NS2PARTTWO:BIOLOGY(FundamentalConcepts,Principlesand

TheoriesofLifeSciences)

MARILENM.PARUNGAO

REQUIREMENTS

•  2EXAMINATIONS– INTROTOHOMEOSTASIS

– REPRODUCTIONTOMAN&ENVIRONMENT

•  GROUPPROJECT– 10‐MINUTEVIDEOOFANASSIGNEDTOPIC

•  QUIZZES,ASSIGNMENTS,SURPRISES

IMPORTANTDATES

•  FEB12:FREEDayforLibraryWork

•  FEB16:ExaminaMonandDeadlineofReportTopics

•  MARCH5:ProjectDay

•  MARCH16:PresentaMoninClass

•  MARCH26:ExaminaMon2

PROJECTGROUPING

•  PLANTGROUP– ACLA–CERVANTOS– CHUAE‐DOMINGO

•  ANIMALGROUP– DULAY‐MANDAC

– MANGUNE‐TAN

BIOLOGYPORTION:NOTALLABOUTMEMORYWORK!!!

NS2LECTURESFOREXAMINATION1

Introduc5ontoHomeostasis

FROMNS2:GEOLOGY

•  Thescenarioforlifewasset:– Atmosphere

– Hydrosphere

THEORIESOFTHEORIGINOFLIFE

•  BiogeochemicalorChemical

•  Abiogenesis(SpontaneousGeneraMon)andBiogenesis

•  InterplanetaryorCosmozoic

•  SpecialCreaMon

BIOGEOCHEMICALTHEORY

•  OriginoflifeonearthistheresultofaslowandgradualprocessofchemicalevoluMonthatprobablyoccurredabout3.8billionyearsago

•  proposedindependentlyby:Oparin,aRussianscienMstin1923andHaldane,anEnglishscienMst,in1928

ALSOKNOWNASTHEORYOFCHEMICALEVOLUTION•  SpontaneousgeneraMonoflife,underthepresent

environmentalcondiMonsisnotpossible

•  Earth'ssurfaceandatmosphereduringthefirstbillionyearsofexistence,wereradicallydifferentfromthatoftoday'scondiMons

•  TheprimiMveearth'satmospherewasareducingtypeofatmosphereandnotoxidisingtype

•  ThefirstlifearosefromacollecMonofchemicalsubstancesthroughaprogressiveseriesofchemicalreacMons

•  SolarradiaMon,heatradiatedbyearthandlighMngmusthavebeenthechiefenergysourceforthesechemicalreacMons

THEORYOFSPONTANEOUSGENERATION

•  Thistheoryassumedthatlivingorganismscouldarisesuddenlyandspontaneouslyfromanykindofnon‐livingmaher

•  OneofthefirmbelieversinspontaneousgeneraMonwasAristotle,theGreekphilosopher(384‐322BC)

LIFEFROMNON‐LIFE???

•  deadleavesfallingfromatreeintoapondwouldtransformintofishesandthosefallingonsoilwouldtransformintowormsandinsects

•  insectsdevelopfrommorningdewandrojngmanure

•  mudoftheNilerivercouldspontaneouslygiverisetomanyformsoflife

•  TheideaofspontaneousgeneraMonwaspopularalmostMllseventeenthcentury

•  Supporters:Descartes,GalileoandHelmontsupportedthisidea

•  VonHelmont:prepareda'soup'fromwhichhecouldspontaneouslygeneraterats–  The'soup':dirtyclothsoakedin

waterwithahandfulofwheatgrains;ifhumansweatisaddedasan'acMveprinciple'tothis,injust17days,itcouldgeneraterats

LIFEFROMNON‐LIFE???

