nuclear power plant
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NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
A.N.KHUDAIWALA (L.M.E) G.P.PORBANDAR
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A.N.KHUDAIWALA (L.M.E) G.P.PORBANDAR
• Define and apply the concepts of Define and apply the concepts of mass numbermass number, , atomic numberatomic number, , and and isotopesisotopes..
• Define and apply concepts of Define and apply concepts of radioactive decayradioactive decay and and nuclear reactionsnuclear reactions..
• Calculate the Calculate the mass defectmass defect and the and the binding energy per nucleonbinding energy per nucleon for a for a particular isotope.particular isotope.
• State the various State the various conservation lawsconservation laws, and discuss their application for , and discuss their application for nuclear reactions.nuclear reactions.
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A.N.KHUDAIWALA (L.M.E) G.P.PORBANDAR
All of matter is composed of at least three fundamental particles (approximations):
ParticleParticle Fig.Fig.SymSym MassMass ChargeCharge SizeSize
The mass of the proton and neutron are close, but they are about 1840 times the The mass of the proton and neutron are close, but they are about 1840 times the mass of an electron.mass of an electron.
Electron Electron ee-- 9.11 x 10 9.11 x 10-31-31 kg kg -1.6 x 10-1.6 x 10-19 -19 C C
Proton Proton pp 1.673 x 101.673 x 10-27-27 kg +1.6 x 10 kg +1.6 x 10-19 -19 C 3 fmC 3 fm
Neutron Neutron nn 1.675 x 101.675 x 10-31-31 kg kg 0 0 3 fm3 fm
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Beryllium AtomBeryllium Atom
Compacted nucleus:Compacted nucleus:
4 protons4 protons
5 neutrons5 neutrons
Since atom is electri-cally Since atom is electri-cally neutral, there must be 4 neutral, there must be 4 electrons.electrons.
4 electrons4 electrons
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A.N.KHUDAIWALA (L.M.E) G.P.PORBANDAR
A A nucleonnucleon is a general term to denote a nuclear particle - that is, either a is a general term to denote a nuclear particle - that is, either a proton or a neutron.proton or a neutron.
The The atomic number atomic number ZZ of an element is equal to the number of protons in the of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of that element.nucleus of that element.
The The mass number mass number AA of an element is equal to the total number of nucleons of an element is equal to the total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons).(protons + neutrons).
The mass number A of any element is equal to the sum of the atomic number Z and the number of neutrons N :
A = N + Z
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A convenient way of describing an element is by giving its mass number and A convenient way of describing an element is by giving its mass number and its atomic number, along with the chemical symbol for that element.its atomic number, along with the chemical symbol for that element.
A Mass numberZ Atomic numberX Symbol
For example, consider beryllium (Be): 94Be
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Lithium AtomLithium Atom
N = A – Z = N = A – Z = 7 - 3 7 - 3
A = A = 7; Z = 3; 7; Z = 3; NN = ? = ?
Protons: Z = 3Protons: Z = 3
neutrons: neutrons: NN = 4 = 4
Electrons: Electrons: Same as ZSame as Z
73 Li
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IsotopesIsotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons ( are atoms that have the same number of protons (ZZ11= Z= Z22), but a ), but a different number of neutrons (N). (different number of neutrons (N). (AA11 A A22))
Helium - 4Helium - 4
42He
Helium - 3Helium - 3
32He Isotopes of Isotopes of
heliumhelium
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Because of the existence of so many isotopes, the term Because of the existence of so many isotopes, the term elementelement is sometimes confusing. The term is sometimes confusing. The term nuclidenuclide is better. is better.
A nuclide is an atom that has a definite mass number A and Z-number. A list of nuclides will include isotopes.
The following are best described as nuclides:The following are best described as nuclides:
32He
42He 12
6C136C
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One One atomic mass unitatomic mass unit (1 u)(1 u) is equal to one-twelfth of the mass of the is equal to one-twelfth of the mass of the most abundant form of the carbon atom--most abundant form of the carbon atom--carbon-12carbon-12..
