Lawrie HunterNational Graduate Research Institute for Policy Studieshttp://lawriehunter.comlawriehunter@gmail.com

Novakian mappingfor argument work

No need to take notes (:^0)

All materials can be downloadedfrom Hunter’s slideshare

http://slideshare.net/rolenzo/

Novakian mapping for argument identification and construction in EAP In presentations, particularly during conference presentation Q&A, sci-tech EAP learners often prove unable to distil the underlying intentions of their research design or to identify the argument(s) surrounding their claim and the generalizability of their results.These EAP learners usually have little training in rhetorical orchestration, especially since their research papers are built on the IMRAD structure, a rather poor metaphor for argument. As a result, these learners find spontaneous oral explanation and argument summarization difficult. This workshop introduces the operation of a structured, low-text approach which has produced consistent, rapid development of the foundation target skills (argument analysis, argument construction) in classroom application (masters and PhD level). The key tool in this approach is the cross-platform freeware CmapTools, now widely adopted in science education. CmapTools automatically generates Novakian maps (maps in which each link is articulated by a relation phrase). Learners find these maps easy to evaluate in terms of correctness of relations and shockingly accessible in terms of structure of information.This workshop begins with an overview of current styles of concept visualization (and their attendant syntax and information structures) so as to give participants a broad practical overview of mapping practice today. Participants will then be introduced to the use of CmapTools, and will take part in guided model task performance.The workshop activities will be low-tech (post-its and marker pens) to maximize accessibility. However, participants who would like to 'lean in' on this skill set are encouraged to download Cmap Tools to their laptops (Mac, Win or Linux) or iPads, familiarize themselves with the basic functions of the software (takes about 15 minutes), and show up equipped for bigger-curve learning.Participants who arrive after the workshop has begun may be assigned 'observer' roles. Note: 'participant' is the fun, i.e. the learning, experience. 

Part 1: current styles of concept visualization-and their attendant syntax and information structures)

Part 2: introduction to the use of Cmap tools-what to map, task design, learner constraint

Part 3: guided model task performance-you: the explorer (student) -Hunter: the guide

Part 4: guidelines for your own exploration-download this resource-packed powerpoint

http://lesswrong.com/lw/hsd/start_under_the_streetlight_then_push_into_the/

By late antique copyist - late antique manuscript, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15074137

Scriptio continua

SCRIPTIOCONTINUAISASTYLEOFWRITINGWITHOUTWORDDIVIDERSTHATISWITHOUTSPACESOROTHERMARKSBETWEENWORDSORSENTENCES.INTHEWESTTHEOLDESTGREEKANDLATININSCRIPTIONSUSEWORDDIVIDERSBUTTHESEARERAREINTHELATERPERIODSWHENSCRIPTIOCONTINUABECOMESTHENORMINCLASSICALGREEKANDLATECLASSICALLATIN.BYAROUND1000ADALPHABETICALTEXTSINEUROPEAREWRITTENWITHSPACESBETWEENWORDS.SCRIPTIOCONTINUAISSTILLINUSEINTHAIOTHERSOUTHEASTASIANABUGIDASANDINLANGUAGESTHATUSECHINESECHARACTERSCHINESEANDJAPANESETHOUGHWITHSENTENCEBREAKS.MODERNVERNACULARCHINESEDIFFERSFROMANCIENTSCRIPTIOCONTINUAINTHATITDOESATLEASTUSEPUNCTUATIONALTHOUGHTHISWASBORROWEDFROMTHEWESTONLYABOUTACENTURYAGO.BEFORETHISTHEONLYFORMSOFPUNCTUATIONFOUNDINCHINESEWRITINGSWEREPUNCTUATIONSTODENOTEQUOTESPROPERNOUNSANDEMPHASIS.BEFORETHEADVENTOFTHECODEXLATINANDGREEKSCRIPTWASWRITTENONSCROLLS.READINGCONTINUOUSSCRIPTONASCROLLWASMOREAKINTOREADINGAMUSICALSCORETHANREADINGTEXT.THEREADERWOULDTYPICALLYALREADYHAVEMEMORIZEDTHETEXTTHROUGHANINSTRUCTORHADMEMORIZEDWHERETHEBREAKSWEREANDTHEREADERALMOSTALWAYSREADALOUDUSUALLYTOANAUDIENCEINAKINDOFREADINGPERFORMANCEUSINGTHETEXTASACUESHEET.ORGANIZINGTHETEXTTOMAKEITMORERAPIDLYINGESTEDTHROUGHPUNCTUATIONASNOTNEEDEDANDEVENTUALLYTHECURRENTSYSTEMOFRAPIDSILENTREADINGFORINFORMATIONREPLACEDTHEOLDERSLOWERPERFORMANCEDECLAIMEDALOUDFORDRAMATICEFFECT.

