Notes

1 INTRODUCTION: MARX, ETHICS AND ETHICAL MARXISM

1. Karl Marx, 'Notebooks on Epicurean Philosophy' in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works, Vol. 1 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975), p. 506. Further references throughout the book will be to CW followed by the volume number.

2. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Gennan Ideology, in CW 5, p. 247. 3. Ibid., p. 73. 4. This is made clear in section three of the Manifesto of the Communist

Party in which Marx and Engels deal with a variety of socialist litera­ture- CW 6, pp. 507-17.

5. Karl Kautsky, Ethics and the Materialist Conception of History (Chi­cago: Charles Kerr, 4th edn, n.d.), p. 206.

6. Harry van der Linden, Kantian Ethics and Socialism (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1988); Tom Bottomore and Patrick Goode (eds), Austro­Marxism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), Introduction and Part One.

7. For a short review of the progress of ethical debate within Marxism see Agnes Heller, 'The Legacy of Marxian Ethics Today', in Praxis International 1 ( 4 ), 1982. Heller's own position is a fusion of Marx and Kant, although she acknowledges that this approach was specifi­cally rejected by Marx (p. 362); also Steven Lukes, Marxism and Morality (New York: Oxford University Press and Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), pp. 14-26.

8. For example, Lukes, Marxism and Morality, p. 146. I use 'Marxian' to denote that which can be attributed to Marx's own thought, and this does not include Engels; 'Marxist' denotes all those who accept, in one version or another, Marx's critique of capitalism, his production­oriented theory of historical development, and his goal of a classless society.

9. Aristotle, Ethics, ed. J. A. K. Thomson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 64 - this is the Nicomachean Ethics.

10. Richard Norman, The Moral Philosophers: An Introduction to Ethics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), p. 8- Norman points out that Freud's work poses a similar challenge.

11. The central arguments are summarised by Lukes in Marxism and Moral­ity, pp. 48-57.

12. The first complete edition of the Manuscripts in Russian did not ap­pear in the Soviet Union until 1956 - Ernest Mandel, The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx (London: New Left Books, 1977), p. 186n.

13. Martin Nicolaus, foreword to Karl Marx, Grundrisse (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 7.

155

156 Notes

14. Lucio Colletti, Introduction to Karl Marx, Early Writings (Harmonds­worth: Penguin, 1975).

15. On Engels, see Terrell Carver, Marx and Engels: The Intellectual Rela­tionship (Sussex: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1983); on Kautsky, Massimo Salvadori, Karl Kautsky and the Socialist Revolution, 1880-1938 (Lon­don: 1979).

16. 'It is impossible completely to understand Marx's Capital, and espe­cially its first chapter, without having thoroughly studied and under­stood the whole of Hegel's Logic. Consequently, half a century later none of the Marxists understood Marx.' - V. I. Lenin, 'Philosophical Notebooks' (1915) in Collected Works, Vol. 38 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1972), p. 180; Marx acknowledged the methodological use­fulness of Hegel's Logic in 1858 - see CW 40, p. 249.

17. Georgy Lukacs, History and Class Consciousness (London: Merlin, 1971 ), pp. 24n and 132-3; Karl Korsch, Marxism and Philosophy (London: New Left Books, 1970, p. 69n). The use of footnotes for such impor­tant observations indicates the strength of the prevailing orthodoxy that the view of Marx and Engels must be the same.

18. Quoted by Fred Halliday in his introduction to Korsch's Marxism and Philosophy, pp. 14-15; see also Douglas Kellner's 'Korsch and Com­munism' in his edition of Karl Korsch: Revolutionary Theory (Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1977).

19. Andrew Arato and Paul Breines, The Young Lukacs and the Origins of Western Marxism (London: Pluto, 1979), chs 10 and 11; Hedda Korsch, 'Memories of Karl Korsch' in New Left Review 76, 1972, pp. 40-4.

20. Quoted in Arato and Breines, The Young Lukacs, p. 206. 21. Although the term Marxist Humanism has been widely used, the followers

of Raya Dunayevskaya (1910-87) in the News and Letters group in Chicago, USA, refer to her as the founder of Marxist Humanism. This is one of the reasons why I have elected to use the term 'ethical Marxism'.

22. Perry Anderson, Considerations on Western Marxism (London: New Left Books, 1976), and J. G. Merquior, Western Marxism (London: Paladin, 1986).

23. On the Frankfurt School, Rolf Wiggershaus, The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories, and Political Significance (Cambridge: Polity, 1995); Stephen Eric Bronner, Critical Theory and its Critics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995). On Sartre's Marxism, Wilfrid Desan, The Marxism of Jean-Paul Sartre (New York: Doubleday, 1966); Pietro Chiodi, Sartre and Marx­ism (Brighton: Harvester, 1978); Mark Poster, Sartre's Marxism (Lon­don: Pluto, 1979).

24. Although Gramsci remained in the PCI until his death in 1938 it is difficult to imagine him developing the ideas which appear in the Prison Notebooks as a 'free' man within the Third International. Bloch weaved together Marxism and Utopianism and worked as an academic in Ulbricht's East Germany until he fled in 1961; his chief work is The Principle of Hope (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), originally written in exile in the United States, 1938-47)- for a fascinating discussion, see Vincent Geoghegan, Ernst Bloch (London: Routledge, 1996). Lefebvre's work on alienation in everyday life flourished until the onset of the

Notes 157

Cold War, when the Communist Party refused to sanction further work; see Michel Trebitsch, Preface to Lefebvre's Critique of Everyday Life (London: Verso, 1991).

25. Adam Schaff, Marxism and the Human Individual (New York: McGraw Hill, 1970); Leszek Kolakowski, Toward a Marxist Humanism (New York: Grove Press, 1968); Karel Kosik, Dialectics of the Concrete: A Study of Problems of Man and the World (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1976; originally 1963); Agnes Heller, The Theory of Need in Marx (London: Allison & Busby, 1976); A. Hegedus, A. Heller, G. Markus and M. Markus, The Humanisation of Socialism: Writings of the Budapest School (London: Allison & Busby, 1976).

26. Mihailo Markovic and Gajo Petrovic (eds) Praxis: Yugoslav Essays in the Philosophy and Methodology of the Social Sciences (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1979); M. Markovic, The Contemporary Marx: Essays on Humanist Communism (Nottingham: Spokesman, 1974); M. Markovic, From Affluence to Praxis: Philosophy and Social Criticism (Ann Arbor: Uni­versity of Michigan Press, 1974); M. Markovic, Democratic Socialism: Theory and Practice (Brighton: Harvester, 1982). See also Oscar Gruenwald, The Yugoslav Search For Man: Marxist Humanism in Con­temporary Yugoslavia (South Hadley: Bergin, 1983); David Crocker, Praxis and Democratic Socialism: The Critical Social Theory of Markovic and Stojanovic (Brighton: Harvester, 1983).

27. Erich Fromm (ed.) Socialist Humanism (New York: Doubleday, 1965 and London: Allen Lane Penguin, 1967).

28. Some of the most influential scholastic works were: Berte! Oilman, Alienation: Marx's Critique of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971); Istvan Meszaros, Marx's Theory of Alienation (London: Merlin, 1970); David McLellan, The Young Hegelians and Karl Marx (Macmillan: London, 1969); Shlomo Avineri, The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx (Cambridge and New York: Cam­bridge University Press, 1968); Eugene Kamenka, The Ethical Foun­dations of Marxism (London and New York: Macmillan, 1962), and Marxism and Ethics (London: Macmillan, 1969).

29. Louis Althusser, For Marx (London: Allen Lane, 1969); Louis Althusser and Etienne Balibar, Reading Capital (London: New Left Books, 1970).

30. George Brenkert, Marx's Ethics of Freedom (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979); Norman Geras, Marx and Human Nature: Refutation of a Legend (London: Verso, 1983); Allen Buchanan, Marx and Justice: The Radical Critique of Liberalism (Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1982); Kai Nielsen, Marxism and the Moral Point of View (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988); Philip Kain, Marx and Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Rodney Peffer, Marxism, Mo­rality, and Social Justice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).

31. Marx makes this distinction in Capital, Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Pen­guin, 1976), pp. 758-9n. I have argued elsewhere that Marx's concept of human essence is at the heart of his social theory - Lawrence Wilde, The Concept of Contradiction in the Works of Karl Marx (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Liverpool, 1982), pp. 60-76; Lawrence Wilde, Marx and Contradiction (Aldershot: Avebury, 1989), pp. 20-35.