•  ThetheoryofSpontaneousGeneraMonwasdisprovedinthecourseofMmeduetotheexperimentconductedby:– FransiscoRedi,(1665)– Spallanzani(1765)– LouisPasteur(1864)inhisfamousSwanneckexperiment

•  Thistheorywasdisapproved,asscienMstsgavedefiniteproofthatlifecomesfrompre‐exisMnglife

REDI’SEXPERIMENT

SPALLANZANI’SEXPERIMENT

•  placedbrothineightcontainers–  fourwithcork–  fourwithairMghttops–  RESULTS:theairMght

containershadnomicrobes(cloudiness);thefourcorkedvesselsshowedorganisms

–  CONCLUSION:didnotdisprovespontaneousgeneraMonbutstrengthenedthecaseagainstit

PASTEUR’SEXPERIMENT

INTERPLANETARYORCOSMOZOICTHEORY

•  LifehasreachedthisplanetEarthfromotherheavenlybodiessuchasmeteorites,intheformofhighlyresistancesporesofsomeorganisms

•  ThisideawasproposedbyRichterin1865andsupportedbyArrhenius(1908)andothercontemporaryscienMsts

•  Thetheorydidnotgainanysupport

•  Thistheorylacksevidence,henceitwasdiscarded

SPECIALCREATIONTHEORY•  Accordingtothistheory,allthe

differentformsoflifethatoccurtodayonplanetearth,havebeencreatedbyGod,thealmighty

•  Thisideaisfoundintheancientscripturesofalmosteveryreligion

•  AccordingtoHindumythology,LordBrahma,theGodofCreaMon,createdthelivingworldinaccordancetohiswish

•  AccordingtotheChrisManbelief,Godcreatedthisuniverse,plants,animalsandhumanbeingsinaboutsixnaturaldays

SPECIALCREATIONTHEORY•  TheSikhmythologysaysthatallformsoflifeincludinghumanbeingscameintobeingwithasinglewordofGod

•  SpecialcreaMontheorybelievesthatthethingshavenotundergoneanysignificantchangesincetheircreaMon

•  ThetheoryofSpecialCreaMonwaspurelyareligiousconcept,acceptableonlyonthebasisoffaith

•  IthasnoscienMficbasistodate…

MANIFESTATIONSANDCHARACTERISTICSOFLIFE

WHATISTHEDIFFERENCE?

THECHARACTERISTICSOFLIFE

1  LifehasOrganizaMon2  LifeAcquiresMaterialsandEnergy

3  LifeStaysJustAbouttheSame

4  LifeRespondstoSMmuli

5  LifeReproduces6  LifeGrowsandDevelop7  LifeAdapts

ORGANIZATION

•  Livingthingsareorganized

•  TheirpartsarespecializedforspecificfuncMons

•  Note:watercontainsHandO=50%ofacell’sweight

METABOLISM•  Livingthingstake

materialsandenergyfromtheenvironment

•  Theyneedanoutsidesourceofnutrients

•  Energy=capacitytodowork)maintaintheorganizaMonofthecell)

REPRODUCTION

•  Livingthingsreproduce

•  Theyproduceoffspringthatresemblesthemselves

•  LifebegetsLife!

ASEXUAL&SEXUALREPRODUCTION

GROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT

•  Livingthingsgrowanddevelop

•  Duringtheirlivestheychange:undergoingvariousstagesfromferMlizaMontodeath

IRRITABILITYANDMOVEMENT

•  LivingthingsrespondtosMmuli

•  Theyreacttointernalandexternalenvironment

•  Homeostasis:stayingrelaMvelyconstant

•  Behavior=responsesofanorganism

VARIATION,CHANGEANDEVOLUTION(ADAPTATION)

•  Livingthingsareadapted

•  TheyhavemodificaMonsthatmakethemsuitedtoaparMcularwayoflife

•  AdaptaMon:modificaMonsthatmakeanorganismsuitedtoitswayoflife

•  EvoluMon:processbywhichcharacterisMcsofspecieschangethroughMme

LIFE’SPROCESSES

CELLULARPROCESSES

•  Processesthatarecarriedoutatthecellularlevel,butarenotnecessarilyrestrictedtoasinglecell

•  Forexample,cellcommunicaMonoccursamongmorethanonecell,butoccursatthecellularlevel

SOMEEXAMPLESOFCELLULARPROCESSES

•  CellularCommunicaMon–  Cellsignalling–  Nervousresponseorendocrineresponse(ANIMALS)–  “Phytohormones”andforrootdevelopment

•  DNArepair–  ResponsetodamageofgeneMcmaterial

•  GeneExpression–  Genesforturning“ON”and“OFF”

•  Metabolism–  OverallcellularchemicalreacMons(anabolicorcatabolic)

•  ProgrammedCellDeathorApoptosis

CELLSIGNALLING/COMMUNICATION

CELLSIGNALLINGINROOTDEVELOPMENT

RESPONSETODAMAGE:DNAREPAIR

Example:BASEEXCISION

GENEEXPRESSIONINBACTERIA:THEYCANDECIDEONTHEIROWN!