Scriptio continua is a style of writing without word dividers, that is, without spaces or other marks between words or sentences. In the West, the oldest Greek and Latin inscriptions use word dividers, but these are rare in the later periods when scriptio continua becomes the norm (in Classical Greek and late Classical Latin). By around 1000 AD, alphabetical texts in Europe are written with spaces between words.  Scriptio continua is still in use in Thai, other Southeast Asian abugidas, and in languages that use Chinese characters (Chinese and Japanese) though with sentence breaks. Modern vernacular Chinese differs from ancient scriptio continua in that it does at least use punctuation, although this was borrowed from the West only about a century ago. Before this, the only forms of punctuation found in Chinese writings were punctuations to denote quotes, proper nouns, and emphasis. Before the advent of the codex (book), Latin and Greek script was written on scrolls. Reading continuous script on a scroll was more akin to reading a musical score than reading text. The reader would typically already have memorized the text through an instructor, had memorized where the breaks were, and the reader almost always read aloud, usually to an audience in a kind of reading performance, using the text as a cue sheet.

Organizing the text to make it more rapidly ingested (through punctuation) was not needed and eventually the current system of rapid silent reading for information replaced the older slower performance declaimed aloud for dramatic effect.

c. 1000 AD

Image from http://www.pcworld.com/article/2033766/twitter-bots-fake-retweets-rake-in-big-bucks.html

Image from http://www.pcworld.com/article/2033766/twitter-bots-fake-retweets-rake-in-big-bucks.html

For mapping approaches to summarizing and argument, graphics software and mapping software in general are preferable to pencil and paper because of ease of revision and restructuring. Among those software, Cmap Tools freeware has the further distinct advantage that it forces the user to specify the relations between links and thus reveals rhetorical structure or orchestration (or their absence) that is not visually apparent in text.

What structure can you see?

Can you seewhere this is going?

Novakian...

http://notthenearside.tumblr.com/

Languageis a

disguise for

information

language information<important

ourthoughts

conceptmaps<

clear

William Thurston

“People have very powerful facilities for taking in

information

visually or kinesthetically,

and thinking with their spatial sense.

On the other hand, they do not have a very good

built-in facility for …

turning an internal spatial understanding …

into a two-dimensional image.”

Thurston, W. P. (1994). On proof and progress in mathematics. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 30(2),

our abilityto expressourselvesvisually <

strong

William Thurston

our abilityto take in

visual information

Part 1: current styles of concept visualization-and their attendant syntax and information structures)

Part 2: introduction to the use of Cmap tools-what to map, task design, learner constraint

Part 3: guided model task performance-you: the explorer (student) -Hunter: the guide

Part 4: guidelines for your own exploration-download this resource-packed powerpoint

made with CmapTools

Functions of ‘maps’

Uses of mapping in EFL

1.Summarizing content of a text2. Analysing content of a text3. Brainstorming in pre-writing4. Structural planning of a writing task5. Low-text display of knowledge6. “Visual cloze”7. Analyzing argument8. Constructing argument