158 Notes

32. Geras, Marx and Human Nature, pp. 50-1. 33. A relatively small number of scholars have recognised the significance

of Aristotle's influence on Marx - see Scott Meikle, Essentialism in the Thought of Karl Marx (London: Duckworth, 1985); Michel Vadee, Marx: Penseur du Possible (Paris: Meridiens Kilncksieck, 1992), par­ticularly ch. 7; George McCarthy (ed.) Marx and Aristotle: Nineteenth Century German Social Theory and Classical Antiquity (Savage, Mary­land: Rowman & Littlefield, 1992).

34. Sarah Brodie, Ethics with Aristotle (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 45.

35. Theodor Adorno, Negative Dialectics (London: Routledge, 1973), p. 3. 36. Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton

New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 33; see also Agnes Heller, Beyond Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1987).

37. Alasdair Macintyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (London: Duckworth, 1981), chs 4, 5 and 6.

38. Marx, Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, in CW 29, p. 264.

39. Brenkert, Marx's Ethics of Freedom, passim; Lukes, Marxism and Morality, p. 29.

40. Marx, 'Speech on the Question of Free Trade' in CW 6, p. 463. 41. I have in mind here Joseph Femia's rejection of attempts to defend

Marx's democratic credentials in Marxism and Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 7.

42. CW 6, pp. 495 and 504. 43. Lawrence Wilde, Modern European Socialism (Aldershot: Dartmouth,

1994 ), pp. 117-19; I am in agreement with David Lovell's conclusion that Marx's project has no direct and necessary association with Soviet authoritarianism - From Marx to Lenin: An Evaluation of Marx's Re­sponsibility for Soviet Authoritarianism (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­versity Press, 1984).

44. In The Civil War in France Marx wrote that 'nothing could be more foreign to the spirit of the Commune than to supersede universal suf­frage by hierarchic investiture'. CW 22, p. 333; for a convincing de­fence of Marx's democratic credentials, see Daniel Doveton, 'Marx and Engels on Democracy' in History of Political Thought XV ( 4), 1994.

45. Kamenka, The Ethical Foundations of Marxism, p. 191. 46. Lukes, Marxism and Morality, p. 9.

2 THE ESSENTIALIST MARX

1. Ernst Bloch, The Principle of Hope, Vol. 3 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), p. 1367.

2. Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts in CW 3, pp. 272-9. 3. Karl Marx, 'Confessions' in CW 42, pp. 567-9. Written in the mid-

1860s; there are three different versions with minor variations; I quote the fullest responses.

4. Erich Fromm, in his Introduction to his edition of Socialist Humanism

Notes 159

(New York: Doubleday, 1965, London: Allen Lane, Penguin, 1967), p. ix ascribes the statement to Terence as 'an expression of the humanist spirit'.

5. Marx, letter to his father, November 1837, in CW 1, p. 19. 6. Marx, CW 29, p. 262. 7. Ibid., p. 264. 8. Ibid., p. 186. 9. Friedrich Engels, Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical Ger­

man Philosophy, in CW 26, p. 364. 10. In CW 3, pp. 349-51 and pp. 354-7. 11. Marx Wartofsky, Feuerbach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1977), p. XX.

12. Ludwig Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity, trans. Marion Evans (George Eliot) (New York: Calvin Blanchard, 1855), p. 288.

13. Marx, Introduction to the Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Phi­losophy of Law in CW 3, p. 175.

14. Feuerbach, Principles of the Philosophy of the Future (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1986), p. 70.

15. Ibid., p. 71. 16. Marx, 'Critical Marginal Notes on the Article by a Prussian', in CW 3,

pp. 204-5; see also Marx, 'Comments on James Mill', in CW 3, p. 217. 17. Feuerbach, Essence of Christianity, p. 45. 18. Feuerbach, Principles of the Philosophy of the Future, p. 73. 19. cw 5, p. 5. 20. Marx normally uses Entfremdung in a more explicitly evaluative manner

in the Manuscripts- see Rodney Peffer, Marxism, Morality, and Social Justice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 50; also the Glossary appended to Karl Marx, Early Writings (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), pp. 429-30.

21. CW 3, pp. 137, 212, 284 and 303. 22. CW 3, pp. 332-3 and 339. 23. Ibid., p. 342. 24. Ibid., p. 332. 25. David McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought (London: Macmillan,

1973), p. 87. 26. Engels, 'Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy', in CW 3, pp.

420 and 433; the work and its impact on Marx are discussed in Terrell Carver, Marx and Engels: The Intellectual Relationship (Brighton: Har­vester Wheatsheaf, 1983), pp. 32-45.

27. CW 3, especially pp. 448-9. 28. Horst Mewes, 'Karl Marx and the Influence of Greek Antiquity on

Eighteenth-Century German Thought' in Marx and Aristotle: Nineteenth­Century German Social Theory and Classical Antiquity, ed. G. E. McCarthy (Savage, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 1992), p. 23.

29. CW 3, pp. 298-9; CW 28, p. 18; Capital, Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 444.

30. Leslie Lipson, The Ethical Crisis of Civilization: Moral Meltdown or Advance? (Newbury Park, C. and London: Sage, 1993), pp. 43-5; see also Book Seven of Aristotle's Politics, ed. E. Barker (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1969).

160 Notes

31. Aristotle, Politics, pp. 6-7. 32. Feuerbach, Principles, p. 69. 33. cw 3, p. 276. 34. See Andrew Chitty, 'The Early Marx on Needs', in Radical Philoso-

phy 64, 1993, p. 24. 35. cw 3, pp. 276-7. 36. Ibid., p. 275. 37. cw 3, pp. 237-8. 38. cw 6, pp. 490-1. 39. Capital, 1, p. 799. 40. CW 3, p. 326; for an analysis of Marx's philosophy of money, see

Lawrence Wilde, Marx and Contradiction (Aldershot: Avebury, 1989), ch. 4.

41. Ibid., pp. 302-3. 42. Marx to Ruge, September 1843, in CW 3, p. 142. 43. Ibid., p. 227. 44. Ibid., pp. 300-1. 45. Charles Fourier, The Utopian Vision of Charles Fourier, ed. J. Beecher

and R. Bienvenu (London: Cape, 1975), Section VI. 46. Fourier had written in 1808: 'Social progress and changes of period

are brought about by virtue of the progress of women towards lib­erty, and social retrogression occurs as a result in the diminution in the liberty of women.' Ibid., p. 195.

47. cw 3, pp. 295-6. 48. CW 3, p. 306; at this stage Marx saw communism as a stage towards

socialism, but he soon reversed the terms. 49. cw 4, p. 7. 50. Ibid., pp. 36-7. 51. Ibid., pp. 195-6. 52. Ibid., p. 116. 53. Norman Geras, Marx and Human Nature: Refutation of a Legend (Lon­

don: Verso, 1983), ch. 2. He cites the writers who have used the thesis to argue that Marx had rejected the conception of human es­sence altogether on pp. 50-2.

54. Philip Kain, Marx and Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 85-9; this view is also supported by Ernest Mandel, The Forma­tion of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx (London: New Left Books, 1975), p. 162. Mandel argues that the passages involving alienation from species being cannot be interpreted as referring to 'socially de­termined alienation', yet it is frankly puzzling to imagine that Marx has any other form of determination in mind.

55. Peffer, Marxism, Morality, and Social Justice, p. 58; G. K. Browning, 'The German Ideology: The Theory of History and the History of Theory', in History of Political Thought XIV (3), 1993.

56. cw 5, p. 7. 57. Ibid., p. 236. 58. Ibid., p. 31. 59. Ibid., p. 37. 60. Ibid., pp. 36-7.