Atomic mass unit: 1 u = 1.6606 x 10-27 kg
Common atomic masses:
Proton: 1.007276 u Neutron: 1.008665 u
Electron: 0.00055 u Hydrogen: 1.007825 u
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2 8; 3 x 10 m/sE mc c
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Recall Einstein’s equivalency formula for m and E:Recall Einstein’s equivalency formula for m and E:
The energy of a mass of 1 u can be found:The energy of a mass of 1 u can be found:
EE = (1 u) = (1 u)cc22 = = (1.66 x 10(1.66 x 10-27 -27 kg)(3 x 10kg)(3 x 1088 m/s) m/s)22
E = 1.49 x 10-10 J OrOr E = 931.5 MeV
When converting amu to When converting amu to energy:energy: 2 MeV
u931.5 c
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NUCLEAR FUELNuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy. The
most common type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo
nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear reactor
The most common nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu. Not all nuclear fuels are used in
fission chain reactionsA.N.KHUDAIWALA (L.M.E) G.P.PORBANDAR
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NUCLEAR FISSIONWhen a neutron strikes an atom of uranium, the
uranium splits ingto two lighter atoms and releases heat simultaneously.
Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction which can release large amounts of energy both as
electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments
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NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released
in fission produce an additional fission in at least one further
nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the process
repeats. If the process is controlled it is used for nuclear power
or if uncontrolled it is used for nuclear weapons
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U235 + n → fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV
If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then the number of fissions doubles each
generation. In that case, in 10 generations there are 1,024 fissions and in 80 generations about 6
x 10 23 (a mole) fissions.
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Nuclear Fission
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Nuclear FusionThe combining of atomic nuclei to form a larger atom is called fusion
Nuclear fusion occurs in the sun where hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium
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4 H + 2 0 e- He + energy11
-1 24
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Nuclear Fusion
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A chain reaction can only occur if the starting material has enough mass to sustain a chain reaction. This amount is called the critical mass.
Nuclear Fission is what occurs in Nuclear Reactors and Atomic Bombs.
The Nuclear reactor is a controlled fission reaction, the bomb is not.
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Review
Nuclear fission:
A large nucleus splits into several small nuclei when impacted by a neutron, and energy is released in this process
Nuclear fusion:
Several small nuclei fuse together and release energy.
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Piecing Together a Reactor1. Fuel2. Moderator3. Control Rods4. Coolant5. Steam Generator6. Turbine/Generator7. Pumps8. Heat Exchanger
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90U (2 ppm)4.5∙109 yr
90Th (6 ppm)14.05∙109 yr
238 23992 94U Pu
99.5% 235
92 U0.7%
Fuels
Natural Elements
233U7∙108 yr
Artificial Nuclides
239Pu24∙103 yr
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Between thorium (Z=90) and bismuth (Z=83), the isotope with the longest half-life is 226Ra (T½=1600 years), and therefore there are no fuel candidates, quite apart from the issue of fissionability. Uranium and Thorium are the only natural elements available for use as reactor fuels. In addition, 233U and 239Pu can be produced from capture on 232Th and 238U in reactors. Of fissile materials, only U is both fissile and found in nature in useful amounts.
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Fuels Few ”natural” nuclides that can be used as reactor fuels
Uranium (Z=92). This is the main fuel in actual use, especially 235U which is fissile. In addition, 238U is important in reactors, primarily as a fertile fuel for 239Pu production, and 233U could be used as a fissile fuel, formed by neutron capture in 232Th.
Protactinium (Z=91). The longest-lived isotope of Pa ( 231Pa) has a half-life of 3.3 x104 yr, and therefore there is essentially no Pa in nature. Further, there is no stable A =230 nuclide that could be used to produce 231Pa in a reactor.