Current styles of mapping in EFL

Grammar maps (sentence diagrams)Association maps (mind maps)Syntactic mapsInformation structure mapsConcept mapsArgument mapsRhetorical structure maps

1. Association maps2. Directed link maps3. Textured-link maps4. Argument maps5. RST* maps

*Rhetorical Structure Theory

Types of mapping systems

Hierarchy of mapping types

Argument mapping

Concept mapping

Info-structure mapping

Grammar mapping (pseudo)

Association mapping (pseudo)

Mindmapping is for clustering/hierarching

The links are only associations.

http://lifehacker.com/five-best-mind-mapping-tools-476534555

http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/8-free-mind-map-tools-best-use/

Critical ThinkingAsahi Press 2001

A writing and presentation workbook,

6 units (6 genres) in 30 lessons

Say What You MeanKUT Press 2006

A writing and mapping workbook,

5 units (5 genres) in 30 lessons

Thinking in EnglishA writing and presentation

mapping text/workbook,5 units (5 genres)

in 30 lessons

Graphical link mapping: ISmaps

<big

Description Classification

Degreecomparison

Attributecomparison

Sequence Cause-effect

Contrast

!

Hunter’s infostructure maps

Argumentmapping(Horn)

http://www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/index.htmlhttp://www.macrovu.com/

http://www.austhink.com/

Argumentmapping(Austhink)

http://www.austhink.com/

Argumentmapping(Rationale)

RST mapping (rhetorical mapping)

www.sil.org/~mannb/rst/

RST links are rhetorical devices.

Bill Mann’s Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) uses various sorts of "building blocks" to describe texts.

The principal block type deals with "nuclearity" and "relations" (often called coherence relations in the linguistic literature.)

Joseph Novak: Concept mapping

INVERTEBRATE

ANIMALS

VERTEBRATE

can be

MARINETERRESTRIAL

e.g. crabs, lobsters

e.g. beetles,flies

FEATHERSFUR

e.g. robins, penguins

e.g. sheep,cats

MORE

SPECIFIC

COLDBLOODED

ARTHROPODS WARMBLOODED

can be insulated with

aremostly can be

This slide courtesy of Ian Kinchin

http://cmap.ihmc.us/

Default Novakian: Cmaps

Demo 1: using Cmap tools

Cross-platform: Win, Mac, Linux, iPad

Online platform too

Free (and thus inelegant)

Can make pdfs, web pages, images

Huge user group

Big biennial conference http://cmc.ihmc.us/

Demo 1: using Cmap tools

Background:

Visual metaphors in maps

Visual metaphors in concept maps

overarching

subordinateabstract

concrete

passage through time

more importantless important

more salient

less salient

rhetorical

flow

argumen

tdirection

cause-effect

Data sufficient

Ethical

Good mechanics*

Grammar correct

Cohesive

*punctuation, spelling, format

These are parameters of a research paper.Separate research design parameters from writing parameters.Then rank each group from most to least crucial for publication.

Logical

Original

Relevant

Readable

Written formally

WORKSHOP task 1

researchissue

writingissue

Computerbased task

Data sufficient

Ethical

Good mechanics*

Grammar correct

Cohesive

*punctuation, spelling, format

Logical

Original

Relevant

Readable

Written formally

researchissue

writingissue

WORKSHOP task 1Research paper attributes

Writing Researchdesign cohesive

logicaldata sufficientoriginalethicalreadablegood mechanicsrelevantcorrect grammar written formally

Paperbased task

Part 1: current styles of concept visualization-and their attendant syntax and information structures)

Part 2: introduction to the use of Cmap tools-what to map, task design, learner constraint

Part 3: guided model task performance-you: the explorer (student) -Hunter: the guide

Part 4: guidelines for your own exploration-download this resource-packed powerpoint

Map why?