Notes 161

61. Ibid., pp. 52 and 74. 62. Ibid., pp. 47-8. 63. Ibid., p. 48. 64. Ibid., pp. 87-8. 65. Kain, Marx and Ethics, p. 85. 66. cw 5, p. 58. 67. Ibid., pp. 215-16. 68. Ibid., p. 432. 69. Ibid., pp. 462 and 490. 70. Ibid., p. 469. 71. cw 6, p. 45. 72. Kain, Marx and Ethics, p. 87. 73. cw 5, pp. 48-50. 74. cw 4, p. 93. 75. Ibid., p. 88. 76. Ibid., p. 78. 77. Ibid., p. 506. 78. cw 29, p. 264. 79. cw 9, pp. 202-3. 80. CW28, pp.17-18. 81. Aristotle, Politics, ed. Barker, E. (Oxford and New York: Oxford

University Press, 1969), p. 6. 82. Oscar Wilde, The Soul of Man under Socialism in Plays, Prose Writ­

ings and Poems (London: Everyman's Library, 1991), p. 288. 83. For example, in the Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy

of Right, in CW 3, p. 42; in the Grundrisse, CW 28, p. 93; letter to Engels, 18 June 1862, CW 41, p. 381.

84. The closeness of the philosophy of Marx and Hegel has often been noted, but the first major presentation of the relationship still merits attention - Herbert Marcuse, Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973 and Boston, originally 1941); on Marx and Rousseau, see Lucio Colletti, From Rousseau to Lenin: Studies in Ideology and Society (London: New Left Books, 1972), pp. 143-94.

85. Tim Ingold, 'Man, The Story So Far', in The Times Higher Educa-tional Supplement, June 2, 1995.

86. CW 28, p. 100, cf. CW 3, pp. 323-4. 87. cw 28, p. 154, cf. cw 3, p. 212. 88. cw 28, p. 132, cf. cw 3, p. 212. 89. cw 28, p. 233. 90. Ibid., p. 420. Marx refers here to the community of primitive men,

commenting that this is not to be confused with the zoon politikon in the political sense.

91. Ibid., p. 383. 92. Ibid., p. 99. 93. Ibid., pp. 465-6. 94. Ibid. 95. Ibid., p. 530. 96. Ibid., p. 248.

162 Notes

97. cw 31, pp. 347-8. 98. See James White, 'Marx: From the "Critique of Political Economy"

to Capital' in Studies in Marxism 1, 1994. 99. Louis Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays (London:

New Left Books, 1971), p. 81. 100. On Marx's method in Capital see Terrell Carver, 'Marx - and Hegel's

Logic' in Political Studies XXIV(1), 1976; Christopher J. Arthur, 'Hegel's Logic and Marx's Capital' in Fred Moseley (ed.), Marx's Method in Capital: A Reexamination (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1993).

101. CW 29, pp. 284-5; see also Lawrence Wilde, 'Logic: Dialectic and Contradiction', in Terrell Carver (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Marx (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

102. Capital, Vol. 1, p. 198. 103. Ibid., pp. 164-5. 104. Ibid.; the fetish simile appears to have been taken from his readings

in 1842 of De Brosse's On the Cult of Fetish-Gods. 105. Capital, Vol. 1, p. 187. 106. Ibid., p. 716. 107. Ibid., p. 799. 108. Erich Fromm, 'Humanist Psycho-Analysis and Marx's Theory' in Fromm

(ed.), Socialist Humanism (London: Allen Lane Penguin, 1967), p. 221. 109. Capital, Vol. 1, p. 759n. 110. Ibid., pp. 283-4. 111. Ibid., p. 302. 112. Ibid., p. 447. 113. cw 20, p. 15. 114. cw 42, p. 18.

3 ETHICS, JUSTICE, FREEDOM

1. Karl Marx, 'Speech on the Question of Free Trade', in CW 6, p. 464. 2. As Heinz Lubasz has done in 'The Aristotelian Dimension in Marx',

Times Higher Educational Supplement, 1 April 1977. 3. For Aristotle's influence on Hegel and Marx, see David Depew, 'The

Polis Transfigured: Aristotle's Politics and Marx's Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right', in Marx and Aristotle: Nineteenth Century Ger­man Social Theory and Classical Antiquity, ed. G. McCarthy (Savage, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 1992); on Hegel, see Allen Wood, 'Hegel's Ethics' in The Cambridge Companion to Hegel, ed. Frederick Beiser (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

4. Horst Mewes, 'Karl Marx and the Influence of Greek Antiquity in Eighteenth Century German Thought', in Marx and Aristotle, ed. G. McCarthy.

5. Michael De Golyer, 'The Greek Accent of the Marxian Matrix' in Marx and Aristotle, ed. McCarthy, p. 117.

6. See De Golyer, 'The Greek Accent of the Marxian Matrix', p. 115 -in a letter to Engels in 1861 Marx reveals that many of his Greek

Notes 163

texts were lost in Cologne in the 1850s (CW 41, p. 265); on his school studies, see S. S. Prawer, Karl Marx and World Literature (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976), pp. 1-4.

7. Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), pp. 152 and 532.

8. CW 1, p. 73 and CW 5, p. 141. 9. Julia Annas, The Morality of Happiness (Oxford and New York: Ox­

ford University Press, 1993), ch. 1. 10. In the myth, that is, Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus ends with him

chained to the rock, and the resolution is left to another play which has not survived.

11. Foreword to the Doctoral Dissertation, CW 1, p. 31. 12. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, in CW 11, pp.

106-7. He expresses similar sentiments in The Civil War in France in CW 22, pp. 335-6, where he speaks of 'long struggles' and the 'heroic resolve' of the working class.

13. cw 6, p. 212. 14. In Britain the foremost advocate of this view is Scott Meikle, Essen­

tialism in the Thought of Karl Marx (London: Duckworth, 1985), p. 58; a number of American scholars have contributed to the excellent collection edited by George McCarthy, Marx and Aristotle, op. cit.; see also Michel Vadee, Marx: Penseur du Possible (Paris: Meridiens Klincksieck, 1992).

15. Scott Meikle, Essentialism in the Thought of Karl Marx, p. 58. 16. Aristotle, Politics, ed. and trans. Barker, E. (Oxford and New York:

Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 6. 17. Alasdair Macintyre, A Short History of Ethics: A History of Moral

Philosophy from the Homeric Age to the Twentieth Century (London: Routledge, 1995), ch. 7.

18. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p. 959. 19. Capital, 1, p. 532. 20. Ibid., p. 267, cf. Aristotle, Politics, pp. 28-9. 21. Marx starts the book with a reference to Aristotle which reveals his

significance in developing the distinction between use value and ex­change value- CW 29, p. 269- and there are a further six references, some in Greek.

22. Richard Norman, The Moral Philosophers: An Introduction to Ethics (Oxford: Clarendon, 1983), pp. 176-8.

23. Alasdair Macintyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (London: Duckworth, 1981), pp. 54-6.

24. Philip Kain, Marx and Ethics (Oxford and New York: Oxford Uni­versity Press, 1991), pp. 30-2.

25. Mihailo Markovic, From Affluence to Praxis: Philosophy and Social Criticism (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan, 1973).

26. Meikle, Essentialism in the Thought of Karl Marx p. 179. 27. G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History (New York: Dover, 1956),

p. 19. 28. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Harmonds­

worth: Penguin, 1992).

164 Notes

29. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, p. 102. 30. cw 28, pp. 47-8. 31. cw 3, p. 137. 32. Horst Mewes, 'Karl Marx and the Influence of Greek Antiquity in

Eighteenth Century German Thought', in Marx and Aristotle, p. 21. 33. Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future (New York: Viking, 1968),

p. 19. 34. Meikle, Essentialism in the Thought of Karl Marx, p. 11. 35. Ibid., pp. 170-1. 36. Respectively, the Manifesto of the Communist Party in CW 6, p. 496,

and The Civil War in France, in CW 22, p. 335. 37. Ibid., p. 270. Wallerstein calls this 'utopistics'. 38. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: from the Modern State

to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity, 1995); The Com­mission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighbourhood (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Richard Falk, On Humane Governance: Toward a New Global Politics (Cambridge: Polity, 1995).

39. cw 29, pp. 263-4. 40. Steven Lukes, Marxism and Morality (Oxford and New York: Clarendon

Press and Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 142. 41. Ibid., p. 99. 42. Marx and Engels, The Holy Family in CW 4, p. 122. 43. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte in CW 11, pp.