Thorium (Z=90). Thorium is found entirely as 232Th, which is not fissile (for thermal neutrons). It can be used as a fertile fuel for production of fissile 233U.
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Moderators
1H
Widely used
H2O or D2O
2He
Not used
Gas → Press.
3He absorbs
3Li
Not used6Li
absorbs
4Be
Was used
9Be toxic, expensiv
e
5B
Impossible10B
absorbs
6C
Widely used Must be
pure
No use to consider Z > 6
Only D2O and C can be used with Unat
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Moderators
Hydrogen (Z=l). The isotopes 1H and 2H are widely used as moderators, in the form of light (ordinary) water and heavy water, respectively.
Helium (Z=2). The isotopes 3He and 4He are not used, because helium is a gas, and excessive pressures would be required to obtain adequate helium densities for a practical moderator. Moreover 3He absorbs neutrons very strongly (see lecture about detectors)
Lithium (Z=3). The isotope 6Li (7.5% abundant) has a large neutron-absorption cross section, making lithium impractical as a moderator.
Beryllium (Z=4). 9Be has been used to a limited extent as a moderator, especially in some early reactors. It can be used in the form of beryllium oxide, BeO. Beryllium is expensive and toxic.
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CoolantsFunction – transfer heat
Objective: power density, temperatureLimitations: in PWR: below saturation T,
Tin=293, Tout = 315; in LMFBR, ΔT=140; in HTGR, ΔT=500.
After shutdownCoolant is either gas or liquid: H2O, D2O,
He, CO2, Na, Na-K, Pb, Pb-Bi.Coolant is moderatorClassification: LWR, HWR, GR, LMR
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Coolants
•The main function of the coolant in any generating plant is to transfer energy from the hot fuel to the electrical turbine, either directly or through intermediate steps
•. During normal reactor operation, cooling is an intrinsic aspect of energy transfer.
• In a nuclear reactor, cooling has a special importance, because radioactive decay causes continued heat production even after the reactor is shut down and electricity generation has stopped.
• It is still essential to maintain cooling to avoid melting the reactor core, and in some types of reactor accidents (e.g., the accident at Three Mile Island) cooling is the critical issue.
•The coolant can be either a liquid or a gas. For thermal reactors, the most common coolants are light water, heavy water, helium, and carbon dioxide.
•The type of coolant is commonly used to designate the type of reactor. Hence, the characterization of reactors as light water reactors (LWRs), heavy water reactors (HWRs), and gas-cooled reactors (GCRs).
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• Control materials are materials with large thermal neutron-absorption cross sections, used as controllable poisons to adjust the level of reactivity.
• They serve a variety of purposes:
• To achieve intentional changes in reactor operating conditions, including turning the reactor on and off
• To compensate for changes in reactor operating conditions, including changes in the fissile and poison content of the fuel
• To provide a means for turning the reactor off rapidly, in case of emergency
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PWR. The pressurized water reactor accounts for almost two-thirds of all capacity and is the only LWR used in some countries, for example, France, the former Soviet Union, and South Korea.
BWR. The boiling water reactor is a major alternative to the PWR, and both are used in, for example, Sweden, the United States and Japan.
PHWR. The pressurized heavy water reactor uses heavy water for both the coolant and moderator and operates with natural uranium fuel. It has been developed in Canada and is commonly referred to as the CANDU. CANDU units are also in operation in India and are being built in Romania and South Korea.