1 To force summarization2 To force text analysis3 To force signaling analysis4 To discover structure5 To communicate complexity

Map why?1 To force summarization (e.g. max 8)

insects areburned

found in the straw

is actually counterproductive

to protect them from harmful insects

only 4% harmful insects

spiders

burning themats in summer

traditional tree wrapping

method still employed in famous places

long suspected to be low value started in

the Edo period

Niihostudy

wrapping pine trees in straw

during winter

insects multiplyin the mats

55% beneficialinsects

prey on harmfulinsects

each year for 4 years

examined theinsects in the mats

in the spring

Map why?2 To force text analysis

Map why?2 To force text analysis (print)

Cool hint: in Word, make each sentence a paragraph;then select all and paste into Excel: 1 sentence/cell!

Map why?2 To force text analysis (electronic)

Cool hint: in Word, make each sentence a paragraph;then select all and paste into Excel: 1 sentence/cell!

Map why?3 To force signaling analysis (elec)

Map why?3 To force signaling analysis (print)

Map why?3 To force signaling analysis

Map why?4 To discover

structure

Map why?5 To communicate complexity

-made with OmniGraffle

WORKSHOP task 2: text analysisChart based

Analyze the text in the casual report of Sinnett (2010)

Map what?

1 A natural text (bad example)(good)2 A signal enhanced text3 A structure enhanced text4 An artificial text (great example)

Map what?1 A natural text (bad example)(good)Traditional pest control worse than useless (Mar. 27, 2008, The Yomiuri Shimbun)

 The traditional method of wrapping pine trees in straw matting during winter to protect them from harmful insects is actually counterproductive, a recent study has found. Komo-maki, or straw mat wrapping, is a traditional pest control method used to trap harmful insects in the straw wrapped around the trunk. In early winter, straw mats are wrapped around the trunks to attract insects. During winter, the insects multiply in the warm mats, which are then removed from the trees and burned together with the insects inside in early spring.

But a study led by Chikako Niiho, an associate professor of insect ecology at Hyogo University, found that 55 percent of insects caught in straw mats used to wrap pine trees at Himeji Castle in Himeji, Hyogo Prefecture, for four years, were beneficial to trees, while only 4 percent were harmful.

An examination of about 350 straw mats used to wrap pine trees at the castle found between zero and six egger moth caterpillars, a tree pest, each year from 2002-04, and only 44 even in the worst year, 2005. The team found no long-horned beetles--not itself a pest, but a carrier of pinewood nematodes, which damage trees. Together with egger moths, pinewood nematodes are the main cause of pine wilt, a disease fatal to pine trees.

On the other hand, the researchers found between 337 and 625 spiders of various species that prey on insects harmful to trees. Also found in the mats were between 90 and 486 assassin bugs, which also prey on pests.

According to researchers, egger moth caterpillars live under bark and are found in cracks in the trunk after the removal of mats, with a lot of egger moth pupae found in the same places in summer. Nematodes also inhabit trunks, meaning the straw mat wrapping is useless as a way of getting rid of them.

It is thought that the wrapping of pine trees in winter started in the Edo period (1603-1867), when it was common practice in the gardens of feudal lords. The wrapping has been an annual event at Himeji Castle since the 1960s.

But there has long been suspicion that the wrapping serves little purpose. For this reason, while wrapping is still employed in famous places such as Miho no Matsubara (Miho Pine Grove) in Shizuoka and Okayama Korakuen garden in Okayama, the method was abandoned 20 years ago in the Outer Garden of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo and Kyoto Imperial Palace Garden in Kyoto. Hamamatsu, Shizuoka Prefecture, did not employ the method this year and Hiratsuka, Kanagawa Prefecture, is considering dropping it.

Niiho said straw mats provide places for beneficial insects to pass the winter. Places that want to continue the wrapping should only burn the mats after giving the beneficial insects time to get away, she advised.

A spokesman for Himeji Castle Office said: "It's true we found many spiders in the mats, but as we never knew they were good for the trees we burned them anyway. We want to figure out a better way."