114-18. 44. Thomas More, Utopia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991),

pp. 84-5 and 108-9. 45. One of the strengths of the utopia of the English Marxist William

Morris is that he illustrates how such things as divorce, dissent and criminality can be dealt with in a humane fashion - News from No­where (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

46. Marx, in The German Ideology in CW 5, p. 47. 47. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, p. 151. 48. Ibid., p. 152. 49. Aristotle, Ethics, trans. J. A. K. Thomson (Harmondsworth: Penguin,

1976), pp. 182-7. 50. Michael de Golyer, 'The Greek Accent of the Marxian Matrix', p. 129. 51. cw 5, p. 142. 52. John Gaskin, Introduction to The Epicurean Philosophers (London:

Everyman, 1995), pp. xxiii and xl-xli; P. Mitsis, 'Epicurus on Friend­ship and Altruism', in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, ed. J. Annas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987).

53. Kain makes a similar point in Marx and Ethics, p. 198. 54. CW 1, p. 410, cf. John Gaskin (ed.) The Epicurean Philosophers (Lon­

don: Everyman, 1995), p. 10; Michael De Golyer is the only scholar to have noted the potential significance of Marx's interest in these passages, in 'The Greek Accent of the Marxian Matrix', pp. 128-9; for a discussion of Epicurus on justice, see Julia Annas, The Morality of Happiness, pp. 293-302.

Notes 165

55. Marx, CW 5, p. 141; he also praises Epicurus for his attack on the ancient religion.

56. Marx, CW 1, p. 410. 57. G. F. Parker, A Short Account of Greek Philosophy from Thales to

Epicurus (London: Edward Arnold, 1967), p. 177. 58. Lucretius, 'De Rerum Natura: On the Nature of the Universe' in John

Gaskin (ed.), The Epicurean Philosophers (London: Everyman, 1995), p. 295.

59. The debates in North America have been covered by Rodney Peffer and Philip Kain. R. Peffer, Marxism, Morality, and Social Justice (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), chs 2 and 3 and the whole of part 2; Kain, Marx and Ethics, concentrates on the de­bate between Allen Wood and Ziyad Husami which appeared in M. Cohen, T. Nagel and T. Scanlan (eds), Marx, Justice, and History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980).

60. Norman Geras, 'The Controversy about Marx and Justice', in Geras, Literature of Revolution: Essays on Marxism (London: Verso, 1986), originally published in New Left Review 150, 1985, and 'Bringing Marx to Justice: An Addendum and Rejoinder', in New Left Review 195, 1992. A full bibliography of books and articles on the theme of Marx and Justice is included in the 1985 article and updated in 1992.

61. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3, pp. 460-1. 62. Marx, CW 24, p. 84. 63. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, p. 301. 64. Ibid., p. 731. 65. Ibid., pp. 638, 728 743, and 761. 66. Respectively, Theories of Surplus Value, part 2 (London: Lawrence

& Wishart, 1969), p. 29 and Grundrisse in CW 29, p. 91. 67. Geras, 'The Controversy About Marx and Justice', p. 56. 68. Ibid., p. 36. 69. Ibid., p. 45. 70. George Brenkert, Marx's Ethics of Freedom (London: Routledge &

Kegan Paul, 1983); Steve Lukes, Marxism and Morality (Oxford: Ox­ford University Press, 1983); Allen Wood, 'The Marxian Critique of Justice' and 'A Reply to Husami' in Cohen et al., Marx, Justice, and History.

71. Joseph McCarney, 'Marx and Justice Again' in New Left Review 195, 1992, pp. 34-5; McCarney had previously argued that Marx's moral opinions were irrelevant to his social theory, in McCarney, Social Theory and the Crisis of Marxism (London: Verso, 1990), pp. 172-4.

72. Norman Geras, 'Bringing Marx to Justice: An Addendum and Re-joinder' in New Left Review 195, 1992, pp. 62-5.

73. Ibid., pp. 14-15. 74. Ibid., p. 27. 75. Grundrisse, CW 28, p. 386. 76. Capital, Vol. 1, pp. 733-4. 77. Geras, 'The Controversy about Marx and Justice', pp. 27-8. 78. This criticism of Marx's dialectic is shared by Rodney Peffer, Marx­

ism, Morality, and Social Justice, p. 21.

166 Notes

79. Kain, Marx and Ethics, pp. 10 and 159-60. 80. The same formulation is used in 1857 (CW 28, p. 132) and in 1844

(CW 3, p. 212). 81. cw 28, p. 233. 82. From the Critique of the Gotha Programme in CW 24, p. 87. 83. In my childhood in working-class Liverpool an exchange of goods

which was palpably unfair but perfectly legal was accompanied by the 'winner' using the phrase 'fair exchange no robbery', which was both a justification and a gloat.

84. Ibid., p. 84. 85. cw 22, p. 505. 86. cw 24, pp. 86-7. 87. Ibid., p. 87. 88. Sean Sayers, 'Analytical Marxism and Morality' in Canadian Journal

of Philosophy, supplementary volume 15, 1989, pp. 96-9; see also Sayers, 'Marxism and Actually Existing Socialism', in Socialism and Moral­ity, eds D. McLellan and S. Sayers (London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 50-1.

89. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p. 911. 90. Sayers, 'Analytical Marxism and Morality', p. 90. 91. Geras, 'Bringing Marx to Justice', p. 43. 92. Ibid., p. 44. 93. Ibid., pp. 44-5. 94. cw 5, p. 53. 95. Sayers, 'Analytical Marxism and Morality', p. 91. He cites F. H. Bradley,

Ethical Studies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927), pp. 190 and 192.

96. David Bakhurst, 'Marxism and Ethical Particularism: A Response to Steven Lukes's Marxism and Morality' in Praxis International, 5 (2), 1985, pp. 210-11.

97. Ibid., p. 218. 98. cw 5, p. 49. 99. cw 22, p. 335.

100. Geras, 'The Controversy about Marx and Justice', p. 55. 101. In my reading the 'but' is taken to mean 'except'; the comma does

not help but Marx was working in a foreign language (English). Geras's interpretation would require a phrase like 'they have only' after the 'but' to make sense.

102. cw 22, p. 355. 103. cw 3, pp. 296-7. 104. cw 22, p. 355. 105. cw 5, p. 53. 106. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p. 959. 107. cw 3, p. 276. 108. cw 6, p. 516. 109. Geras, 'Bringing Marx to Justice', p. 69.

Notes 167

4 AFFLUENT ALIENATION AND ITS CONTESTATION

1. Theodor Adorno, Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life (Lon­don: Verso, 1984), p. 112.

2. Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man (London: Routledge, 1991, originally 1964), Essay in Liberation (London: Allen Lane Penguin, 1969), and Counterrevolution and Revolt (Boston: Beacon Press, 1972); Erich Fromm, Revolution of Hope: Toward a Humanised Technology (New York: Harper Collins, 1970, originally 1968) and To Have or To Be? (London: Abacus, 1993, originally 1976).

3. One-Dimensional Man, p. xlvii. 4. To Have or To Be?, p. 192. 5. For the original criticism by Marcuse, Eros and Civilisation: A Philo­

sophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974, originally 1955), Epilogue; for a reply, Fromm, The Crisis of Psychoanalysis: Essays on Freud, Marx, and Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970) - the relevant excerpts are reprinted in Critical Theory and Society: A Reader, ed. S. Bronner & D. Kellner (New York & London: Routledge, 1989), pp. 247-52.

6. For a valuable critical discussion by someone who worked closely with Fromm, see Michael Maccoby, 'Social Character versus the Pro­ductive Ideal: The Contribution and Contradiction in Fromm's View of Man', in Praxis International 2 (1), 1982.

7. In making these points Marcuse was conftating Fromm's work with two other writers who had rejected Freud's libido theory, Karen Horney and Harry Sullivan, ignoring the fact that Fromm always remained committed to the cause of socialism. See Wiggershaus, The Frank­furt School: Its History, Theories, and Political Significance (Cambridge: Polity, 1994), pp. 269-71.

8. Fromm, The Revolution of Hope, pp. 8-9f and 106; see also Fromm, 'The Crisis of Psychoanalysis' in Critical Theory and Society, eds A. Bronner & D. Kellner (New York and London: Routledge, 1989).

9. Vincent Geoghegan, Reason & Eros: The Social Theory of Herbert Marcuse (London: Pluto, 1981), p. 103.

10. John Rickert, 'Fromm-Marcuse Debate Revisited' in Theory and Society 15, 1986, pp. 386-7; on the similarities in the work of Fromm and Marcuse, see Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: a History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), pp. 111-12.