GENEEXPRESSIONINPLANTS

GENEEXPRESSIONINANIMALS

•  haveasymmetriesthatdependondevelopmentaldifferencesingeneexpression

CATABOLISMANDANABOLISM

APOPTOSIS•  Programmedcelldeath

•  thebody'snormalmethodofdisposingofdamaged,unwanted,orunneededcells

•  importantforsculp5ng5ssueandorganstructureduringdevelopmentoftheembryo,butmayoccuratanyMmeeveninadultcellswhenaMssueneedstoberemodeled(damagerepair)

THECELL•  Thecellisconsideredtobethesmalleststructureinbiology

•  UnderstandingofcellsandthebasicsofcellstructureandfuncMoniscriMcaltomakingsenseoutofbiology

•  LimitaMonsofthehumaneye:earlybiologicalresearchconcentratedondevelopingtoolstohelpusseeverysmallthings(LEEUWENHOEK)

THECELLTHEORY(1838)•  Alllifeformsaremadefromoneormorecells

•  Cellsonlyarisefrompre‐exisMngcells

•  Thecellisthesmallestformoflife

•  TOCORRECTTHEEARLIERBELIEFOFSPONTANEOUSGENERATION

PROKARYOTESANDEUKARYOTES

THECELL:PROKARYOTESVERSUSEUKARYOTES

•  ThecommonfeaturesofprokaryoMcandeukaryoMccellsare:

•  DNA(geneMcmaterial)–  locatedinanon‐membraneboundnucleoid

regioninprokaryotesandamembrane‐boundnucleusineukaryotes

•  Plasmamembrane(phospholipidbilayerwithproteinsthatseparatesthecellfromthesurroundingenvironment)

–  aselecMvebarrierfortheimportandexportofmaterials

•  Cytoplasm–  consistsofafluidporMoncalledthecytosoland

theorganellesandotherparMculatessuspendedinit

•  Ribosomes–  proteinsynthesistakesplace

Prokaryotes

• Single‐celledorganismsthatlackanucleus

• DonothavetheirgeneMcmaterialorganizedintochromosomes

• Example:Bacteria,Blue‐greenAlgae

EUKARYOTES

•  Haveamembrane‐boundnucleus

•  ComplexcreatureslikehumanshavespecialcellsforparMcularfuncMons– carryingoxygenaroundthebody– digesMngfood– makingbone– etc.

THECELL:ANIMALVERSUSPLANTSCELLS

ORGANIZATIONOFPLANTCELL

ORGANIZATIONINANIMALCELL

READINGASSIGNMENT

KnowtheSpecificFunc5onsofOrganelles

AFTERTHECELL:THETISSUES

PLANTTISSUES

1.MERISTEMATICTISSUES•  Examples:apicalmeristem;lateralmeristem,intercalarymeristem,etc

•  Tissuescomposedofimmature,undifferen_atedcellscapableofcelldivision–  formedexclusivelybyundifferenMatedorembryoniccells

•  Foundinrapidlygrowingpartsoftheplant– responsibleforbringingaboutgrowthoftheplantbodyduetotheircapacitytoundergoconMnuousmitoMcdivisions

SHOOTTIP ROOTTIP

2.PERMANENTTISSUES

•  Nature:–  Cellsequallyexpandedonall

sides;oval,round,polygonalorelongated

–  cellwallsarethinandmadeofcellulose

– Maycontainchlorophyll(Chlorenchyma)

•  Occurrence:–  cortexofroot,ground_ssuein

stemsandmesophyllofleaves

•  Func_on:–  Storeandassimilatefood– Givemechanicalstrengthby

maintainingturgidity–  Storewasteproductsliketanin,

gum,crystalsandresins

•  Nature–  Thecellsareelongatedand

arecircular,ovalorpolygonalincross‐sec_on

–  Cellwallisunevenlythickenedwithcelluloseatthecornersagainsttheintercellularspaces

•  Occurrence–  Foundundertheskini.e.

belowtheepidermisindicotstems

•  Func_on–  Providemechanicalsupportto

thestem–  Beingextensible,thesecells

readilyadaptthemselvestotherapidelonga_onofthestem

Sclereids:Thesearespecialsclerenchymatouscellsfoundinthecortex,pith,phloem,hardseeds,nutsandstonyfruits.

