of Ipole, Oba Adelegan Popoola and theSajuku of Ipole, Chief Edward Fadipe during thefield investigation is h ighly appreciated. Finally, Ithank Professor Bassey Andah for his suggestionsin the course of the research.

References

Agbaje-Williams, B.

1990 Th e ru ins of nor thwest Yorubaland.Journal of Field Archaeology 17 3):367-373.

Akinjogb in, A. andE. Ayandele1980 Yombaland up to 1800. In 0 .Ikime, edi-

tor, Groundwork of Nigerian History.Ibadan: Heinemann Educational BooksNigeria) L td.

Akinola, R.

1967 Urban tradition in Yorubaland.NigeriaMagazine 95: 344-350.

Babayemi, S.

Barbour, K., J Oguntoyinbo,J Onyemelukwe,and J Nwafor

1982 Nigeria in Maps. I b a d a n , N i g e r i aPublishers Services L td.

Ekanade,0

1984 A socio-geographic analysis of the pre-sent Ijesaland. Nigeria Magazine 148:25-38.

Johnson , A.1970 Th e cowry currenc ies of West Africa.

Journal of Afncan History 11: 17-49.

Ojo, G.J.A.1966a Yoruba Culture A Geographical

Analysis. Ife and London: University ofIfe and University of London Press Ltd.

1966b Yoruba Palaces Study of Afins ofYorubaland. London: Univers i ty ofLondon Press Ltd.

Ozanne, P.1969 A new archaeolog ical survey of Ife.Odu

1: 28-46.Peel, J.D.Y.1983

Schmidt,1983

Ijeshas and Nigerians TheIncorporation of a Yoruba Kingdom1890s-1970. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

An alternative to a strictly materialistperspect ive : a review of h is tor ica l

archaeology, e thnoarchaeology, andsymbol ic approaches in Af r i canArchaeology. American Antiquity 48 1):62-79.

Shaw, T and S G. H. Daniels1984 Excavations at Iwo Eleru Ondo State

Nigeria. A Monograph o f the Wes tAfrican Journal of Archaeology, vol. 14.

Smith, R. S.1976a Kingdoms of the Yoruba. London.1976b Walfare and Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial

West Africa. London: Methuen and Co.Ltd.

1968 Oyo ruins.African Notes 5: 8- 11.


13/62

NYAMP AKUMA

Stanton, W. and F. Willett1 3 Archaeological evidence for changes in

m ize type in West Africa: an experi-ment in technique. Man 58(150):117-123.

Willett F

1973 Archaeology. In S. Biobaku, editor,Sources of Yoruba History London:

xford University Press

No 4 a m b e r 994

York, R.1972 Cowries as type fossils in Ghanaian

Archaeology. West African Jorcrnal ofAmhaeology 2: 93 102.


14/62


Gash Delta Archaeological Project:1991 1992-93 1993-94 field seasons

Rodolfo Fattovich, Andrea Manzo and DonatellaUsaiDipartimento di Studi e Ricerchesu Africa ePa ArabiIstituto Universitario Orientale80134 Napoli, Italy

Introduction

The Italian Archaeological Mission in Sudan(Kassala) of the Istituto Universitario Orientale,Naples, conducted the fifteenth, sixteenth, andseventeenth field seasons at the site of MahalTeglinos (Kassala) in October-November 199 1,December 1992-January 1993, and December1993-January 1994 respectively. The 1991 and1992-93 seasons were personally directed by RFattovich. In the 1993-94 season, Dr. LivioCrescenzi was the field-director in the absence ofR. Fattovich. Systematic excavations at MahalTeglinos started in 1984, as part of the GashArchaeological Project in progress since 1980under the direction of Rodolfo Fattovich (seeFattovich, Marks and Ali 1984; Fattovich, Sadrand Vitagliano 1988; Fattovich 1989a, 1989b,1989c, 1991a. 1991b).

Mahal Teglinos is located in a small valley atthe northern end of Jebel Taka, near Kassala. Thesite occupies a surface of about 11 hectares, witha stratified archaeological deposit of 220 cm. Thearchaeological investigations at this site revealedthat it was frequented in the 6th millennium B.C.,was occupied mainly in the 3rd-2nd millenniaB.C., and was used as a cemetery with tumuli inthe 1st millennium A.D. (Fattovich 1993).

Two main periods of occupation of the sitewere recognized. They are related to two differentcultural units, genetically linked to each other:Gash Group (c. 3000-150011400 B.C.) and theJebel Mokram Group (c. 1400-800 B.C.). The for-mer can be ascribed to pastoral people, most like-ly cultivating cereals, with a quite complex socialorganization. The latter can be ascribed to agro-

pastoral people, cultivating sorghum, with potterypartly similar to the Pan-Grave Culture

(Fattovich 1989a, 1989c, 1991a; Sadr 1991).The Gash Group occupation of the site, up to

10 hectares in size, consist s of a stratifiedsequence of settlements associated with cemeter-ies marked by monolithic stelae (Fattovich andVitagliano 1987; Fattovich 1989c, 1989d, 1990).Five phases of development of the Gash Groupwere distinguished in the stratigraphic sequence:1. Proto-Gash Group, c. 3150-3000 B.C.; EarlyGash Group, c. 3000-2300 B.C.; Middle GashGroup, c. 2300- 1900 B.C.; Classic Gash Group, c.1900-1700 B.C.; Late Gash Group, c. 1700-150011400 B.C. (Fattovich 1993).

The Jebel Mokram occupation consisted of asettlement, up to 4 hectares in size, located at thenorthwestern side of the site. So far, only testexcavations were conducted at this area. A fewburials possibly associated with this occupationwere discovered in the central sector of the site(Fattovich 1989 ~) .

1991 1992-93 and 1993-94 Excavations

Five excavation units were investigated inthese seasons: 1. squares BSQBIC-BSQGIH; 2

squares BSPEIBSPJ-BSQAIBSQF and BSQK; 3.squares BQUV-Y, BVAA-T); 4. squares BPLF-Z,BPQA-E; 5 . K 1 V. The excavat ion unitsBSQBIC-BSQGIH, BSPEIJ-BSQAIF-BSQK,BSQUV-Y and BVAA-T, and BPLF-Z andBPQA-E are located in the center of the site, themain area of Gash Group occupation. The excava-tion unit K 1 V is located at the western side ofthe site, in the area of the Jebel Mokram Groupoccupation. The former three excavation unitswere marked in conformity with the 'AAAA' gridsystem adopted by the Mission in 1985. The unitK 1 V was not included in the AAAA grid, as itwas just a stratigraphic test excavation. The strati-graphic excavation was conducted in each unit inconformity with the 'Stratigraphic Unit' (SU) pro-cedure suggested by E.C. Harris (1979).