11. Hilde Weiss, 'Karl Marx's Enquete Ouvriere' in Tom Bottomore (ed.) Karl Marx (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973), originally published in the Frankfurt School's journal in 1936); the questionnaire is also pub­lished in CW 24, pp. 328-34.

12. Karl Korsch, 'Fundamentals of Socialisation' in Korsch, Revolution­ary Theory, ed. D. Kellner (Austin & London: University of Texas Press, 1977), p. 128.

13. Georg Lukacs, History and Class Consciousness (London: Merlin, 1971), p. 89, cf. p. 197.

168 Notes

14. Ibid., p. 149. 15. On Marcuse's life, see Barry Katz, Herbert Marcuse and the Art of

Liberation (London: Verso, 1982); on Fromm, see Rainer Funk, Erich Fromm: The Courage to be Human (New York: Continuum, 1982), Introduction; for brief biographical sketches of their early lives, see Rolf Wiggershaus, The Frankfurt School, pp. 52-60 and 95-104.

16. Funk, Erich Fromm, p. 5. 17. Herbert Marcuse, 'Foundation of Historical Materialism' [1932] in

Herbert Marcuse, From Luther to Popper (London: Verso, 1988), p. 8. 18. Ibid., pp. 28-9. 19. Ibid., pp. 40 and 48 (where he takes a swipe at Engels). 20. Herbert Marcuse, 'The Concept of Essence', in Marcuse, Negations

(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 55. 21. Ibid., p. 68. 22. Ibid., pp. 68-9. 23. Ibid., p. 72. 24. Ibid., p. 73. 25. Ibid., pp. 86-7. 26. Herbert Marcuse, Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social

Theory (London: Routledge, 1974). 27. Ibid., p. 286. 28. Ibid., pp. 317-18. 29. Erich Fromm, The Working Class in Weimar Germany: A Psychologi­

cal and Sociological Study (Leamington Spa: Berg, 1984), p. 228. 30. For early justifications by Fromm for the new approach, see 'Politics

and Psychoanalysis' (1931) in Critical Theory and Society, eds. Bronner & Kellner and 'The Method and Function of an Analytic Social Psy­chology: Notes on Psychoanalysis and Historical Materialism' (1932), in The Essential Frankfurt School Reader, eds A Arato & E. Gebhardt (New York: Urizen Books and Oxford: Blackwell, 1978).

31. Fromm, Escape From Freedom (New York: Avon Books, 1967), pp. 140-1.

32. Fromm, Man for Himself" An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics (New York: Owl Books, 1990), pp. 27-8n. Fromm likens this view to that of Spinoza.

33. For an excellent discussion of this aspect of Fromm's work, see Funk, Erich Fromm, ch. 5.

34. Fromm, Man for Himself, p. 13. 35. Ibid., p. 20. 36. Ibid., pp. 13 and 91-2. 37. Ibid., p. 219; on the productive orientation, see pp. 82-107. 38. Ibid., p. 221. 39. Ibid., pp. 240-1. 40. Ibid., pp. 243-4. 41. Fromm, The Revolution of Hope, p. 58; alsop. 69. 42. Erich Fromm, Marx's Concept of Man (New York: Continuum, 1992). 43. Fromm, Marx's Concept of Man (New York: Continuum, 1992), p. 47. 44. Ibid., p. 61. 45. Erich Fromm (ed.) Socialist Humanism (New York: Doubleday, 1965).

Notes 169

46. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Dialectic of Enlightenment (London: Verso, 1986), p. 9. It was written in 1944 and first pub­lished in 1947.

47. Karl Marx, Speech at the anniversary of the People's Paper in CW 14, pp. 655-6.

48. Ibid., p. XV.

49. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, pp. 159 and 168-9. 50. Fromm, To Have or To Be?, p. 151. 51. Erich Fromm, Socialist Humanism, p. xi. 52. Marx and Engels, CW 4, p. 36. 53. To Have or To Be?, pp. 76-7. 54. Essay in Liberation, pp. 10-11. 55. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 1-7. 56. Counter-Revolution and Revolt, p. 23. 57. Thomas More, Utopia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991),

p. 71; Marcuse is criticised on this count by Alasdair Macintyre, Marcuse (London: Fontana), p. 64.

58. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 5-6. 59. I am indebted to my late friend and colleague Malcolm Vout for

this point. 60. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 11-12. 61. Ibid., p. 7. 62. Fromm, To Have or To Be?, p. 175. 63. Ibid., p. 43. 64. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On The Exhaustion of Political Ideas

in the Fifties (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1960); Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (London: Heinemann, 1963).

65. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 11-12. 66. Marcuse, 'Some Social Implications of Modern Technology', in Andrew

Arato and Eike Gebhardt ( eds ), The Essential Frankfurt School Reader (New York: Urizen, 1978), pp. 144-5.

67. Marcuse, 1966 Preface to Eros and Civilisation: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974), p. xiii.

68. To Have or To Be?, pp. 11-13. 69. Ibid., p. 15. 70. Ibid., p. 111. 71. Ibid., p. 82. 72. cw 3, p. 309. 73. To Have or To Be?, p. 83. 74. Ibid., p 194. 75. One-Dimensional Man, p. 172. 76. Ibid., p. 146. 77. Ibid., p. 139; Lawrence Wilde, 'Logic: Dialectic and Contradiction'

in The Cambridge Companion to Marx (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

78. For a discussion of the relationship between these three philosophers, see Howard Williams, Hegel, Heraclitus, and Marx's Dialectic (Brighton: Harvester, 1989).

79. Erich Fromm, The Art of Loving (London: Allen and Unwin, 1975), p. 69.

170 Notes

80. For example, Marcuse, Negations, pp. 39 and 79-80; Fromm, Man for Himself, pp. 91-2.

81. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 85-92. 82. Ibid., p. 97. 83. To Have or To Be?, p. 183. 84. Fromm, May Man Prevail? An Inquiry into the Facts and Fictions of

Foreign Policy (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 26-7.

85. See Bob Jessop, The Capitalist State: Marxist Theories and Methods (Oxford; Martin Robertson, 1982), ch. 2.

86. Ernest Mandel, Late Capitalism (London: Verso, 1987). Mandel is critical of the fatalistic impression given by Marcuse in One-Dimensional Man - pp. 502-3.

87. Marcuse, Essay in Liberation, p. 14. 88. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 19-20. 89. Essay in Liberation, p. 54. 90. Marcuse, 'On the New Left' in Massimo Teodori (ed.) The New Left

(London: Cape, 1970), p. 472. 91. Essay on Liberation, pp. 85-6. 92. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 39-45; see also Marcuse, Soviet Marxism

(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971, originally 1958). 93. Lawrence Wilde, Modern European Socialism (Aldershot: Dartmouth,

1994), ch. 8. 94. Fromm, To Have or To Be?, p. 105. 95. To Have or To Be?, pp. 156-7. 96. Ibid., p. 172. 97. One-Dimensional Man, p. 254. 98. Essay on Liberation, p. 16. 99. Ibid. and Marcuse, Five Lectures (London: Allen Lane Penguin, 1970),

p. 85. 100. Marcuse, 'On the New Left', p. 470. 101. His discussion of 'Subverting Forces - In Transition' comprise Chapter

3 of Essay on Liberation. 102. 'On The New Left', p. 471. 103. Essay on Liberation, pp. 54 and 58-9. 104. On the historical significance of 1968 see Immanuel Wallerstein,

Geopolitics and Geoculture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), ch. 5 and Giovanni Arrighi, Terence Hopkins and Immanuel Wallerstein, Antisystemic Movements (London: Verso, 1989), ch. 5.

105. Essay on Liberation, pp. 65-70; in 1967 he had made it quite clear to Adorno that his sympathies were on the side of the protesters -Wiggershaus, The Frankfurt School, pp. 633-5.

106. Marcuse, Counter-Revolution and Revolt, p. 41. 107. Marcuse, 'The Reification of the Proletariat' in Stephen Bronner and

Douglas Kellner (eds), Critical Theory and Society: A Reader (New York: Routledge, 1989).

108. Essays on Liberation, pp. 53-4. 109. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 16, 17, 37, 230. 110. Ibid., pp. 245-6.

Notes 171

111. Ibid., p. 41. 112. Essay on Liberation, pp. 5-6. 113. Ibid., p. 90. 114. Ibid., pp. 23-8. 115. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Politi­

cal Styles among Western Publics (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1977) and Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial So­ciety (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990).