Example:fleshofpearandguavaaresomeMmesgrihyduetothepresenceofsclereids;funcMonistogivefirmnessandhardnesstothepartconcerned

SCLERENCHYMA•  Nature

–  Thecellsarelong,narrow,thickandlignified,usuallypointedatbothends

–  Thecellwallisevenlythickenedwithligninandsome_mesissothickthatthecellcavityorlumenisabsent

–  Nucleusisabsentandhencethe_ssueismadeupofdeadcells–  Theyhavesimple,ogenobliquepitsinthewalls–  Themiddlelamellai.e.thewallbetweenadjacentcellsis

conspicuous

•  Occurrence–  Foundabundantlyinstemsofplantslikehemp,juteandcoconut,

theirlengthvaryingfrom1mmto550mm(FIBROUS)

•  Func_on–  Givesmechanicalsupporttotheplantbygivingrigidity,flexibility

andelas_citytotheplantbody.

VASCULARTISSUES:TREE

VASCULARTISSUES:XYLEMANDPHLOEM

UPWARD(WATER) DOWNWARDANDLATERAL(FOOD)

MONOCOTVERSUSDICOT

STRUCTURESOFANIMAL

CELLS

ANIMALTISSUES

•  EPITHELIALTISSUE

•  CONNECTIVETISSUE

•  MUSCULARTISSUE

•  NERVOUSTISSUE

•  REPRODUCTIVETISSUE

Reproduc_veTissue

EPITHELIAL:lining_ssuesoftheanimalbody

•  SQUAMOUS

•  CUBOIDAL

•  COLUMNAREPITHELIUM

NERVOUS

CONNECTIVEANDSPECIALIZEDCONNECTIVETISSUES

CONNECTIVETISSUES

•  LOOSEORAREOLAR–  Collagenous,ElasMcand

ReMcularFibers

•  DENSE–  RegularandIrregular

•  MODIFIEDLOOSE–  ReMcularandAdipose

SPECIALIZEDCONNECTIVETISSUES

•  CARTILAGE

•  BONE

•  BLOOD–  RBC–  WBC

–  PLATELETS

AREOLARCONNECTIVETISSUE LOOSECONNECTIVETISSUE DENSECONNECTIVETISSUE

CARTILAGE

BONEBLOOD

THEYMAYBEFOUNDINJUSTONEORGAN…

REPRODUCTIVE

WHATNOW???

Inordertounderstandtheorgansystemsweneedtoknowthe

organisms…

ANDWE’RELEFTWITH3

UNDERSTANDINGHOWYOURBODYFUNCTIONS

THEORGANSYSTEMS•  Integumentarysystem•  Muscularsystem•  Skeletalsystem•  NervousSystem•  EndocrineSystem•  Circulatorysystem•  LymphaMcsystem•  Respiratorysystem•  DigesMvesystem•  UrinaryandExcretorySystem

•  ReproducMveSystem

THEVARIOUSORGANSYSTEMSWORKTOGETHER

HomeostasisandRegula5on

HOMEOSTASIS:internalandexternalbalance

•  Animalscannotsurviveunlesstheyareabletocontroltheinternalenvironmentoftheirbody,despitecon5nualchangesintheirsurroundings

CONTROLLER/INTEGRATOR

Physicalsystemimpactedby

effectorac_vi_es(controlledvariable)

SENSOR

EFFECTOR

Controlleroutput(informa_onmodula_ngeffectorac_vity)

Effectoroutput(oneormoreac_vi_esinfluencingthelevelofthecontrolledvariable

disturbances

Detec_onandMeasurementofthecontrolledvariable

Sensoroutput(informa_onconveyingthecurrentlevelofthecontrolledvariable

EXAMPLE:BODYTEMPERATURE

BODYMANIFESTATIONSOFHOMEOSTASIS:TEMPERATURE

HOMEOSTASIS:BLOODGLUCOSELEVEL&ENERGYBALANCE

POSITIVEFEEDBACK:Breastmilksecre_on

NEGATIVEFEEDBACK:givingbirthandbloodpressureregula_on

AREYOUREADYTOKNOWHOWYOURBODYWORKS?