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Classification of reactorsClassification of reactorsClassification of reactors by purpose:
Power reactors
Research reactors
Material test reactors
Propulsion reactors
Production reactors
Space reactors
Radiation Protection Workshop-Cairo Univ.- NSPA - 15 Jan - 2 Feb, 201218 January 2012
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Classification of reactors (Cont)
Classification of reactors by neutron spectrum:
Thermal spectrumFast spectrum
Radiation Protection Workshop-Cairo Univ.- NSPA - 15 Jan - 2 Feb, 201218 January 2012
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Classification of reactors (Cont)Classification of reactors by coolant
Light water
Heavy water
Gas
Liquid metal
Radiation Protection Workshop-Cairo Univ.- NSPA - 15 Jan - 2 Feb, 201218 January 2012
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Classification of reactors (Cont)Classification of reactors by moderator:
Light water reactors
Heavy water reactors
Graphite moderated reactors
Radiation Protection Workshop-Cairo Univ.- NSPA - 15 Jan - 2 Feb, 201218 January 2012
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Basic Diagram of a PWR
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Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)Direct Boiling10% Coolant =
SteamSimilar Fuel to PWRLower Power
Density than PWRCorrosion Product
Activated in CoreHigher Radiation
Field
GE – ABWR1350 MWe
(3926 MWt)UO2 Fuel60 – yr Service LifeInternalized Safety
and Recirculation Systems
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Classification of reactors (Cont)
Classification of reactors by fuel type
Radiation Protection Workshop-Cairo Univ.- NSPA - 15 Jan - 2 Feb, 201218 January 2012
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Classification of reactors (Cont)Classification of reactors by fertile fuel type
Radiation Protection Workshop-Cairo Univ.- NSPA - 15 Jan - 2 Feb, 201218 January 2012
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Classification of reactors (Cont)
Classification of reactors by fissile fuel balance:
Converter reactors
Breeder reactors
Fuel self-sustained (sustaining) reactors
Radiation Protection Workshop-Cairo Univ.- NSPA - 15 Jan - 2 Feb, 201218 January 2012
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Basic Diagram of a BWR
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Classifications of Reactors
Thermal Reactors and Fast Reactors Reactors designed to operate with slow, thermalized neutrons (to take advantage of increase of cross-sections with neutron energy decrease) are termed thermal reactors. However, it is also possible to operate a reactor with ”fast” neutrons, at energies in the neighborhood of 1 MeV or higher. These reactors are called fast-neutron reactors or just fast reactors. The only prominent example of a fast reactor is the liquid-metal breeder reactor.
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reactors All reactors used today for power generation are HETEROGENEOUS, i.e. fuel, coolant and/or moderator are physically different entities with non-uniform and anisotropic composition.
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STEAM GENERATORS Steam generators are heat exchangers used to
convert water into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor core.
Either ordinary water or heavy water is used as
the coolant.
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STEAM TURBINE A steam turbine is a mechanical device that
extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical
Various high-performance alloys and superalloys have been used for steam generator
tubing.
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COOLANT PUMPThe coolant pump pressurizes the coolant to
pressures of the orderof 155bar.
The pressue of the coolant loop is maintained almost constant with the help of the pump and a
pressurizer unit.
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FEED PUMPSteam coming out of the turbine,
flows through the condenser for condensation and recirculated for the
next cycle of operation.
The feed pump circulates the condensed water in the working fluid
loop.A.N.KHUDAIWALA (L.M.E) G.P.PORBANDAR
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CONDENSERCondenser is a device or unit which is used to
condense vapor into liquid.
The objective of the condenser are to reduce the turbine exhaust pressure to increase the
efficiency and to recover high qyuality feed water in the form of condensate & feed back it to the
steam generator without any further treatment.
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COOLING TOWERCooling towers are heat removal devices used
to transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere.
Water cirulating throughthe codeser is taken to the cooling tower for cooling and reuse
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ADVANTAGES Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). The emissions of
green house gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants to global warming is therefore
relatively little.
This technology is readily available, it does not have to be developed first.
It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant
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DISADVANTAGES The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved
one.
High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security.
The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on
the actual demand.
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DISADVANTAGESNuclear power plants as well as nuclear waste could be preferred targets for terrorist attacks..
During the operation of nuclear power plants, radioactive waste is produced, which in turn can
be used for the production of nuclear weapons.
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What is a CANDU reactor?