1. Trench BSQBIC-BSQGIH. This excavationunit, 4 x 4 m in size, was opened in 1991 toextend the investigation of the spatial organi-zation of the Late Gash Group settlement(Fattovich 1989c, 1993). The excavation wasconducted to a depth of 0.40-0.45 m underthe supervision of Donatella Usai. Two main


15/62


occupational levels were revealed in a matrixof very soft eolian deposit. The upper level

consisted of a sequence of four layers withdifferent concentrations of artifacts. Theymight e either depositional subphases of oneoccupational level or very eroded distinct liv-ing floors. The lower level, about 0.10 mthick, was marked by the occurrence of possi-ble irregular structures made of a harder soilmixed with very small fragments of pottery.A stone cairn lying on this level confirmedthat it was a living floor. Both levels dateback to the Late Gash Group phase, on the

pottery evidence.2. Trench BSPEIJ-BSQAIF and BSQK. The

excavation of this unit, 4 x 4 m in size with anextension of 2 x 2 m to the south, was con-ducted under the supervision of DonatellaUsai in 1989, 1991, 1992-93, and 1993-94Fattovich 1990). This trench was opened to

provide a correlation between the 1987 strati-graphic sequence in the settlement area andthe 1988-1989 one in the stelae field

Fattovich and Vitagliano 1987; Fattovich1990). In 1991 the excavation was resumed atan average depth of 1.0 m. The upper part ofthe deposit consisted of a sequence of livingfloors, dating to the Late Gash Group, ClassicGash Group, and Middle Gash Group. t thebase of the sequence a burial was found,apparently not associated with stelaeFattovich 1990). The lower part of the

sequence excavated in the last three seasonsconsisted of:

1. A living floor, with a circular arrange-ment of pits postholes?) filled with gran-ite stones, dating to the Middle GashGroup phase.

2. A formal cemetery beneath the livingfloor, with ten graves often cutting eachother in an area of 2 x 4 m, dating to theEarly Gash Group phase.

3. A living floor with a few fireplaces and a

possible mud structure, dating to theEarly Gash Group phase. The mud struc-ture was heavily disturbed by the latergraves.

4 A thick, almost sterile stratum.

living floor with many postholes sug-gesting two possible circular huts side by

side, and three different phases of hutrebuilding. The postholes are 0.10 to over0.30 m in diameter, and rounded orsquared in section; two are filled withash or carbonized wood. This living floordates to the Proto-Gash Group phase.

A granitic sterile stratum at the base ofthe stratigraphic sequence c. 2.70 m indepth).

The evidence of graves suggests that thearea was used as a burial ground for a rela-tively long time. Four grave levels, with aspecific burial orientation, were made evi-dent. The graves apparently had no super-structure. No grave goods were associatedwith the single burials. The upper level con-sisted of one grave burial 58). This gravewas well plastered and covered at the topwith burnt clay. The body had a straight pos-ture with W-E main axis and head to the W,facing to the S. The right rm was flexed at aright angle over the pelvis.

The second level consisted of four gravesburials 62,64,65,67) . Graves 62,64, and 65

were oriented to NW-SE, grave 67 to NE-SW.The burials exhibited different body posturesand orientation: 1) straight posture, with SE-NW main axis, head to the SE burial 62); 2)straight body posture with NW-SE main axis,head to the NW burial 64); 3) flexed bodyposture with SE-NW main axis, head to theSE burial 65); 4) straight body posture withSW-NE main axis, head to the SW. The thirdlevel consisted of three graves burial 60, 61,63), with W-E main body axis and head to thewest. A slightly different body posture wasrecorded: 1) straight body with right rm at aright angle over the pelvis burials 60, 63); 2)straight body with slightly flexed legs andboth hands under the head burial 61). Thelower level consisted of two graves burials66, 68), with different body postures and ori-entation: 1) body with flexed legs, pronechest and straight arms, NW-SE main axis,and head to the northwest burial 66); 2) bodywith supine body and flexed legs in a hole ofthe pit, S-N main axis, and head to S burial


16/62

NY ME KUM No 4 2 December 994

68) . Both bodies were covered wi th redochre, ma ybe originally applied to a cloth.

3. Trench BSQV-Y and BVAA-T. This excava-tion unit, 10 x 10 m in size, was opened in1992-93 to test an area where 172 Egyptiansherds were collected on the surface in the1991, about 80 m to theW of the main stelefield investigated in the previous seasonsManzo 1993). The excavation of this unit

was condu c ted under the superv i sion o fR o d o l f o F a t t o v i c h , A n d r e a M a n z o a n dAminata Shacko. Six collapsed tumuli werevisible on the surface along the eastern andnorthern side of the unit. A tumulus at the NEcom er w as investigated in order to date thesestructures. This was a stone cairn, 44.5 m ind iamete r, cover ing a pea r- shaped p i t ,1.1011.20 m in diameter at the opening and1.14 m deep. The pit was partly closed withan oval schist s lab at a depth of 0.60 m.Heaps of bo nes from two burials w ere foundat the southern edge of the bottom of the pit.The bod ies had a opposite axis, with the headto the northwest and southwest respectively.Only two polygonal stone beads were foundclose to the bodies.

Beneath a superficial stratum of eoliandeposit, the traces of mud, or possibly mud-brick, stiuctures were brought to the light inthis excavation unit. They were included in astratum of clay, most likely due to the col-lapse and decay of the structures. These struc-tures were divided into three or more rectan-gular rooms, c. 3.5 2 m in size, with a wallapproximately oriented to the north. Thewalls were about 0.20 m thick, suggesting alow height and a roof made with light andperishable materials. The floor of the roomswas apparently paved with a very clean sandlayer, c. 0.1010.15 m thick. The rooms wereconnected by a wall, about 0.40 m thick,along the eastern side. Another ruined mudroom was found to the east of the main struc-ture. This room contained fragments of verybig storage pots. The damage caused to theeastern wall of the main structure to lodge abig pot might sugge st that this room was laterthan the former one. The evidence of char-coal, ash es, and burnt clay point to an aban -donment of the annexed room because of afire. The remains of the walls of these struc-

tures were about 0.1510.20 m high. On pot-tery evidence, these mud structures can be

dated to the Late Gash Group phase. Thewalls were damaged by three later intrusiveand very badly preserved burials. One ofthem was the burial of a child with slightlyflexed body on a side and orientation to N-Swith the head facing east and lying on a flatstone.

4. Trench BPLF-Z and BPQA-E. This excava-tion un it, 10 x 10 m in size, was located in thewestern area of the central sector of the site.The excavation was condu cted in 1993- 1994under the supervision of Andrea Manzo andCinzia Perlingieri. A very eroded layer withfire-places and ash concentrations was madeevident immediately beneath the surface sug-gesting a specialized use of this area. Somelate graves with bodies with flexed legs wereapparently associated with this stratum. Thesegraves might date back to the Jebel MokramGroup phase. Beneath this sub-superficialstratum, there was a layer with several stelae

associated with pits. The stelae are similar tothose of the main s te lae f ie ld a t the s i teFattovich 1989d). The bottom of several pits

was cut in the bedrock. Thirty graves wereexcavated, and eleven more were recordedout of the unit. Many graves cut each other,suggesting an intensive andlor very longfunerary use of the area. The graves were notd i rec t ly a s soc ia t ed wi th the s t e l ae . Onaccount of the soft soil texture, erosionalprocesses and grave concentration, the origi-

nal shape of the pits was recognized only atthe bottom. The pits were 0.40-0.60 m deep,and oval or quite elonga ted in shape.