TheHumanOrganSystems

ORGANSYSTEMSFORHOMEOSTASIS

•  MEMBRANETRANSPORTSYSTEMS– OsmoregulaMonandExcreMon– regulaMonofwaterandionconcentraMonsinthebody

•  criMcalinmaintaininglifeinacell– balanceofwaterandionsispartlylinkedtoexcreMon

•  removalofmetabolicwastesfromthebody

•  ORGANSYSTEMS– WasteExcreMon‐RelatedSystems– EndocrineSystem– NervousSystem

MEMBRANETRANSPORT

FORLARGEMOLECULES

HUMANEXCRETIONSYSTEMS

TheWhich,Why’sandHow’sofBodywastesManagement

WHATISEXCRETION?•  Theremovalofcellularwasteproductsfromanorganism

•  ExampleofWastes:– RespiraMon‐associatedwastes:carbondioxide+water

– Metabolism‐associatedwastes:water(fromdehydraMonsynthesis;nitrogenouswastes/urea(fromproteinmetabolismandthoseproducedfromexcessaminoacids)andmineralsalts

MAJOREXCRETORYORGANS

Liver***Lungs***Skin

LargeIntes5nes***Kidney

LIVERANDLUNGS

LIVER

•  deaminatesaminoacids

•  convertsammoniatourea(ammoniaisverytoxic)

LUNGS

•  Excretecarbondioxideandwater

SKIN/SWEATGLANDSANDLARGEINTESTINES

SKIN/SWEATGLANDS•  INCIDENTALLYEXCRETORY

•  AidintemperatureregulaMonofthebody

•  evaporaMonofthesweat(98%waterand2%saltsandurea)lowersbodytemperature(temperatureregulaMon)

•  Excretesurinelikewastes(water,salt,andsomeurea)

LARGEINTESTINES

•  expelsfecesandexcesssalts•  conserveswater

KIDNEY:THEMAJOREXCRETORYORGANFORFLUIDS

KIDNEYS•  excretemostoftheurea

•  controltheconcentraMonofmostoftheconsMtuentsofthebodyfluids

•  filtersoutwastesandreabsorbsneededmaterialslikewater,sugar&protein

HUMANURINARYTRACT

•  Kidney:filtersoutwastesandresorbsneededmaterialslikewater

•  Ureter:carriesurinefromthepelvistotheurinarybladder(onefromeachkidney)

•  Urinarybladder:shorttermstorageareafortheurine

•  Urethra:conductsurinefromthebladdertotheoutsideofthebody

YOURURINE&YOURHYDRATIONSTATUS

HOWISURINEPRODUCED?•  Filtra_on

–  wateranddissolvedsubstancesoutoftheblood

–  GlomeruliintoBowman'scapsule

•  Re‐absorp_on–  wateranddissolvedsubstances

outofthekidneytubulesbackintotheblood

–  thisprocesspreventssubstancesneededbythebodyfrombeinglostintheurine

•  Secre_on–  hydrogenions(H+),potassium

ions(K+),ammonia(NH3),andcertaindrugsoutofthebloodintothekidneytubules

•  urinalysis is composed of two examinations: – Chemical tests for abnormal chemical constituents

– Microscopic exam for abnormal insoluble constituents

Test Reference Range Pa_entResults

Color Straw - Dark yellow Yellow

Appearance Clear - Hazy Slightlyturbid

Specific Gravity 1.003-1.029 1.030

pH 4.5-7.8 6.0(acidic)

Protein Negative NegaMve

Glucose Negative NegaMve

Ketones Negative NegaMve

Bilirubin Negative NegaMve

Occult blood Negative Trace

Leukocyte Esterase Negative Trace

Nitrite Negative NegaMve

Urobilinogen 0.1-1.0 EU/dL 3.2umol/L(normal)

WBCs 0-4/hpf 10.7

RBCs male: 0-3/hpf female: 0-5/hpf

11.7(female)