Map what?1 A natural text (bad example)(good)Traditional pest control worse than useless (Mar. 27, 2008, The Yomiuri Shimbun)

 The traditional method of wrapping pine trees in straw matting during winter to protect them from harmful insects is actually counterproductive, a recent study has found. Komo-maki, or straw mat wrapping, is a traditional pest control method used to trap harmful insects in the straw wrapped around the trunk. In early winter, straw mats are wrapped around the trunks to attract insects. During winter, the insects multiply in the warm mats, which are then removed from the trees and burned together with the insects inside in early spring.

But a study led by Chikako Niiho, an associate professor of insect ecology at Hyogo University, found that 55 percent of insects caught in straw mats used to wrap pine trees at Himeji Castle in Himeji, Hyogo Prefecture, for four years, were beneficial to trees, while only 4 percent were harmful.

An examination of about 350 straw mats used to wrap pine trees at the castle found between zero and six egger moth caterpillars, a tree pest, each year from 2002-04, and only 44 even in the worst year, 2005. The team found no long-horned beetles--not itself a pest, but a carrier of pinewood nematodes, which damage trees. Together with egger moths, pinewood nematodes are the main cause of pine wilt, a disease fatal to pine trees.

On the other hand, the researchers found between 337 and 625 spiders of various species that prey on insects harmful to trees. Also found in the mats were between 90 and 486 assassin bugs, which also prey on pests.

According to researchers, egger moth caterpillars live under bark and are found in cracks in the trunk after the removal of mats, with a lot of egger moth pupae found in the same places in summer. Nematodes also inhabit trunks, meaning the straw mat wrapping is useless as a way of getting rid of them.

It is thought that the wrapping of pine trees in winter started in the Edo period (1603-1867), when it was common practice in the gardens of feudal lords. The wrapping has been an annual event at Himeji Castle since the 1960s.

But there has long been suspicion that the wrapping serves little purpose. For this reason, while wrapping is still employed in famous places such as Miho no Matsubara (Miho Pine Grove) in Shizuoka and Okayama Korakuen garden in Okayama, the method was abandoned 20 years ago in the Outer Garden of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo and Kyoto Imperial Palace Garden in Kyoto. Hamamatsu, Shizuoka Prefecture, did not employ the method this year and Hiratsuka, Kanagawa Prefecture, is considering dropping it.

Niiho said straw mats provide places for beneficial insects to pass the winter. Places that want to continue the wrapping should only burn the mats after giving the beneficial insects time to get away, she advised.

A spokesman for Himeji Castle Office said: "It's true we found many spiders in the mats, but as we never knew they were good for the trees we burned them anyway. We want to figure out a better way."

Map what?2 A signal enhanced text

In Japan, a study of the Japanese study examined the efficacy of the traditional Japanese method of wrapping pine trees in straw matting during winter to protect them from harmful insects. The report of the study claims that wrapping is actually counterproductive.In a four year study, the researcher examined the insects caught in the straw mats used to wrap pine trees at one location. More than half of the insects caught were actually helpful to trees; few were harmful. However, hundreds of spiders and bugs that prey on harmful insects were found in the mats.Harmful egger moth caterpillars live under bark of the trees, and remain there when the mats are removed. Harmless beetles which carry harmful nematodes also remain after the wraps come off.The study concluded that since beneficial insects pass the winter in the mats, the insects should be allowed to escape from the mats before they are burned.

Map what?3 A structure enhanced text

Not today!

Map what?4 An artificial text (great example)

Obstacles to successful use of mapping:

1. Using the wrong map type2. Mapping a poor array of concepts3. Mixed degree of abstraction

Map HOW?Harshly simplified rule of thumb

Map HOW?1 Nouns in nodes, verbs in links

….then what kind of map is this?