Most graves contained a single burial,usually on the back with straight arms andlegs. Two burials had a bended right rm withthe hand on the left forearm. The head wasoriented to the east or north, save for threeburials with the head to the west. The lattergraves were, apparently, the oldest ones. Twograves contained a double burial. The upperpart of the skeleton of an adult and the headof a child were recorded in one of them. Anadult with the head to the east and a possibleyoung subadult with the head to the westwere buried in the other one. Thirteen burialscontained grave goods, mainly pots an d a few


17/62


personal ornaments. Fourteen pots come fromeleven tombs, found near the head or the legs.

The pots were open bowls and closed big jarswith an everted rim. Some fish bones andseeds provisionally identified as Zizyphuswere found in a jar. l k o bodies were adornedwith cowrie shells around the head. Cowrieshells were also used to make anklets. Otherpersonal ornaments, i.e. bracelets, necklaces,lip-stugs, and earrings were made of semi-precious stones. Most likely, this area startedto be used as a funerary area in the Classic orearly Late Gash Group phase, and continued

to be used in the Late Gash Group phase.K 1 V. This excavation unit, 5 x 5 m in size,was opened in 1991 in the western sector ofthe site to make evident a possible JebelMokram Group occupational level visibleelsewhere in natural sections. The unit wasnot included in the AAAA grid system. Theexcavation was conducted under the supervi-sion of Andrea Manzo. Beneath an almoststerile superficial stratum of eolian deposit

and granite fragments, about 1 m thick, thestratigraphic sequence consisted of: 1. A veryeroded living floor with a few typical JebelMokram Group sherds. 2. A layer with bigfragments of burnt plaster and ashes, ascrib-able to a collapsed structure dating back tothe Jebel Mokram Group. 3. A well preservedliving floor with evidence of postholes, burntstones, and potsherds, and a large pit in theeastern sector of the unit. The pit was proba-bly used as a granary, as it contained some

seeds provisionally identified as Zizyphus.The pottery from this level is transitionalbetween the Gash Group and Jebel MokramGroup.

eneral Remarks

The 1991, 1992-93 and 1993-94 field seasonsat Mahal Teglinos expand our knowledge of thedevelopment of the Gash Group and JebelMokram Group. The excavation in the unitsBSQBIC-BSQGIH, and BSPEIJ-BSQAJF-BSQKmade evident the occurrence of an Early GashGroup cemetery in the central sector of the site.This excavation confirmed a sequence of alternatesettlement and cemetery phases at this area, as

was already suggested in the 1988 and 1989 fieldseasons Fattovich 1990).

The mud structures at BSQV-Y andBQAA-T suggest the occurrence of quite complexbuildings with storage rooms in the Late GashGroup phase. The collection of 172 Egyptiansherds on the surface in this area was another rele-vant result. The burials from the cemetery in theunit BPLF-Z and BPQA-E point to the emrging ofmore accentuated hierarchical society in the LateGash Group phase. Finally, the occurrence of aGashtJebel Mokram Group phase at K 1 V mightconfirm that the Pan-Grave elements of the JebelMokram Group were intrusive in the region.

References

Fattovich, R.1989a The Late Prehistory of the Gash Delta

Eastern Sudan). In L. Krzyzaniak, edi-tor, The Late Prehistory of the NileBasin and the Sahara. Poznan, pp. 481-498.

1989b The Gash Delta between 1000 B.C. andA.D. 1000. In S. Wenig and S.Donadoni, editors, Studia Meroitica

984 (Meroitica 10 . Berlin, pp. 797-816.

1989c I1 sit0 protostorico di Mahal Teglinos,presso Kassala Sudan Orientale),Rivista di Antropologia 57: 221-238.

1989d The stelae of Kassala: a new type offunerary monuments in the EasternSudan. Archaeologie du Nil Moyen 3:55-63.

1990 Gash Delta Archaeological Project:1988-1989 Field Seasons. NyameAkuma 33: 16-20.

1991a Ricerche archeologiche nel delta delGash Kassala) 1980- 198 un bilanciopreliminare. Rassegna di Studi Etiopici33: 89-130.

1991b At the Periphery of the Empire: TheGash Delta Eastern Sudan). In W.V.Davies, editor, Egypt and Afn ca: Nubiafrom Prehistory to Islam. London, pp.40-47.


18/62

NY ME KUM No. 42 December 1994

1993a Excavations at Mahal Teglinos (Kassala)1984-1988. A Preliminary Report. Kush16: 225-287.

1993b The Gash Group of the Eastern Sudan:an outline. In L Krzyzaniak, M.Kobusiewicz and J Alexander, editors,Env i romen ta l Chan ge and HumanCulture in the Nile Basin and NorthernAfn ca Until the Second Millennium B.C.Poznan: Poznan ArchaeologicalMuseum, pp. 439-448.

Fattovich, R., A.E. Marks and A.M. Ali

1984 The archaeology of the Eastern Sahel:preliminary results. The Af r i canArchaeological Review 2: 173- 188.

Fattovich, R., K. Sadr and S. Vitagliano

1988 Societh e territorio nel delta del Gash(Kassala, Sudan orientale) 3000 a. Cr.-3001400 d. Cr. Africa (Roma) 43: 394-453.

Fattovich, R. and S. Vitagliano

1987 The Gash Delta Archaeological Project:1987 Field Season. Nyame Akuma 29:56-59.

Harris, E.C.

1979 Pr inc ip l e s o f Archaeo log ica lStratigraphy. London.

Manzo, A.

1993 Note sur quelques tessons Cgyptiensdtcouvertes pr s de Kassala (Sud-Est duSudan). Bulletin de Liaison du Groupe

International d Etude sur la CeramiqueEgyptienne 17: 41 46.

Sadr, K.

1991 The Deve lop men t o f Nomad i sm inAnc ien t Nor theas t e rn Af r i ca .Philadelphia.

Ancient Fields and Agricultural sys-tems: New work on the NyangaTerrace Complex

Robert SoperDepartment of HistoryUniversity of ZimbabwePO Box MP 167Mount Pleasant Harare Zimbabwe

Introductory note by John Sutton, BritishInstitute in Eastern Africa)

The study of ancient fields, wherever they arevisible on the African landscape, in the form ofhillside terraces or occasionally as part of an im-gation system, has not been exploited as keenly asit deserves for reconstructing the history of agri-cultural techniques and farming practices. On

account of misconceived and romantic ways inwhich these features, real and imagined, weremanipulated earlier in this century for establishing'culture-historical' theories of widely diffused'ancient civilizations' across the continent, theywere for a while regarded with suspicion in main-stream archaeological circles. Recent work hasbeen differently focused and essentially compara-tive, and not concerned primarily with issues oforigins or diffusion. The emphasis is now onreconstruction of the fields, the cultivation tech-

niques and the agricultural systems of which theyformed part. A 'statement of intent' of this newapproach was included in Nyame Akuma 22(1983); while a fuller account of new observationsand interpretations, notably of the irrigationworks at Engaruka in a dry stretch of the EasternRift Valley (in what is now Tanzania Maasailand)as well as of the (1)Nyanga terracing (of easternZimbabwe), was published in the Journal ofAfrican History XX 1984, pp.25-41). The sub-ject was further explored in a colloquium on 'The

history of African agricultural technology andfield systems', arranged by the British Institute inEastern Africa at the Pitt Rivers Museum inOxford in 1988, the proceedings of which formeda special volume of Azania XXIV for 1989). That