Casts 0-4/lpf Noneseen

Bacteria Negative 815.9

EXCRETIONPROBLEMS

ORGANSSYSTEMFORREGULATION

NervousandEndocrineControl

NERVOUS VERSUS ENDOCRINE REGULATION

Characteris_cs NervousSystem EndocrineSystem

MECHANISMOFCONTROL Neurotransmiherreleasedinresponsetonerveimpulses

HormonesdeliveredtoMssuesthroughoutthebodybytheblood

CELLSAFFECTED Musclecells,glandcells,otherneurons

VirtuallyALLbodycells

TYPEOFACTIONTHATRESULTS

MuscularcontracMonorglandularsecreMon

ChangesinmetabolicacMviMes

TIMETOONSETOFACTION Typicallywithinmillisecs Secondstohoursordays

DURATIONOFACTION Generallymorebrief Generallyslower/longer

REGULATIONVIATHENERVOUSSYSTEM

•  Communication network that allows an organism to interact in appropriate ways with the environment

–  Sensory components •  Detect environmental

events

–  Integrative components •  Process sensory data and

information stored in memory

–  Motor components •  Generate movements and

other activities

RECALL:HOMEOSTASIS!!!

EXAMPLE:TETANUS/POLIO/RABIES(AxonalTransport)

CEPHALIZATIONANDMECHANISMS

REGULATIONVIATHEBRAIN

•  It is the center for registering sensations, correlating them with one another and with stored information, making decisions, and taking action

•  It is the center of intellect, emotions, behavior, and memory

•  It directs our behavior toward others

THELOBES:FORYOURAPPRECIATION•  THE CASE OF PHINEAS

GAGE:

•  The inch-thick tamping rod rocketed through his cheek, obliterating his left eye on its way through his brain and out the top of his skull –  Yet a moment later he stood

up and spoke –  Within two months:

completely recovered--he could walk, speak, and demonstrate normal awareness of his surroundings

•  But: the character of the man did not survive the tamping rod's journey through his brain

FORYOURAPPRECIATION

SLEEPYHEAD? CAN’TFINDTHEWORDS…

FORYOURAPPRECIATION(Can’tLetGO???)

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Prefrontalcortex

Smell

Olfactorybulb

Amygdala Hippocampus

CEREBRUM

FORYOURAPPRECIATION

LEFT‐BRAINEDORRIGHT‐BRAINED???

REGULATIONVIATHESPINALCORDANDTHEREFLEX

•  Extension of the brain stem starting at the foramen and ending at L1 (humans) or S2 (animals)

•  2 GENERAL ROLES –  Transmission of nerve impulses –  Relaysinforma_ontoandfrombrain

•  Ascendinganddescendingpathsinthespinalcord

– Spinal reflexes

REFLEX:THE“BRAINLESS”PATHWAY

•  Responses to changes in the environment – Automatic –  Fast – Predictable

•  Help maintain homeostasis – Allow rapid response

to changes –  Involve spinal cord and

nerves

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:THESTRETCHREFLEX

Important in maintaining muscle tone and muscle coordination

Prevents damage to muscles and tendons as a result of stretching

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:THEFLEXORREFLEX

Defensive removal of a limb from a threatening or damaging stimulus

FORYOURAPPRECIATION

PRIMITIVEREFLEX:BABINSKI•  present in infants; but as

the nervous system matures, they are suppressed or overridden

•  Example: Babinski or plantar reflex –  When the sole of an

infant's foot is stroked, the toes go upward and may fan out

–  In a normal adult, this does not happen; instead, the toes go downward

GAGREFLEX

Peripheralnervoussystem

Sensorydivision

Motordivision

Sensingexternal

environment

Sensinginternal

environment

Autonomicnervoussystem(involuntary)

Soma_cnervoussystem(voluntary)

Sympathe_cdivision

Parasympathe_cdivision

THEPNSANDHOMEOSTASIS

The vertebrate PNS consists of paired cranial and spinal nerve and associated

ganglia•  Cranial nerves

–  Originate in the brain and innervate organs of the head and upper body

–  Conveysensoryinputstoandmotoroutputsfromthebrain

•  Spinal nerves –  Originate in the spinal

cord and innervate the entire body

•  Mammals: 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:THECRANIALNERVES

Cranial nerve Nerve type (Sensory, Motor, Both)

I Olfactory S Sense of smell “On Old Oklahoma’s Towering Tops a Fine Vet

Gastroenterologist Viewed Some Horses”

“Six Sailors Made Merry But My Brother Said Bad Business My Man”

II Optic S Vision

III Oculomotor M eye movements, pupillary constriction and  accommodation, eyelid muscles