116. Fromm, To Have or To Be?, p. 134; unfortunately his comrades were too tolerant and settled for an apology.

117. Ibid., pp. 92-6. 118. Fromm, To Have or To Be?, pp. 167-9. 119. Ibid., pp. 101-13. 120. Ibid., p. 196. 121. Ibid., p. 133. 122. Ibid., pp. 173-7. 123. Counter-Revolution and Revolt, p. 55. 124. Ibid., pp. 43-4. The idea of achieving socialism through workers'

control was developed in the 1970s by the Swedish theorists Rudolf Meidner, Ulf Himmelstrand, and Walter Korpi - Lawrence Wilde, Modern European Socialism, ch. 4.

125. One-Dimensional Man, pp. 236-7. 126. Counter-Revolution and Revolt, p. 60; cf. One-Dimensional Man, p. 238. 127. Counter-Revolution and Revolt, p. 67. 128. Ibid., pp. 61 and 72. 129. To Have or To Be?, ch. 9. 130. Ibid., pp. 173-5. 131. Counter-Revolution and Revolt, pp. 77-8. 132. To Have or To Be?, pp. 186-9. 133. Ibid., p. 184. 134. Ibid., pp. 191-2. 135. Erich Fromm, May Man Prevail? An Inquiry into the Facts and Fic-

tions of Foreign Policy (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1961). 136. To Have or To Be?, pp. 178-9; Revolution of Hope, pp. 107-16. 137. Ibid., pp. 189-91. 138. Ibid., p. 175. 139. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, p. 251; Fromm, To Have or To Be?,

pp. 170-1. 140. To Have or To Be?, p. 193. 141. Essay on Liberation, p. 88. 142. To Have or To Be?, p. 128. 143. One-Dimensional Man, p. 214; To Have or To Be?, p. 96. 144. To Have or To Be?, p. 171.

5 AGAINST PRODUCTIVISM: HABERMAS AND GORZ

1. Jurgen Habermas, Between Fact and Norms (Cambridge: Polity, 1996), p. 479.

172 Notes

2. Andre Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology (Verso: London, 1994), p. vii.

3. One commentator to draw attention to the similarities in Gorz and Habermas is Finn Bowring, 'A Lifeworld Without a Subject: Habermas and the Pathologies of Modernity', in Telos 106, 1996, particularly pp. 94-101.

4. Jurgen Habermas, Autonomy and Solidarity: Interviews with Jurgen Habermas (London: Verso, 1992), p. 98; on his position with the Frankfurt School, see Rolf Wiggershaus, The Frankfurt School (Cam­bridge: Polity, 1995), p. 537ff.

5. Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Polity, 1989).

6. Habermas discusses Adorno and Horkheimer's work in The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Polity, 1984), part 4 (2) and in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1987), Lecture 5.

7. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 1, p. 372. 8. Habermas, Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2 (Cambridge: Polity,

1995), pp. 391-2. 9. Jurgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (Cam­

bridge: Polity, 1987), p. 76. 10. Jurgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society (Lon­

don: Heinemann, 1979), p. 97. 11. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 1, p. 10. 12. Jurgen Habermas, interview with Detlef Horster and Willem van

Reijen, 1979, in Habermas, Autonomy and Solidarity, pp. 92-3. 13. Jurgen Habermas, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action

(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 65-7 and 103-6. 14. Jurgen Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests (London: Heine­

mann, 1981), p. 33; Habermas, Theory of Practice (London: Heinemann, 1974), pp. 200-1 and 236. Both articles were first published in 1968.

15. Jurgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 341; Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, pp. 76-7.

16. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, p. 478. 17. Habermas, Autonomy and Solidarity, pp. 207-8. 18. Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests, p. 328n. 19. Ibid. 20. cw 5, p. 53. 21. cw 29, p. 263. 22. G. A. Cohen, Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Oxford: Ox­

ford University Press, 1978), particularly ch. 8; G. A. Cohen, 'Force and Relations of Production' in Marx: 100 Years On, ed. B. Matthews (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1983).

23. Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests, p. 53. 24. Ibid., p. 42. 25. Habermas, Theory and Practice (London: Heinemann, 1974), pp. 168-9. 26. Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, p. 148. 27. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, pp. 342-3.

Notes 173

28. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, pp. 78-9. 29. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), pp. 927-8. 30. V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language (Cambridge,

Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1986, originally 1929). 31. cw 28, pp. 46-8, cf. cw 5, p. 37. 32. Marx to the Editorial Board of the Otechestvenniye Zapiski, Novem-

ber 1877, in CW 24, p. 201. 33. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, pp. 78-9. 34. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 340. 35. Habermas, 'Towards a Reconstruction of Historical Materialism', in

Communication and the Evolution of Society, p. 141. 36. Ibid., pp. 151-2. 37. cw 5, p. 53. 38. Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, p. 146. 39. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 343. 40. Habermas, Theory and Practice, p. 237. 41. Ernest Mandel, Late Capitalism (London: Verso, 1987). 42. Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (Cambridge: Polity, 1988), p. 40. 43. Ibid., p. 92. 44. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 344. 45. Ibid., p. 343. 46. Habermas makes no mention of Mandel's work in The Theory of Com­

municative Action, nor does he do so in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, despite an excursus on the 'Obsolescence of the Pro­duction Paradigm'. Neither are there references to the work of pol­itical economists of the 'crisis' such as Andre Gunder Frank, Alain Lipietz, or Michel Aglietta.

47. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 339; Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, p. 352; Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, p. 46.

48. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 382. 49. Fromm's work is a good example. Erich Fromm and Michael Maccoby,

Social Character in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970); Michael Maccoby, 'Social Character versus the Produc­tive Ideal: The Contribution and Contradiction in Fromm's View of Man', in Praxis International 2 (1) 1982; Hugh Willmott and David Knights, 'The Problem of Freedom: Fromm's Contribution to a Critical Theory of Work Organisation', in Praxis International 2 (2).

50. JohnS. Dryzek, 'Critical Theory as a Research Program' in The Cam­bridge Companion to Habermas, ed. Stephen K. White (Cambridge and New York, 1995).

51. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 355. 52. John B. Thompson, Ideology and Modern Culture (Cambridge: Pol­

ity, 1990), pp. 117-18. 53. Ibid., pp. 355-6. 54. Jurgen Habermas, 'What Does Socialism Mean Today?' in After The

Fall, ed. R. Blackburn (London and New York: Verso, 1991), p. 35. 55. Habermas, Theory and Practice, p. 352. 56. Seyla Benhabib, Critique, Norm and Utopia: A Study of the Foundations

174 Notes

of Critical Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), pp. 57, 69 and 132-3.

57. Gyorgy Markus, Language and Production: A Critique of the Para­digms (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1986), pp. 98-9. Habermas replies to Markus in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, pp. 78-82; John Grumley, 'Marx and the Philosophy of the Subject: Markus contra Habermas', Thesis Eleven, 28, 1991.

58. Habermas, Between Fact and Norms, chs 7, 8. 59. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, pp. 81-2. 60. Habermas, Autonomy and Solidarity, p. 207. Habermas claims that

we can come to this conclusion after fifty years of Soviet commu­nism, but he does not tell us how twentieth-century history can de­termine the intentions of a nineteenth-century thinker.

61. See Daniel Doveton, 'Marx and Engels on Democracy', in History of Political Thought 15 (4), 1994.

62. Habermas, 'What Does Socialism Mean Today?', p. 35 - he incor­rectly attributes to Marx the Engelsian concept of the 'administra­tion of things'.

63. Autonomy and Solidarity, p. 207. 64. Cited in Andre Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology (London: Verso,

1994), p. X. 65. cw 3, pp. 227-8. 66. cw 5, p. 47. 67. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, p. 340. 68. Ibid. 69. Nancy S. Love, 'What's Left of Marx?', in The Cambridge Compan­

ion to Habermas, p. 61. 70. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, p. 295. 71. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, on feminism pp. 409-27, on

immigration pp. 491-515. 72. For a penetrating criticism of the normative aspect of Habermas's

theory see Fred Dallmayr, 'The Discourse of Modernity: Hegel, Nietzsche, Heidegger (and Habermas)', in Praxis International 8 (4) 1989.