19/62


colloquium was intended not merely to review thesubject but equally to chart new directions ofresearch. In particular, the extensive and impres-sively preserved terraced fields of the Nyangamountains, togethe r with various associated settle-ments and other archaeological remains there,w h i c h w e r e a l r e a d y k n o w n ( f r o m R o g e rSumm ers work of the 1950s) to have been aban-doned m ore than two centuries ago, were so obvi-ously awaiting renewed investigation using mod-e m methods an d in the co ntext of current knowl-edge. Accordingly, the Bri t ish Inst i tute, withencoura gem ent f rom bo th the Unive rs ity o f

Z imbabwe and the Z imbabwe Museums andMo num ents , approached the Rhodes Trus t inOxford for a special grant for a new round ofintensive research at N yanga, as a contribution tothe study of Africa n agricultural history generally.This being generously awarded to the Institute bythe Trustees, the project took off early in 1993,with Robert Soper of the University of Zimbabweaccepting the role of field director, and with thefull support of the Museums and Monumentsaswell as of the University itself and its History

Dep artment. Staff and students of both institutionsare cooperating in different aspects of the project,in particular Steve Chirawu of Mutare Museumwho is working mainly at the celebrated Ziwa(formerly Van Niekerk) ruin complex in theNyanga lowlands. In the progress report whichfollows Robert Soper explains salient results andnew issues emerging at this stage of the project.

Progress report by Robert Soper

The enormous extent of abandoned terracedfields in the Nyanga hills and their associatedhabitation sites have been known to archaeologysince the beginning of this century. Over fortyyears ago they were the subject of a specialresearch project by Roger Summers and KeithRobinson. Although at that time the study of theAfr i can I ron Age was ve ry rud imen ta ry,Summers volume Inyanga, 1958) remains anexemplary record of research and an invaluable

corpus of data, providing the basis for this newwork on these later Iron Age fields and farmsteadsin the con text of African agricultural history.

The Nyanga terracing extends over 5,000square kilometres-as confirmed by recent surveywith the assistance of the air-photographic cover-

age. Certain other components of the complex,notably the famous pit-structures , extend well

outside this range, as much as 100 km furthersouth. There is a wide altitudinal range from c.900m above sea level to well over 2000 m, w ith com-plementary variation in average annual rainfall,from around 700 mm to over 1500mm here istherefore a wide range of environments, from rymixed woodland with baobabs in the lowlands,through steep escarpments withBrachystegia, tohigh montane grasslands and forest. Terracing israre above 1800 m (w hich is about the currentlimit for the cultivation of traditional crops), but

pit-structure homesteads continue upwards to over2000 m ; moreover, relatively large sites with stonerevetted platforms and walls are found on severalhigh peaks at altitudes around 2200 m.

The archaeological complex comprises thefollowing features the terracing itself in series ofup to a hundred or more on the esca rpments of themain h igh lands and in the lower de tachedfoothills; cultivation ridgeslditches in seasonallywaterlogged vleis; associated stone homesteads,whose form, com plexity and details vary with areaand altitude, which usually incorporate a centralpit or sub -enclosure appare ntly for livestock; moremassively built forts , most of which appear tohave been temporary refuges; walled pathwaysthrough the terraces connecting the homesteads;iron-working sites; the moun taintop ruin com plex-es; and w ater furrows.

The terraces clearly represent a specialisedsystem of fields for hoe agriculture whose con-struction and maintenance involved a high invest-

ment of labour. The cultural or economic motiva-tion for this, the socio-po litical institutions whichsupported it and the demographic implicationsconstitute important aims of the project.

T h e f i rs t p h a s e o f t h e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c hinvolved systematic examination of vertical aerialphotos of the entire area, followed by the selectionof sample areas for ground survey. From thesesurveys it quickly became clear that there is arealand a ltitudinal variation in the distribution of dif-ferent types of homestead s t ructures and anincrease in the size of the pit feature s above1800 m. Some of this variation can probably beexplained functionally, but othe r aspects appear tobe culturally determine d. How m uch of the varia-tion is due to change over time is not yet clear.Summers established a general time range of


20/62


21/62


suggesting perhaps a different political climatewith fewer threats to security, while further west

away from the highlands the presence of largerand substantially walled enclosures up to 50 m indiameter again indicates some socio-political vari-ation. But of course, if we adopt a diachronicview, more of this variation might be consideredto reflect change in time instead. All the same, theagricultural system or systems which are the mainfocus of the research may be expected, as indicat-ed here, to exhibit much subtle variation andadaptation to different gradations of altitude, cli-mate and soil, not to overlook cultural differences

largely independent of environment.As a record of a former rural culture, with

arguably an unusually specialised if not intensiveeconomy, preserved on the African landscape, theNyanga stone remains are virtually unparalleled.Participants at the Tenth Panafrican PrehistoryCongress, in June 1995, will have the opportunityto visit the Ziwa complex and other selected fea-tures and areas of terracing.

CONFERENCE EWS

A report on the Southern AfricanAssociation of ArchaeologistsBiennial Conference:Pietermaritzburg KwazuluMatal

Alan MorrisDepartment of Anthropology and Cell BiologyUniversity of Cape Town Medical SchoolObservatory 7925 South Africa

Pietermaritzburg was the host city for the1994 conference of the Southern AfricanAssociation of Archaeologists. This Natal mid-lands town is the home of the Natal Museum and

its band of very energetic archaeologists. Throughtheir efforts, the conference was treated to a fullscientific program lasting three and a half daysand capped with an excursion through archaeolog-ical and historic sites of northern Kwazulu/Natal.The organizers grouped the presentation papers

into five themes: the origin of anatomically mod-em humans, beyond stone tool typology, interac-

tions, past environments, and research reports.Through these diverse papers, we delegates wereprovided with an introduction to a wide range ofcurrent research in the sub-continent. What fol-lows here are my personal impressions of many ofthese papers and also notes about the excursionand some of the social events.

Over the past few years, interest in the bio-logical aspects of the study of prehistory

palaeoanthropology/osteology, erogenetics, bio-chemistry of human bone) has become moreprominent in the Association and this year theorganizers decided to devote the first theme of theconference to a biological discussion of the

Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans .Capably chaired by Francis Thackeray of theTransvaal Museum, this was a full session inwhich nine speakers participated, including threefrom overseas. Francis himself began the morningwith a theoretical paper asking what is anatomi-cally modern Homo sapiens? . Francis' centralissue was the identification of the 'species' levelvia anatomical variation. This was followed by myown paper on the Hofmeyr hominid cranium , awell mineralized specimen from the eastern Cape,which demonstrates an interesting mixture ofmodem and early characteristics. I emphasized theurgent need to t y a bone sample of this individualfor an accelerator radiocarbon date. Lee Berger, ofthe Department of Anatomy of WitwatersrandUniversity, spoke next about the site ofHoedjiespunt at Saldanha Bay, a site identified asa carnivore lair dating to somewhere between100,000 and 200,000 years ago. Hoedjiespunt hasproduced two human molars which are outside themodem size range for African populations.