IV Trochlear M Eye movements

V Trigeminal B somatic sensations from face, mouth, cornea; muscles of mastication (chewing)

VI Abducens M Eye movements

VII Facial B controls the muscles of facial expression, taste from anterior tongue, lacrimal (tears) and salivary glands

VIII Vestibulocochlear S hearing, sense of balance

IX Glossopharyngeal B sensation from pharynx, taste from posterior tongue, carotid baroceptors

X Vagus B autonomic functions of gut, sensation from pharynx, muscles of vocal cords, swallowing

XI Spinal Accessory M Shoulder and neck muscles

XII Hypoglossal M Movement of tongue

THEMOTORDIVISIONOFTHEPNS:AUTONOMICORSOMATIC

•  Sympathetic (active mode) –  Correlates with arousal

and energy generation –  Heart beats faster, liver

converts glycogen to glucose, bronchi of lungs dilate and support increased gas exchange

–  Inhibits digestion –  Stimulates secretion of

adrenaline from the adrenal medulla

•  Parasympathetic (relaxed mode) –  Causes the mirror image –  A calming and a return

emphasis on self-maintenance functions

–  Decreases heart rate and energy storage

–  Enhances digestion

PARASYMPATHETICDIVISION SYMPATHETICDIVISION

Brain

Constrictspupil

S_mulatessalivaproduc_on

Constrictsbronchi

Slowsheart

S_mulatesstomach,pancreas,andintes_nes

S_mulatesurina_on

Promoteserec_onofgenitals

Spinalcord

Eye

Salivaryglands

Lung

Heart

LiverStomach

Adrenalgland

Pancreas

Intes_nes

Bladder

Genitals

Dilatespupil

Inhibitssalivaproduc_on

Relaxesbronchi

Acceleratesheart

S_mulatesepinephrineandnorepi‐nephrinerelease

S_mulatesglucoserelease

Inhibitsstomach,pancreas,andintes_nes

Inhibitsurina_on

Promotesejacu‐la_onandvaginalcontrac_ons

FORYOURAPPRECIATION

•  LEARNING: A process by which behavior is modified on the basis of experience

•  MEMORY: storage of information that has been learned

REGULATIONVIATHEENDOCRINESYSTEM

CANHORMONESCONTROLYOU?

•  Regulate the chemical composition and volume of the internal environment (extracellular fluid)

•  Help regulate metabolism and energy balance

•  Help regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac muscles and secretion by glands

•  Help maintain homeostasis despite disruptions such as infection, trauma, emotional stress, dehydration, starvation, etc.

•  Regulate certain activities of the immune system

•  Play a role in the smooth, sequential integration of growth and development

•  Contribute to the basic processes of reproduction (gamete formation, fertilization, nourishment of embryo and fetus, delivery, and nourishment of newborn

TYPESOFHORMONESANDTHEIRMECHANISM

•  STEROIDS– Testosterone(malesexhormone)

– Estradiol(responsibleformanyfemalesexcharacterisMcs)

•  NON‐STEROIDS– PEPTIDES– AMINES

FORYOURAPPRECIATION•  ESTROGENS OR THYROID

HORMONES –  Steroid hormones; lipid-soluble –  Not split apart during digestion –  Easily cross the intestinal lining

because they are lipid soluble

•  INSULIN –  Water-soluble peptide and

protein hormone –  Not effective oral medications

because digestive enzymes destroy them by breaking their peptide bonds

–  That is why they are taken by injection

•  ENDOCRINE‐RELATEDDISORDERS–  OverproducMonofahormone

–  UnderproducMonofahormone

–  NonfuncMonalreceptorsthatcausetargetcellstobecomeinsensiMvetohormones

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:THEHYPOTHALAMUSISTHE“BOSS”

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:GROWTHHORMONE

DURINGGROWTHYEARS:DWARFISMORGIGANTISM

DURINGADULTHOOD:ACROMEGALY

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:PROLACTIN

•  WHYYOURBREASTISENLARGEDANDPAINFULBEFOREYOURPERIOD:

•  PIH (dopamine) inhibits release of PRL from the anterior pituitary gland

•  As the levels of estrogen and progesterone fall just before menstruation begins, the secretion of PIH diminishes and blood level of PRL increases

•  Breast tenderness just before menstruation may be caused by elevated levels of PRL

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:STRESSED?