Map HOW?2 Argument verbs in links

Original clarification map of 200 word abstract (for mentor discussion)

Simplified clarification map: clauses in nodes, log conns in links.

Map HOW?2 Argument verbs in links

Map HOW?3 Hybrid:Nodes: nouns/clausesLinks: verbs /argument verbs

WORKSHOP task 3: map an argument

Post-it based Novakian

Map the argument in Sinnett (2010)

1.Make 10 (or 8 or 12) nodes2.Arrange the nodes3.Create the links4.Assign the relations to the links.

5.Peer evaluation

Summary of today’s workshop:Novakian mapping for summarization of argument

1 Read and analyze text type -core content/background/decoration-persuasion1b Peer evaluation of analysis2 Create content array3 Create link phrases4 Check: does argument emerge?5 Peer evaluation of maps

WORKSHOP task 3 post-mortem

What did Hunter not tell you?

Grounds Modality Claim

Warrant

Backing

since

on account of

Toulmin model of argument

Toulmin, S. (1958) The Uses of Argument, Cambridge University Press.

Grounds Modality Claim

Warrant

Backing

Rebuttal

since

on account of

unless

Enhanced Toulmin model of argument

Toulmin, S. (1958) The Uses of Argument, Cambridge University Press.

Receiver makes more errors and is

slowersince

because

unlessWhite noise in video caused reaction error and slowness

Server grunts during service

in tennis

Video reaction is not

equivalent to tennis

reactionWhite noise has the same

effect as grunting

It is highly likely that

Toulmin model of argument in Sinnett (2010)

Critique: full Toulmin loses visualization benefit of mapping

Citation as subject Results as subject Claim as subject

claims (that)proposes (that)implies (that)suggests (that) infers (that)observes (that)

reveals (that)demonstrates (that)indicates (that) disproves proves (that)implies (that)

is supported byis contradicted byis in agreement withis in opposition toassumes (that)

ConstraintUse only these links in your argument map

Sinnett (2010)

claims that

is supported by

assumes that

White noise is equivalent

to grunts

Server grunts during service in tennis cause

receiver slowness and

error

Video reaction is equivalent

to tennis reaction

Subject error and slowness in video

response with white noise bursts

Novakian rhetoric map of argument

in Sinnett (2010)

Target behavior

Critique: constrained Toulmin expression loses visualization benefit of mapping

Sinnett (2010)

claims that

is supported by

assumes that

white noise is equivalent to

grunts

video is equivalent to

tenniserror and slownesswith white noise

Novakian rhetoric map of argument

in Sinnett (2010)

error,slownessgrunts cause

Success! compression of node content regains visualization benefit of mapping.

Part 1: current styles of concept visualization-and their attendant syntax and information structures)

Part 2: introduction to the use of Cmap tools-what to map, task design, learner constraint

Part 3: guided model task performance-you: the explorer (student) -Hunter: the guide

Part 4: guidelines for your own exploration-download this resource-packed powerpoint

Part 1: current styles of concept visualization-and their attendant syntax and information structures)

Part 2: introduction to the use of Cmap tools-what to map, task design, learner constraint

Part 3: guided model task performance-you: the explorer (student) -Hunter: the guide

Part 4: guidelines for your own exploration:

-download this resource-packed powerpoint

-when stuck, call Hunter

Thank you so much for your kind attention.

Write me! I share.

Lawrie HunterEditor/mentor, Center for Professional Communication,National Graduate Research Institute for Policy Studies

http://grips.ac.jp

http://lawriehunter.comlawriehunter@gmail.com

Powerpoints on SlideShare (view and download)Videos on youtubeWeblinks on Delicious

Concept mapping - theory

Joseph D. Novak & Alberto J. Cañashttp://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/theory-of-concept-maps

Ausubel’s Assimilation Theoryhttps://sites.google.com/sitecognitiveapproachtolearning/ausubel-s-assimilation-theory A guide by Lucidcharthttps://www.lucidchart.com/pages/concept-map

Suggested Reading About Visual Thinking and Learning Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston.