CANDU stands for Canada Deuterium Uranium. Deuterium is another name for heavy water, which occurs naturally in all bodies of water. In Lake Huron, it occurs one part in every 7,000. Once extracted, heavy water is 10 per cent heavier than ordinary water due to an extra neutron in its nucleus giving it added weight.
Developed in Canada, the first CANDU reactor came on line in 1962. There are now 22 CANDU reactors in Canada and 17 abroad.
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CANDU Reactor
Heavy-water moderatorNatural-uranium dioxide
fuelPressure-tube reactorCANDU is a PHWR
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CANDU Natural-uranium fuel Heavy-water moderator & coolantCoolant physically separated from moderator Small/Simple fuel bundle
PWR Enriched-uranium fuel Light-water moderator/coolant No separation of coolant from moderator Large, more complex fuel assembly
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Where were the first nuclear power stations sited and when?Issues:Issues:
distance from urban centresaccess to national gridgood water supply for coolingabsence of natural hazardstransport linksproximity to both civil airports and military
installations
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Distance from urban centres and access to the national gridEarly on, everyone knew that radiation was dangerous.
Most of those alive could remember what happened to Japan when the H-bombs were dropped and the devastating after effects.
So long as there were concerns about the safety of nuclear power plants, it was felt that it was essential that they were as remote as possible from the big cities.
However, in terms of cost and efficiency this had a downside.
Remote areas would not have the heavy duty transmission lines necessary to take all the electricity generated by the power station to the grid.
The only feasible way to get it there was by carrying it in huge ugly pylons that stretch far over the country in a visually intrusive way.
These remote areas were often near National Parks. The National parks did not appreciate their presence.
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Distance from urban centres and access to the national grid
But generally the overhead power transmission is very reliable, although overhead power lines are vulnerable to: lightning strikes; high winds; heavy snowfall.
But the cost of burying and the difficulty in repairing underground cables if things did go wrong meant that this means of transmitting electricity almost impossible.
Another problem is that electricity does loose power over distance. So the electricity from these remote sites did not provide as much energy to the public as electricity from a power station nearer to centres of population.
So once a design was tested and deemed to be safe, the inclination was to build the ones that came after closer to centres of population. This cut down on the number and cost of transmission lines and was a more efficient use of the electricity.
But when any new technology was developed, the tendency was again to go for the remoter sites.
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Good water supply for cooling
Because of the heat generated by the process, often more than by coal or gas fired stations, there was a need for vast quantities of water to carry out the cooling process.
Cooling towers had been used for coal fired power stations.
Bigger, tall more intrusive versions would have required for nuclear power, provide the site was near enough to a good water supply, like a large river for example.
The other solution was to put the power station near the sea, where no cooler tower would be needed. The sea would always bring in more water to cool the steam down.
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Transport links
For both the building and maintenance of nuclear power stations, good transport links were a priority.
All nuclear power stations have a rail link, often a side line from a main line not too far away and very often the roads have had to be reinforced to take the heavy loads that enter and leave the power station.
These are massive structures to build, which need very heavy machinery and vast quantities of raw materials to build them.
Once on-line, the fuel rods which are radioactive have to be changed regularly. This was the main use of the railway. It was not acceptable to take these in and out by road as there could accidents or even terrorism attacks were considered.
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Proximity to both civil airports and military installationsWhilst the buildings that house the nuclear
power stations are extremely strong, aircraft crashing into them or stray shells falling nearby was not something the authorities wished to happen.
So military training grounds nearby was a definite NO.
As 75% of all accidents to planes happen close to take-off or landing, nuclear power plants could not be sited under the landing or take-off paths of major airports.
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Absence of natural hazardsRelease of radio active materials was the main
worry, so the buildings containing the process could not be allowed to be damaged by natural hazards, such as earthquakes, fault lines, floods.
In addition places which liable to high winds, extremes of temperature or drought, all of which in excess cause land movements also had to be watched out for.