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:HORMONESANDYOURURINE

•  STIMULATES ADH (antidiuretic hormone) SECRETION –  Pain, Stress, Trauma, Anxiety –  Acetylcholine, Nicotine –  Drugs (morphine, tranquilizers

and some anesthetics)

•  INHIBITS ADH SECRETION –  Alcohol, Caffeine

•  Increases urine output •  Dehydration causes both

the thirst and typical hangover the day after

•  Diabetesinsipidus–  ADHdisorder

•  CAUSES of DI –  Neurogenic DI: Results from

hyposecretion of ADH due to brain tumor, head trauma or brain surgery that may have damaged the posterior pituitary gland and hypothalamic nuclei

–  Nephrogenic DI: The kidneys do not respond to ADH; ADH receptors may be non-functional or the kidneys may be damaged

•  SYMPTOMS –  Bed wetting –  Exclusion of large volumes of urine

(dehydration and thirst)

•  TREATMENT –  Hormone replacement therapy (ADH

injection or sprays) –  Restriction of salt in the diet and diuretic

drugs

THETHYROIDANDPARATHYROIDHORMONES

•  Parathormone – Controls the calcium

ion concentration of the body by: • Absorption of

calcium from the gut

• Excretion of calcium by the kidneys

• Release of calcium from the bones

CRETINISM

MYXEDEMA

EXOPHTHALMOS

ENDEMICGOITER

GOITERINEWE

HORMONESOFTHEADRENALGLANDS

•  The adrenal glands produce the hormones that stimulate the thirst center

•  When enough water is provided, the tongue, the stomach and the intestine send the message that the reserves are filled

•  The hypothalamus orders the saliva glands to stop production, and the result is a dry mouth

•  Many times in the course of a day we feel thirsty and so drink a glass of water

–  Cells in the various organs of the body determine the water needs of the body and work with one another in a series of operations by which a person is urged to drink water

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:THEADRENALINERUSH

•  Adrenaline is secreted immediately in the body of a pilot whose airplane malfunctions

•  This fluid sends more sugar and blood to the brain, making the pilot more attentive

•  His blood pressure and heartbeat increase, making him more alert

heart beats faster = sugar in her blood increases = added strength in muscles = able to escape the danger

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:OXYTOCIN=THELOVE/ATTRACTIONHORMONE

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:HORMONESFORCHILDBEARING

•  Humanchorionicgonadotropin–  Promotesgrowthofthecorpus

luteumandsecreMonofestrogensandprogesteronebythecorpusluteum

•  Estrogens–  Promotegrowthofthe

mother’ssexorgansandofsomeoftheMssuesofthefetus

•  Progesterone–  Promotesspecialdevelopment

oftheuterineendometriuminadvanceofimplantaMonoftheferMlizedovum

–  PromotesdevelopmentofsomefetalMssuesandorgans

–  Promotedevelopmentofthesecretoryapparatusofthemother’sbreast

•  Humansomatomammotropin–  Promotesgrowthofsomefetal

Mssuesaswellasmother’sbreast

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:CAN’TSLEEPWITHTHELIGHTSON?

•  PINEALGLAND:Consists of nueroglia and secretory cells called pinealocytes

•  Hormone: melatonin (biogenic amine)

•  Timing of the body’s biological clock

RETINA

SUPRACHIASMATICNUCLEUS

(INHYPOTHALAMUS)

SUPERIORCERVICALGANGLION

(SYMPATHETIC)

PINEALGLAND

INTHELIGHT

INDARKNESS

NOREPINEPRHINEINHIBITS

MELATONINSECRETION

ALERT!

LACKOFNOREPINEPHRINE

STIMULATESMELATONINSECRETION

ZZZZ….

FORYOURAPPRECIATION:MELATONINANDJETLAGS

•  SAD (seasonal affective disorder) –  Type of depression that arises

during winter months when day-length is short

–  Due to overproduction of melatonin

–  Relief: bright light therapy (exposure to artificial light as bright sunlight)

•  JETLAGS –  Tiredness suffered by travelers

who cross several time zones –  Relief: 3-6 hours of bright light

exposure

•  INSOMNIA –  Inadequate production of

melatonin –  Research: small doses of

melatonin before bedtime

ENDCOVERAGEFOREXAMINATION1