Buzan, T. & Buzan, B. (1993). The mind map book: How to use radiant thinking to maximize your brain's untapped potential. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc.

Buzan, T. (1983). Use both sides of your brain: New techniques to help you read efficiently, study effectively, solve problems, remember more, think clearly. New York: E.P. Dutton.

Cohn, N. Japanese Visual Language: The Structure of Manga. http://www.emaki.net/essays/japanese_vl.pdf

Jonassen, D.H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for critical thinking. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Kress, G. and van Leeuwen, T. (1996) Reading images: The grammar of visual design. Routledge.

Kurosawa, M., & Kawahara,T. (1999). Alignment or Abstraction? Metaphor comprehension in Japanese. Proceedings, Second International Conference on Cognitive Science. http://www.jcss.gr.jp/iccs99OLP/p3-19/p3-19.htm

Novak, J.D. & Gowin, D.B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Novak, J.D. (1998). Learning, creating and using knowledge: Concept map® as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.http://www.inspiration.com/Parents/Visual-Thinking-and-Learning

Sources: academic writingHunter

the style dossier approachSTRUCTURE

Banerjee, D. and Wall, D. (2006) Assessing and reporting performances on pre-sessional EAP courses: Developing a final assessment checklist and investigating its validity. Journal of English for academic purposes 5(2006) 50-69.

Ferris, D. (2002) Treatment of error in second language student writing. University of Michigan Press.

Ginther, A. and Grant, L. (1996) A review of the academic needs of native English-speaking college students in the United States. Research monograph series MS-1. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Glasman-Deal, H. (2010) Science Research Writing. Imperial College Press.Gopen, G.D. & Swan, J.A. (1990) The Science of Scientific Writing. American Scientist 78 550-558.

http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/23947Harwood, N. (2006) What do we want EAP teaching materials for? Journal of English for Academic

Purposes 4 (2005) 149-161.Hunter, L. Online resource for English for Academic Purposes:

http://del.icio.us/rolenzo/eapKoutsantoni, D. (2006) Rhetorical strategies in engineering research articles and research theses:

Advanced academic literacy and relations of power. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 5 (2006) 19-36.

Liu, M. & Braine, G. (2005) Cohesive features in argumentative writing produced by Chinese undergraduates. English for specific purposes 24 (2005)

Rowley-Jolivet, E. & Carter-Thomas, S. (2005) Genre awareness and rhetorical appropriacy: Manipulation of information structure by NS and NNS scientists in the international conference setting. System 33 (2005) 41-64.

Swales, J.M.. and Feak, C.B. (2004) Academic writing for graduate students: essential tasks and skills (2nd ed.). University of Michigan Press.

Swales, J.M.. and Feak, C.B. (2001) English in Today's Research World: A Writing Guide. University of Michigan Press.

Fauconnier, G. (1997) Mappings in Thought and Language. Cambridge U. Press.

Gentner, D., & Wolff, P.(1997). Alignment in the Processing of Metaphor. Journal of Memory and Language, 37, 331-355.

Kurosawa, M., & Kawahara, T. (1999). An Experimental Study in Metaphor Comprehension. Bulletin of the Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo 39, 247-257.

Kurosawa, M., & Kawahara, T. (1999). Alignment or Abstraction? Metaphor Comprehension in Japanese. Proceedings, Second International Conference on Cognitive Science. http://www.jcss.gr.jp/iccs99OLP/p3-19/p3-19.htm

Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Mazuka, R. (1998) The Development of Language Strategies: a Cross-Linguistic Study Between Japanese and English. Erlbaum.

Nisbett, R.E. (2003) The geography of thought. Free Press.

Novak, J.D. (1998). Learning, creating and using knowledge: Concept map® as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Sources: mapping and metaphor

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Introduction

Method

Results

Analysis

Conclusion

What is the argument in a Research Paper?