However, now that sea levels are rising due to global warming, this could be problems for those power stations built near the sea.
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•Recently nuclear power has entered many discussions as world energy needs rise and oil reserves diminish. •Most opponents of nuclear power point to two main arguments: meltdowns and nuclear waste.•Nuclear waste is any form of byproduct or end product that releases radioactivity.•How to safely dispose of nuclear waste is pivotal for the continued operation of nuclear power plants, safety of people living around dump sites, and prevention of proliferation of nuclear materials to non-nuclear states.
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ClassificationsNuclear waste is segregated into several
classifications.Low level waste is not dangerous but
sometimes requires shielding during handling.Intermediate level waste typically is chemical
sludge and other products from reactors.High level waste consists of fissionable
elements from reactor cores and transuranic wastes.
Transuranic waste is any waste with transuranic alpha emitting radionuclides that have half-lives longer than 20 years.
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Low Level WasteLLW
Low level waste is any waste that could be from a high activity area.
90% volume of wasteIt does not necessarily carry any
radioactivity.Split into four catagories: A, B, C, and
GTCC.
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Intermediate Level WasteILW
Intermediate level waste requires shielding when being handled.
7% volume of wasteDependent on the amount of activity it can be
buried in shallow repositories. Not recognized in the United States.
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High Level WasteHLW
High level waste has a large amount of radioactive activity and is thermally hot.
3% volume of waste95% of radioactivityCurrent levels of HLW are increasing about
12,000 metric tons per year.Most HLW consists of Pu-238, 239, 240, 241,
242, Np-237, U-236
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Transuranic Waste TRUW
Transuranic waste consists of all waste that has radionuclides above uranium.
TRUWs typically have longer half-lives than other forms of waste.
Typically a byproduct of weapons manufacturing.
Only recognized in the United States.
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Waste Management (LLW)There are several
options available for the disposal of LLW due to its lack of radioactivity.
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
On-site disposal
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Map of WIPP Facility
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Treatment (LLW)FiltrationIon ExchangeEvaporationIncinerationCompactionSolidification
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Typical LLW treatment facility.
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Treatment
Most common initial treatment of waste is vitrification.Waste is first mixed with sugar and then
passed through a heated tube to de-nitrite the material.
This material is then fed into a furnace and mixed with glass.
The molten glass mixture is poured into steel cylinders and welded shut.
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Treatment (Cont.)Mid level active waste is commonly treated
with ion exchangeProcess reduces the bulk volume of
radioactive material.Typically, mixed with concrete for a solid
storage form.
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Treatment (Cont.)Synroc is a new method for storing nuclear
waste developed in 1978 by Ted Ringwood.Attempts to hold radioactive material in a
crystalline matrix.Currently in use for military waste
management at Savannah River Site.Can hold 50%-70% volume of waste.
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Deep Geological RepositoryMost common method
for handling nuclear waste.
Typically kept separate from actual plants and buried far below ground.
First used in 1999 in the US.
Current research is focusing on Yucca Mountain.
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Yucca Mountain Site
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Reuse of Nuclear WasteResearch is being performed to find uses for
nuclear waste.Caesium-137 and strontium-90 already used
in industrial applications.Some waste can be used for radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTGs). Overall can reduce total HLW but not
eliminate it.
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Nuclear Plant FutureThe countries of the world are each planning
their own course of nuclear plant development or decline
Nuclear power is competitive with natural gas It is non-pollutingIt does not contribute to global warmingObtaining the fuel only takes 5% of the energy
outputPlant licenses have been extended from 20 years
to an additional 20 years
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Nuclear Plant FutureNewer designs are being sought to make them more
economical and saferPreapproval of a few designs will hasten developmentDisposal of high level radioactive waste still being
studied, but scientists believe deep burial would workBecause they are have large electrical output, their
cost at $2 billion is hard to obtain and guarantee with banks
Replacing plants may be cheaper using the same sites and containment vessels
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