73. Anthony Giddens, 'Reason Without Revolution? Habermas's Theorie des Kommunikativen Handelns' in Praxis International 2 (3), 1982, pp. 337-8.

74. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, p. 8; for a stout defence of Gorz against his Marxist critics, see Finn Bowring, 'Misreading Gorz', in New Left Review 217, 1996. Bowring concedes that there may be a case for arguing that Gorz misrepresents Marx (p. 109).

75. Vincent Geoghegan, Utopianism and Marxism (London: Methuen, 1987), ch. 8; Adrian Little, The Political Thought of Andre Gorz (London and New York, 1996), chs. 4 and 7; Jim Shorthose, 'Andre Gorz and Herbert Marcuse on the Politics of Work, Time, and Subjectivity' in Studies in Marxism 1, 1994.

76. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason (London: Verso, 1989), pp. 33 and 60; Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, pp. 11-12 and 24.

77. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, p. 32.

Notes 175

78. Gorz, Paths to Paradise: On The Liberation from Work (London: Pluto, 1985), p. 64.

79. Ibid., p. 66. 80. Gorz, 'Political Ecology: Expertocracy Versus Self-Limitation', in New

Left Review 202, 1993, p. 57; Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, p. 16. 81. Gorz, Farewell to The Working Class (London: Pluto, 1982), pp. 96-7. 82. Gorz, 'Political Ecology: Expertocracy', p. 66. 83. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, p. 25. 84. Ibid. and Jurgen Habermas, 'The New Obscurity', in The New Con-

servatism (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 63-9. 85. Gorz, The Traitor (London, Verso, 1989), p. 50. 86. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, ch. 2. 87. Gorz, Farewell to the Working Class, p. 90. 88. Andre Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason (London: Verso, 1989),

pp. 26-7. 89. Ibid., pp. 28-9. 90. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, p. 3. 91. The coincidence of functional work and personal activity is ascribed

to Marx in Critique of Economic Reason, p. 42. 92. cw 6, p. 506. 93. cw 24, p. 87. 94. CW 5, pp. 92-3, cited in Critique of Economic Reason, p. 29n. 95. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, p. 28. 96. Ibid. 97. CW 6, pp. 508 and 514. 98. cw 3, p. 309. 99. Ibid.

100. Erich Fromm, To Have or To Be? (London: Abacus, 1993). 101. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, pp. 91-2. 102. Ibid., p. 93; also p. 95. 103. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, pp. 188-9n. 104. cw 28, p. 530. 105. cw 29, p. 97, cf. cw 28, p. 530. 106. Gorz, Paths to Paradise, p. 33. 107. Gorz, 'Political Ecology: Expertocracy', p. 62. 108. Gorz, Farewell to the Working Class, pp. 114 and 125. 109. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, p. 93. 110. Gorz, Farewell to the Working Class, p. 94. 111. Ibid., p. 41. 112. Ibid., pp. 52-3. 113. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, p. 69. 114. Gorz, Paths to Paradise, p. 29. 115. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, p. 23. 116. Gorz, Farewell to the Working Class, ch. 6. 117. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, pp. 88-9. 118. Gorz, Farewell to the Working Class, p. 46. 119. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, p. 55. 120. Ibid., p. 100. 121. Ibid. and Gorz, 'Political Ecology: Expertocracy', p. 66.

176 Notes

122. Gorz, 'Political Ecology: Expertocracy', p. 56. 123. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, p. 16; Gorz, 'Political Ecology:

Expertocracy', p. 57. 124. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, pp. 11-12 and 25. 125. Ibid., Preface; this directly contradicts his statement in Farewell to

the Working Class that 'the number of working hours has not fallen noticeably', p. 134.

126. Ibid., pp. 70-1. 127. Gorz, 'Political Ecology: Expertocracy', p. 65. 128. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, ch. 9. 129. Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, part 3. 130. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, ch. 3. 131. See also Gorz, Paths to Paradise, p. 75; Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism,

Ecology, p. 16. 132. Gorz, 'Political Ecology: Expertocracy', p. 67. 133. Tony Brenton, The Greening of Machiavelli: The Evolution of Inter­

national Environmental Politics (London: Earthscan/Royal Institute for International Affairs, 1994), p. 255.

134. Adrian Little, The Political Thought of Andre Gorz (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 37.

6 FEMINISM AND MARX'S HUMANISM

1. William Thompson, Appeal Of One-Half The Human Race, Women, Against The Pretensions of the Other Half, Men, To Retain Them in Political, and Thence in Civil and Domestic, Slavery (London: Virago, 1983, originally 1825), p. 213.

2. See Lydia Sargent (ed.) The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Femi­nism (London: Pluto, 1981) and Seyla Benhabib and Drucilla Cornell (eds), Feminism as Critique: Essays on the Politics of Gender in Late­Capitalist Societies (Cambridge: Polity, 1987).

3. It could also be said to be 'race-blind' for the same reason, although racism and sexism can be viewed as aspects of the social relations of production - see Immanuel Wallerstein, 'The Ideological Tensions of Capitalism: Universalism versus Racism and Sexism', in Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities, ed. E. Balibar and I. Wallerstein (London and New York: Verso, 1991), ch. 2.

4. Marx and Engels, CW 5, pp. 42-4. 5. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 718. 6. See Jeff Hearn, The Gender of Oppression: Men, Masculinity, and the

Critique of Marxism (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1987), pp. 36 and 46-8. 7. Charles Fourier, Theory of the Four Movements (Cambridge and New

York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Jonathan Beecher, Charles Fourier: The Visionary and His World (Berkeley, Los Angeles and Lon­don: University of California, 1986).

8. Dolores Dooley, Equality in Community: Sexual Equality in the Writ­ings of William Thompson and Anna Doyle Wheeler (Cork: Cork Uni­versity Press, 1996).

Notes 177

9. John Stuart Mill, 'The Subjection of Women', in On Liberty and Other Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

10. Frederick Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972), p. 25; in the Introduction to this edition Evelyn Reed says that this work belongs as much to Marx as do the second and third volumes of Capital (p. 8). This view is rejected in Terrell Carver, Marx and Engels: The Intellectual Rela­tionship (Brighton: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1983), pp. 144-5.

11. Engels, in Evelyn Reed's edition of The Origin, p. 26. Reed is so shocked by this revision that she appends a footnote stating that Engels was wrong - 'guilty of inexactitude'.

12. Ibid., p. 75. The reference in The German Ideology is in the Marx­Engels Collected Works, 5, p. 44.

13. This point is thoroughly argued by Terrell Carver - 'The Impostor in the Women's Army' in The Times Higher Educational Supplement, 24 May, 1985, p. 20. 'Engels's Feminism' in History of Political Thought 6 (3) 1985, and 'Theorising Men in Engels's Origin of the Family' in Masculinities 2 (1), 1994; for a qualified defence of Engels, Michele Barrett, 'Marxist Feminism and the Works of Karl Marx', in B. Matthews ( ed.) Marx: One Hundred Years On (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1983), pp. 214-16.

14. Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex (London: The Women's Press, 1979), pp. 20-1.

15. For overview discussions, see Andrea Nye, Feminist Theory and the Philosophies of Man (London and New York: Routledge, 1988), pp. 58-64 and Michele Barrett, Women's Oppression Today: Problems in Marxist Feminist Analysis (London: Verso, 1980), ch. 1.

16. Heidi Hartmann, 'The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union', in Sargent (ed.), The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism, p. 18.

17. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 517. 18. Ibid., pp. 521-2. 19. Ibid., p. 599. 20. Ibid., pp. 602 and 629-31 respectively. 21. Karl Marx, 'Workers' Questionnaire' in CW 24, pp. 328-34. 22. Marx, Preamble to the Programme of the French Workers' Party, 1880,

in CW 24, p. 340. 23. Marx and Engels, CW 6, p. 493. 24. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), pp. 1025-6. 25. Nancy Hartsock, Money, Sex, and Power: Toward a Feminist Historical

Materialism (New York and London: Longman, 1983), p. 148. 26. Alison Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature (Totowa: Rowman

& Littlefield, 1988). 27. Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in

the International Division of Labour (London: Zed, 1986). 28. Christine Di Stefano, 'Masculine Marx', in Mary Lyndon Shanley and

Carole Pateman (eds), Feminist Interpretations and Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity, 1991).