Archaeologists returned to the debate withtwo papers by Peter Beaumont (McGregorMuseum, Kimberley) and John Binneman(Albany Museum, Grahamstown). Peter presentedhis data for the great antiquity of the Border Cavehominid remains and argued that they may evenbe older than his previous estimate of 120,000

years. John turned to the purely archaeologicaldata to argue that human behaviour in the MiddleStone Age (MSA) is still an underexplored area ofstudy, and that we do not as yet have good accessto evidence of 'social' aspects. The last of thelocal speakers was Himla Soodyall of the Human


22/62


Gene t i c s depa r tm en t a t Wi twa te r s rand whoreviewed the current state of ou t knowledge of themitochondrial DN A da ta for southern Africa.

Much of her paper was spent addressing the criti-cism over the dates of divergence for the originsof anatomically modem humans as published inthe work of Cann et.al. (1987) and Vigilant et.al.(1991). She was very open about the problems inanalysis and emphasized that mitochondria1 diver-gence dates should be accepted with their confi-dence limits. The dates are estimates and are notabsolute.

Three overseas speakers ended the Originssess ion . Su san Pfe i ffe r of the Univers i ty ofGuelph in Canada presented her data on infracra-n ia l robus tness fo r the va r ious MSA Sou thAfricans. Chris Stringer of the British Museumprovided a very nice overview in support of hisAfrican origins model, followed by Alan Thorneof the Australian National University presentingan equally eloquent review of the multiregionalhypothesis.

Although there was no consensus here aboutwhether or not Africa was the ancestral source of

anatomically modern Homo sapiens his collec-tion of papers did show how important southernAfrica is for the understanding of the fossil evi-dence worldwide. Interest in this topic was intenseand the papers were videotaped by Jan Horn ofthe S outh African B roadcasting Corporation whoplans to use some of the footage to update his1990 television series, Origins: the southern evi-dence .

Monday morning provided us with enoughtime not only for the Origins section but also forthe shor t session titled beyond ston e tool typolo-gy . Three pape r s by Pe te r Beaumont , LynWadley and Ian Watts explored information thatcould be obtained from stone tool complexeswhich does not fit the description of 'typology'.Timescales, spatial configurations and a rathertheoretical linkage of red ochre to m enstrual bloodwere the topics.

Tuesday morning began the long series ofpapers on Interactions . M ost of the papers dealt

with contact situations between hunter-gatherersand agro-pastoralists (both black and white), butthere was a wide range in geographic focus. FromEast Africa, Karega-Munene discussed socio-eco-nomic interactions in the Neolithic, while Bernard

Nubi looked a t s imi l a r dynamics am ong thehunter-gatherers of the Highlands of Kenya. Thefocus swung sou th to Bo t swana wi th A .K.

Segobye's paper on changing relations of produc-tion in the Kalahari and then east into Zimbabwewith George Mvenge's analysis of SanIB antu con-tact seen in the rock art sites of that country. Thetheme continued into South Africa with presenta-tions on the northern Cape (David Morris), easternK a r o o ( G a r t h S a m p s o n ) , t h e O r a n g e F r e eStateiTranskei highlands (papers by CarolynThorp and Peter Jolly), and finally amo ngst othersby Anton ia Malan on f r eeb lack- f r eeburgh e rhousehold dynamics in 19th Century Cape Town.

More theoretical aspects (st11 loosely defined asinteractions) were considered in papers by SvenOuzman on local Tswana attemptst claim ear-lier rock rt as their own, Anne Solomon on thegender of figures in rock rt sites, Lita Webley onpastoralists in the Richtersveld, and Aron Maze1on chang ing pa t t e rns o f demography in theBiggarsberg region of N atal.

Research into past environments was thetopic of the the first five papers on Wednesdaymorning. Animal bone and ostrich eggshell pro-vided the biochemical evidence for some workers(Julie Lee-Thorp and Janette Smith), which char-coal (Am anda Esterhuysen and Ed February) andsmall mammal remains (Margaret Avery) provid-ed the basis for other papers.

Tuesday afternoon saw the first of 6 researchreports, which extended over most of Wednesdayand into the final session on Thursday morning.Although these were very disparate papers, theywere an important opportunity for archaeologists

to demonstrate the current direction of their pro-jects, and many student papers were presented inthis sect ion. The range of countries was alsoimpressive with Kenya, Zimbabwe, Tanzania,Mozambique and South Africa represented. Thetime ranged from Acheulean stone tools to rock

rt to Iron Age trade and subsistence patterns, andhistorical archaeology in the Cape. The paperstha t mos t spa rked my in t e re s t were TomHuffman's eloquent exposition of the rise and fallof Khami in Zimbabwe, Mandy Esterhuysen's

pictorial demonstration of the comic strip as amode of a rchaeologica l publ ica t ion , and EdFebruary's description of burial practices amongthe poor of the Vredendal district at the close ofthe last century and the beginn ing of this one.


23/62


Despite the need to fit a total of 62 papersinto the program, the organizers also managed to

fit in time slots for five workshops. The wholeafternoon of the first day was devoted to threeworkshops on archaeological recording centersand cultural resource management. These are hottop ics in the "new Sou th Afr ica" and mostresearchers are concerned about how they storeand disseminate archaeological information sothat it can best be preserved at at the same timemade available to the widest range of the SouthAfrican public. Wednesday afternoon provided theopportunity for two more workshops on topical

issues. Postgraduate student issues were consid-ered first and it was a pleasure to hear the studentinput. Their concerns obviously involve jobs andbursaries, but they are also acutely aware of thedirection of archaeology as a whole in SouthAfrica and many comments were linked to issuessuch as information dissemination and affirmativeaction. The last workshop was of direct impor-tance to me as it concerned the ArchaeologicalAssociation's proposal for a policy on humanskeletal remains. The proposal, drawn up by asubcommittee created at the last meeting in CapeTown, tried to provide gu idelines for the archaeo l-ogist about the excavation and study of humanremains. Experiences in Canada, the United Statesand Australia were considered in the light of theSouth African context. The draft proposal suggest-ed that these studies are extremely important andshould continue, but the professional must be wellaware of their sensitive nature. Judy Sealy, EdFebruary and myself (as the members of the sub-committee which had drawn up the proposals)fielded questions fom the floor. There was quite abit of support and some negative comment, and itwill now be our task to restructure the proposalwith these comm ents in mind.

Our beloved congress organizers did not for-get our social and gastronomic needs. On theMo nday evening our hosts provided a mem orablesupper in the setting of the Natal Museum mam-mal hall, and on Wednesday evening they hostedthe Association dinner at the Imperial Hotel. The

dinner was a more formal affair but it was mel-lowed and then released by the evening entertain-m e n t - a M s k a n d e b a n d f r o m K w a M a s h u i nDurban. These fine gentlemen took the starch outof even the most stuffy delegate, and after the hatwas passed to get the band to continue past their

contracted hour, the party danced until the earlyhours of Thursday morning.

About one-third of the conference delegates(including me) joined in the post-conferenceexcursion which departed Pietermaritzburg atlunch time on Thursday July 21. For this excur-s ion, the organiz ing commit tee of the Nata lMuseum was joined by staff from the KwaZuluMonum ents Counci l. Th e t r ip was by kombi(minibus) north to Zululand and continued untillunch time on Saturday July24 The trip north onThursday afternoon included a stop at the ErskineIron Age rock engravings. These engravings rep-resent the central cattle pen of Zu lu kraals and areprobably the products of Zulu children who usedthem as part of a game. The next stop was atMagogo, an extensive and impressive Early IronAge si te in the Mooi River valley. With theapproach of sunset, we arrived at the bush h uts ofthe Mhlopeni Nature Reserve. This is a privategame reserve which has been established on anon-profit basis for education and hunting. Ourhosts again provided the evening m eal, this time itwas an excellent impala potjiekos (stew cooked inan iron pot over an open fire).

After breakfast, we again boarded o ur kombisand headed north across the Thukela, over thehighlands at Helpmekaar, and down into the val-ley of the Buffalo (Mzinyathi) River. Here westopped at the battlefield of Rorke's Drift where inJanuary 1879 a Zulu impi clashed with the garri-son of the British military post. Travelling on tothe north we reached Aron Mazel's Later StoneAge rockshelter at Maqongo in the B iggarsberg in

time for lunch. Maqongo is in the upper reachesof the Thukela valley and the higher altitude hasproduced an impressive grassland. The viewsfrom the shelter were spectacular. We returned tothe 19th century in the afternoon when we trav-e l led eas t over the grass lands to the s i te ofIsandlwana. Here, on the 22nd of January, 1879,the so ld ie r s o f the Zu lu King , Ce t shwayokaMpande, defeated the invading British army andannihilated almost an entire battalion of the Welsh24th Regiment . We were shown the s i te byKwaZulu Monuments Council (KM C) staff mem-ber Mike Taylor, who took us through the eventsof that day on the location where they occurred.Magic stuff Onward from Isandlwana out partys topped br iefly a t the Late I ron Age s i te ofNgabeni and then, as dark settled on us, down into


24/62


the Mfolosi river valley to the modem town ofUlundi.

The Ondini Historical Complex at Ulundiwas our base for the next two nights. Here theKM has built a tourist camp of traditional Zulustyle huts around a central kraal . Dinner, a braai(barbeque) hosted by the KMC, also provided anopportunity to abuse the grape (and hops) untillate in the evening. The following morning, thesomewhat physiologically battered crew againboarded theri kom bis and began the gruelling fourhour drive north to Border Cave. The whole daywas taken up by the travel north through theLebombo mountains and back again, but it waswel l w or th the journey. In the eas t , theIngwavum a portion of the L ebombos slowly dropoff to the co astal plain, but on the west side, look-ing down into Swaziland, their margin is nearlyshear. Border Cave sits in this shear face andalthough the hike to the site is not difficult, thelast 1 metres o r so is over a naked rock face withonly a few foot and handholds preventing onefrom visiting Swaziland by means of a long dropand no entry visa. Saturday was a great deal qui-eter after the long day's journey and most of uschose an early bed over another night of socializ-ing.

The f ina l morning of the excurs ion wasdevoted to looking at the historical complex ofOndini. The site is on Cetshwayo's 'great place',and the site museum has become a major attrac-tion for local Zu lus and visitors to the region. Theroyal enclosure at the upper end of the site hasbeen reconstructed along with some of the exter-nal palisade and it is poss ible to walk around thesestructures to get a taste of the original scale of theroyal city.

All in all, the Pietermaritzburg conferenceand its post-conference excursion was a greatexperience for us all, but more importantly, theconference was also a sign of the official re-entryof So uth Africa back into the mainstream ofAfrican archaeology. Ten of the delegates werefrom African countries other than South Africa

and it was clear that cross-fertilization will be animportant aspect of future conferences of theSouthern African Arch aeological Association.

Program of the Society of Africanist

Archaeologists 12th Biennial MeetingBloomington Indiana April 28-May 1

Thursday pril 28 1994

1 Plenary Session (General) : African land-scapes and human origins: early tool-makersand their settings (Chair: N icholas Toth).

Craig S. Feibel, Landscape evolution in thePlio-Pleistocene of the Turkana Basin, Kenyaand Ethiopia .

John W.K. Harr is , Towards a region alarchaeological approach to the study of Plio-Pleistocene hominids .

Michael Ro gers, Prel iminary results ofrecent archaeological investigations in theEarly Stone Age at East Turkana, Kenya .

Francis H. Brow n, Possible synchronizationof lake levels in Turkana basin with eoliandus t record in the Arabian Sea .

Nicho las Toth, Where have all the core toolsgone? Raw material, use assemblages, com-position and land-use patterns .

Mohamed Sahnouni, New archaeologicalinvestigations at the Lower Palaeolithic site of

Ain Hanech, Algeria .Ka th leen Kuman and R . J . C la rke ,S t ra t ig raphy and a rchaeo logy o f

Sterkfontein (1992- 1994) .

Open discussion (Richard Klein and Jean deHeinzelin, discussants).

2 Parallel session (General). Models and testsof early hominid behavior. (Chair: JeanneSept).

Jeanne Sept , Plant food distr ibution andearly hominid landscape archaeolog y .

Jole e West, 'And-a-hunting we will g o' :semantic wanderings in search of hominidorigins .


25/62


26/62

NY ME KUM No 42 ecember 1994

Ofer Bar-Yosef, Out of Africa-once, twice ormore? A view from W estern Asia .

H e n r y H a r p e n d i n g , G e n e f lo w a m o n gancient races .

Discuss ion (J . Desmond Clark and F.C.Howell, discussants).

7 Parallel session (General). Zooarchaeologicalapproaches to problems of prehistory (Chair:Richard Klein).

Richard Klein, Investigation of the spec iesstatus of the extinct quagga (Equus quagga) .

Zhuan Dong, Mixture analysis and its pre-liminary application in archaeology .

Christopher J. O'Brien, Dental increments inEast African fauna: implications for evaluat-ing season and prey demography in archaeo-logical assemblages .

Discussion by C urtis Marean.

8. Com puter demonstration.

Jea nne Se pt, 'Investigation Olduvai' com -puter teachinglleaming program .

Friday pril 29 1994

9 Plenary session (Symposium). Diverse viewsof diverse people: an ethnoarchaeologicalperspective of living foragers (Chairs: GregLaden and Susan Kent).

Greg Lade n and Susan Kent, Introductoryremarks : d ive r se approaches , d ive r seresearchers, diverse foragers .

Susan Kent, Factors influencing the mobilityand distribution of cam ps in a recently seden-tary community .

Ma rtha Tappan and Greg Lad en, Forestmammal processing by Efe (hunter-gatherers)and Lese (horticulturalists) of the Ituri rainforest, Zaire .

Greg Laden and Alison Brooks, The effectsof the landscape on the arch aeological recordof foragers: contrasting the Kalahari and theIturi .

Robert Kelly and Lin Poyer, Mikea foraginga n d e t h n o a r c h a e o l o g y i n s o u t h w e s t e r n

Madagascar: a report of reconnaissance .Ted L. Gragson, Landscape ecology of theManxuj: human foragers in the C haco Borealof Paraguay .

Barry Hew lett, Diversity in subsistence andsettlement among African pygmies .

Open discussion (Ofer Bar-Yosef, discus-sant).

10. Parallel session (General). The earliest tool-makers (Chair: William McGrew).

Will iam McGrew, Hominoid elementarytechnology: why don't all wild chimpanzeescrack nuts?

Kevin Hun t, Causes of variation in the aus-tralopithecine toolkit .

M K older and Dale Sengelaub, Problemswith the use of handedness as an indicator ofb ra in o rgan iza t ion in human o r ig ins

research .S. Semaw, J.W.K. Harris, C.S. Feibel, P.Ren ne and R. Bernor, Archaeology of theGona River, West-central Afar region ofEthiopia .

Helene R oche, M zalendo K ibunj ia , J. -P.Brugal and D. Lieberm an, New results aboutthe archaeology of West Turkana, Kenya .

Brian Ludw ig, Handedness and knapping:

their effects on Plio-Pleistocene lithic assem-blage variability .

Pierre-Jean Texier, Technological features ofthe Oldowan assemblage from Y 18 site atNyabusosi (Uganda) .

Open discussion (Nicholas Toth, discussant).

1 1. Parallel session (General). Iron Age develop-ments (Chair: Me m ck P osnansky).

Mem ck Posnansky, Lolui Island revisited .

Randi Haaland, Iron working and potteryproduction at Dakawa: an early Iron Age sitein Tanzania .


27/62


28/62


Janis Klimowicz, A Pleistocene bonebed inNorthwestern Zimbabwe .

Girma Hundie, A culture-history of GuliWaabayo .

L.H. Rob bins and M.L. Mu rphy, Recentarchaeological research at the Tsodilo Hills,Botswana .

Gary Haynes, Sangoan to Late Iron Age:cultures and environm ents in Zimbabwe .

Open discussion (Sally McBrearty, discus-sant).

15 Parallel session (General). More settled soci-et ies: pastoral ists , planters and painters(Chair: Andrew Sm ith).

Andrew Smith and Stephan Woodborne, Theseals of Kasteelberg: seasonal indicators forpastoral occupation in the S.W. Cape, SouthAfrica .

Andrew Black, We don't raise them to beeaten: wild versus domestic fauna in the dietof central Ghanaian agriculturalists .

Mary M.A. McDonald, An early pastoralistsite in Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt .

Peter Breun ig, Gajiganna-new data on earlyse t t lement and environm ent in the Chadbasin .

Darla Gadd, The diffusion of ceramics inEast Africa .

Agazi Negash, Recent archaeological recon-naissance in Tigray (Ethiopia) .

Alinah Kelo Segobye, Seasons of migrationto the west: land use and settlement in prehis-toric farming societies, eastern Botswana .

Karega-Munene, The East African Neolithic:an alterna tive view .

Ann Stahl, New World crops in West Africa:more than just temporal markers .

Open discussion (Fion a Marshall, discussant).

16. Parallel session (General). Later adaptations:hunters, gatherers, and stone tool-makers(Chair: Curtis M arean).

Curtis Marean, Late Quaternary hunters ofthe Athi-Kapiti Plains , Kenya .

Sibel Barut, Middle and Later Stone Agelithic raw material procurement and land usepatterns at L ukenya Hill, Kenya and Nasera,Tanzania .

Antonieta Jerardino, Changing social land-scapes over the las t 4000 years : coas ta lhunter-gatherer intensification in the SouthWestern Cape, South Africa .

Bruce Hardy and Kimmarie Murphy, Starch

residues on stone tools from the Later StoneAge site of Gwisho Springs, Zambia: impli-cations for tool use .

Kathryn Weedm an, Lithic distribution andexchange in Botswana AD 500 to AD 1200 .

Johan Binneman, The Holocene lithic indus-tries at Klasies River Cave5, South Africa: anexam ple of group identity maintenance .

Open discussion (Pierre-Jean Texier and

Stanley Am brose, d iscussants).17. Parallel session (Symposium). Before Takrur:

Th e Midd le Senega l va l ley in the F i r s tMillenium A.D. (C hair: Susan McIntosh).

Hamady Bocoum , Nouvelles recher chesarchdologiques Sincu-Bara .

A l i o n e D e m e a n d R o d e r i c k M c I n t o s h ,Antecedent se t t lement dy nam ics of the

Takrur He artla nd.

D a v i d K i l l i c k a n d H a m a d y B o c o u m ,Ironworking in the Middle Senegal River

valley .

Susan McIntosh, All floodplains are not cre-ated equal: an archaeological assessment ofthe in land Nige r De l t a and the Midd leSenegal valley .

Ibrahima Thiaw and Dan Wolfman, Thedevelopment of an archaeomagnetic curve for

the Middle Senegal Valley .Open discussion.

18. Plenary session (General). Ethnoarchaeologyand actualistic studies: direct approaches to


29/62


understanding the human past (Chair: PeterSchmidt).

Jam es Ellison, After the cataclysm: a re-examination of ethnoarchaeology at Xawaal,Dheri, Somalia .

Leith Smith, Ceramic use-wear analysis: anAfrican case study with Old and New Worldarchaeo logical implications .

B.K. Swartz, Com parison of German colo-nial and present Eton (Cameroon) potteryrouletting .

Imogene Lim, Color my world: the ethnoar-chaeology of rock ar t in Usandawe,Tanzania .

Kofi Agorsah, Termite behavior and settle-ment analysis .

Ma tthew Hill, Pipe dream s: archaeo logical,historical and ethnographic insights intosmoking on the River Gambia .

Pe ter Sch m idt, Putting menstruation backinto the reproductive paradigm in Africaniron smelting .

Open discussion.

1 9 Plena ry Sess ion (Genera l ) . In t eg ra t ingAfrican prehistory with Africa's present andfuture: problems and prospects (Chair: J.Desm ond Clark).

Isaac Debrah, Discovering the past for futuredevelopment .

Gilbert Pwit i , Let the Ancestors rest inpeace: new challenges for cultural heritagemanagement in Zimbabwe .

Discussion (Peter Schmidt, discussant).

Abstracts of the Society of

Africanist Archaeologists 12thBiennial Meeting, Bloomington,Indiana, April 28-May 1,1994

Agorsah, Kofi Portland State University).

Termite behavior and settlement analysis .Using termite behavior and activities in tropicalsoils, an attempt is made in this paper to explain

how the distribution of term ite hills and the gener-al nature of the vegetation of an area may be usedto identify or loca te house of other structural fea-tures of an ancient site. study of the distributionof termite hills in and around the ancient site ofBubuakro in the northern Volta basin of Ghana isused to demonstrate the significance of termitemounds for identification of land use or humanspatial behavior within traditional settlements. Itis considered that the Bubuakro example may beone of many cases that may go a long way to

make identification of the location of features atan archaeological site much easier.

Ahmed, Hussein University of Georgia).

Preliminary report of excavations at Marka insouthern Somalia .Marka i s l oca ted a t abou t 90 km. sou th o fMogadishu, the capital city of Som alia.I excavat-ed at Marka in October-December1988 and againin June-August of 1990 The site was selectedbecause of its historical importance, and its poten-tial for providing evidence of coastal and hinter-land interactions. The Shabelle river runs parallelto the coas t and about 15 km. f rom Marka .Consequently, Marka was a meeting point forfishing comm unities, agriculturalists and pastoral-ists involved in a symbiotic system of exchange.Based on preliminary analysis of the excavationsof Marka, historical sources and oral traditions, Iwill outline a tentative scenario of the develop-

ment of Marka town from a yearly fair center to along distance trade emporium .


30/62

N Y ME KUM No 42 December 1994

Ambrose, Stanley University of Illinois).

The Ple is tocene/Holocene boundary in theCentra l Rift valley, Kenya .A change from open grasslands with migratoryherds in the terminal Pleistocene to more closedhabitats with a predictable food supply in theearly Holocene, should have changed humansocioterritorial organization from highly mobilelarge groups with open terr i tories to smaller,sedentary territorial groups. Lithic raw materialexploitation should have changed to predominant-ly local sources. This change in lithics is evidence

a t N a s e r a R o c k , Ta n z a n i a , a n d i n f a u n a a tLukenya Hill, Kenya.

In the Kenya R ift Valley, lithic source studiesare unavailable and Pleistocene faunal assem-blages are undiagnost ic and undescr ibed. Amicroblade industry with burinoid cores, backedblades, nucleaform burins, scrapers and microper-coirs dates to 13,500 12,500 BP. The EburranIndustry, with large backed blades, scrapers andburins, appea rs by 12,00 0 BP. Eburran faunashave many c losed habi ta t species. 0 1 TepesiRockshelter contains sediments spanning thePleistocene/Holocene boundary. A microbladeindustry with burinoid cores and nuclearformburins, but virtually no other formal tool types,dates to 14,000 BP. Sedimentation occurred with-out occupation. Ephemeral traces of the Eburranoccur after 980 0 BP and intensive Eburran occu-pation begins at 4600 BP. Changes in site usethrough time provide only indirect evidence forchanges in adap ta t ions ac ross the

Pleistocene/Holocene boundary.

Asfaw, Berhane, Gen Suwa and Tim White

Recent palaeoanthropologica1 research in theMiddle Awash, Ethiopia .During the Middle Awash palaeoanthropologica1field seasons of 1992 and 1993 work on the Bouripeninsula resulted in the recovery of a large num-ber of fossil vertebrates, including hominids.Preliminary observations on the elephants, suids,and bovids suggest that the Daka Bed fauna atBouri seems slightly younger than that from theupper portion of the KG A sequence which is ten-tatively correlated to circum-Chari levels in theTurkana basin. The fossils represented in the DakaBeds sample a diversity of aquatic and terrestrial

m a m m a l s t h a t i n c l u d e Equus Hippa r ionDeino the r ium Damal i scus c f . niro s p . ,

Tragelaphus sp. , Elephas recki reckiMetridiochoerus compactus Rabaticeras sp. ,Connochae tes sp. , K o l p o c h o e r u s m a i u sKolpochoerus olduvaiensis Theropithecus sp.,Pelorovis cf. antiquus Giraga sp., Sivatheriumsp., Hippotmgini Kobus sp., Rhinocerotidae andcf. Homo erectus. The vertebrate faunaas a wholed i sp lays a g rea t d ive r si ty and abunda nce o fbovids. Analysis of the Daka Beds fauna will becritical to an understanding of m amm alian evolu-tion in Africa because of its unique temporal

placement between the well represented t imeintervals of cm. 1.5 myr (Koobi Fora, Konso-Gardula) and c. 0.5 myr (Bodo, Dawaitoli). Aminimum of hominid individuals were recov-ered at different localities. Another femur shaft,cranial vault fragments, and a proximal tibia w erefound at other localities. The cortical thickness ofthe b r o b n femur i s grea t. The m ore completefemur belonged to a large individual. The poten-tial for recovery of additional hominid remains inthe Bouri deposits is very high. Very few fossils

were recovered from underlying the H ata Beds atBouri. T he presence ofMetridiochoerus andrewsihowever, indicates that these beds may be ca.2myr. Further intensive survey of these deposits fo rOldowan occurrences is therefore warranted.

Kathryn Bard Boston University).

The 1993 excavations at Ona En da Aboi Zagwe(near Aksum), Ethiopia .

In M ay-June 1993, test exca vations were co nduct-ed by the Oriental Institute, Naples and BostonUniversity at the site of Ona Enda Aboi Zagwenorthwest of Aksum in Tigray province, Ethiopia.This was the first fieldwork done in the Aksumregion since 1974. Test excavations were conduct-ed at two stone burial platforms. One of theseplatforms has been dated by ceramics to the EarlyAksumite period (c. Ist4th centuries A.D.) andceramics which are typologically earlier wereexcavated in the other platform. Associated with

the earlier burial platform was a tightly contrac tedbur ia l wi th a few grave goods , mainly pots .Associated with both platforms were syenite ste-lae, including one in an unusual double form 9m long. Also investigated during this first seasonwas a rock-cut grave of Early A ksumite date w ith


31/62


some grave goods imported from theMediterranean.

Barut, Sibel (National Museums of Kenya).

Middle and Later Stone Age lithic raw materialprocurement and land use patterns at LukenyaHill, Kenya and Nasera, Tanzania .

This paper discusses possible land use patterns ofMSA and LSA hunter-gatherers in semi-aridsavanna habitats in East Africa. Changes in lithicraw material procurement strategies across theMSALSA transition are demonstrated using datafrom Lukenya Hill, Kenya and NaseraRockshelter, Tanzania. The paper analyzes thepossible roles of raw material distributions, designof technology, and mobility pattern in influencingchanges in raw material procurement and useacross the transition.

Bar-Yosef, Ofer (Harvard University). Outof Africa-once, twice or more? A viewfrom Western Asia .

Western Asia provides a unique opportunity toexamine whether aspects of human evolution weredriven by changes in Africa. I hypothesize thatHomo erectus migrated out of Africa not once,but-in several colonizations. These colonizationswere primarily the result of African environmentalchanges following the Olduvai Subchon. NorthAfrican and West Asian colonizations by Homoerectus resulted from shifts in food resource dis-tribution and predatory competition.

The last three decades of lithic researchreveal how artifacts were made, used and aban-doned, known as chaine d'operatoire

nyame akuma issue 042.pdf

Documents