29. Alison Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature, p. 54.

178 Notes

30. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, pp. 758-9n. 31. Ibid., pp. 56-7. 32. Ibid., p. 69. 33. Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (Oxford and New York: Oxford

University Press, 1986), ch. 1. 34. Engels, Origin, p. 149. 35. As Lerner points out (The Creation of Patriarchy, ch. 2.), we might be

wrong to assume that it was imposed and that women are therefore victims; she poses the question differently - why did women partici­pate in the construction of a system which subordinated them?

36. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature, p. 76. 37. Ibid., p. 78. 38. Susan Himmelweit, 'Reproduction and the Materialist Conception of

History: A Feminist Critique', in The Cambridge Companion to Marx, ed. T. Carver (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 215.

39. Ibid., p. 221. 40. Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in

the International Division of Labour (London: Zed, 1986), p. 52. 41. Ibid., pp. 53-4. 42. Ibid., pp. 56-7. 43. Ibid., p. 218. 44. Di Stefano, 'Masculine Marx', p. 147. 45. Linda Nicholson, 'Feminism and Marx: Integrating Kinship With the

Economic', in Feminism as Critique, eds Benhabib and Cornell, p. 18. 46. cw 5, pp. 42-4. 47. Di Stefano, 'Masculine Marx', p. 153. 48. cw 5, p. 43. 49. Ibid., p. 46. 50. Ibid., p. 50. 51. Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation, p. 51. 52. Capital, Vol. 1, p. 444n. Marx here comments that Aristotle's view of

man as a social or political animal is typical of classical antiquity, with the implication that they did not value labour highly. The impli­cation of 'Yankeedom' is that for the Americans business is the only thing that counts.

53. Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation, pp. 53-4. 54. Mary O'Brien, The Politics of Reproduction (Boston and London:

Routledge & Kegan Paul), p. 38. 55. cw 3, p. 296. 56. Marx, CW 4, p. 195. He appears to have been influenced by Fourier,

whom he cites approvingly on the following page. 57. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature, pp. 146 and 244. 58. Herbert Marcuse, Counter-Revolution and Revolt (Boston: Beacon Press,

1972), pp. 74-8; Erich Fromm, To Have or To Be? (London: Abacus, 1993), pp. 187-8.

59. Ibid., p. 294. 60. Tommaso Campanella, The City of the Sun: A Poetical Dialogue

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), p. 39. 61. See footnote 83 to Marx & Engels, CW 3, p. 603.

Notes 179

62. Di Stefano, 'Masculine Marx', p. 157. 63. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, p. 173. 64. In his Inaugural Address on the Working Men's International Associ­

ation he described the passing of the Ten Hours Bill as 'the first time in broad daylight the political economy of the middle class succumbed to the political economy of the working class' (CW 20, p. 11).

65. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3, pp. 958-9. 66. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature, p. 304. 67. Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale, p. 216. 68. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature, pp. 309-10. 69. Ibid., pp. 318-40. 70. Ibid., p. 332. 71. Ibid., p. 340. 72. Mary Davis, 'Towards a Theory of Marxism and Oppression', in Con­

temporary Politics 1 (2), 1995, p. 110. 73. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature, p. 307. Jaggar argues that

women would be alienated only if they were either wage-workers or capitalists, and that peasants are not alienated though they are cer­tainly exploited. On the contrary, peasants are not exploited, for they do not produce surplus value or contribute to its production as part of the collective workforce. But they are alienated in the sense that the market undermines their independence, stability, and control over what they produce.

74. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3, pp. 927-8. 75. I have argued for the 'loosening up' of the Marxist conception of class

analysis in 'Class Analysis and the Politics of New Social Movements', in Capital and Class 42, Winter 1990. See also Paul Browne, 'Reification, Class, and the "New Social Movements"', in Radical Philosophy 55, 1990.

76. Immanuel Wallerstein, Historical Capitalism (London: Verso, 1983), p. 103. For his discussion of sexism, see pp. 24-6, on racism, pp. 76-80.

77. Himmelweit, 'Reproduction and the Materialist Conception of His­tory', p. 220.

78. Gramsci borrows the term from Croce to assert the importance for historical materialism of understanding the moral and cultural aspects of hegemony. See Antonio Gramsci, Further Selections from the Prison Notebooks, trans. D. Boothman (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1995), pp. 343-6 and 357-8.

79. Hartmann, 'The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism', p. 29; also Iris Young, 'Beyond the Unhappy Marriage: A Critique of the Dual Systems Theory', in L. Sargent (ed.), The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism, pp. 63-5.

80. Georgy Lukacs, 'Class Consciousness' in History and Class Conscious-ness (London: Merlin, 1971).

81. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature, pp. 369 ff. 82. Lukacs, History and Class Consciousness, particularly, pp. 159-72. 83. Lukacs, History and Class Consciousness, p. 173. 84. Ibid., p. 174; this formulation is similar to Marx's in The Holy Family,

cw 4, p. 37.

180 Notes

85. Janet Biehl, Rethinking Ecofeminist Politics (Boston: South End Press, 1991), pp. 155-7.

86. Valerie Bryson, 'Adjusting the Lenses: Feminist Analysis and Marx­ism at the End of the Twentieth Century', in Contemporary Politics 1 (1), 1995; Alison Jaggar and Paula Rothenberg (eds), Feminist Frame­works: Alternative Theoretical Accounts, third edition (McGraw-Hill: New York, 1993), pp. xv-xvii.

87. Ernst Bloch, The Principle of Hope (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995), Vol. 1, p. 209.

7 MASTERING NATURE

1. Walter Benjamin, 'One Way Street', in Reflections, ed. P. Demetz (New York: Schocken), p. 93.

2. Bahro, From Red to Green (London: Verso, 1984), p. 143. 3. Rudolf Bahro, Building the Green Movement (London: Heretic, 1986),

p. 148. 4. For a review of this literature, see Robyn Eckersley, Environmentalism

and Political Theory (London: UCL Press, 1992), ch. 4; David Pepper, Eco-Socialism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice (London: Routledge, 1993), ch. 3; Martin Ryle, Ecology and Socialism (London: Radius, 1988).

5. Eckersley, Environmentalism and Political Theory, p. 26. 6. Ted Benton, 'Marxism and Natural Limits: An Ecological Critique and

Reconstruction', in New Left Review 187, 1989, 'Ecology, Socialism and the Mastery of Nature: A Reply to Reiner Grundmann', in New Left Review 194, 1992, and Natural Relations: Ecology, Animal Rights and Social Justice (London and New York: Verso, 1993).

7. Karl Marx, Grundrisse, in CW 28, pp. 524-9. 8. Ted Benton, 'Marxism and Natural Limits', in New Left Review 178,

pp. 58-60. 9. See also Frank Dietz and Jan van der Straaten, 'Economic Theories

and the Necessary Integration of Ecological Insights', in A Dobson and P. Lucardie (eds), The Politics of Nature: Explorations in Green Political Theory (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 131-4.

10. Reiner Grundmann, Marxism and Ecology (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 64.

11. Karl Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, part 2 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1969), pp. 524-5.

12. I have tried to relate this to his philosophical conception of humanity in Marx and Contradiction (Aldershot: Avebury, 1989).

13. cw 5, p. 58. 14. Ibid., p. 82. 15. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 638. 16. Marx to Engels, 25 March 1868, in CW 42, pp. 558-9; see the discus­

sion in Reiner Grundmann, Marxism and Ecology (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 79-82.

17. Marx, Capital, Vol. 3 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p. 959. 18. Ted Benton, 'Marxism and Natural Limits', pp. 82-3.

Notes 181

19. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, p. 284; see also his 'Wage Labour and Capital', Section 3, in Selected Works, p. 80 (CW 9).

20. Benton, 'Marxism and Natural Limits', p. 67. 21. Ibid., pp. 73-4. 22. Ibid., p. 75. 23. Engels, Dialectics of Nature, in CW25, pp. 460-1; see Robyn Eckersley,

Environmentalism and Political Theory, p. 81. 24. Reiner Grundmann, 'The Ecological Challenge to Marxism' in New

Left Review 187, 1991, pp. 107-8. 25. cw 28, p. 337. 26. Murray Bookchin, Toward an Ecological Society (Montreal and Buffalo:

Black Rose Books, 1980), p. 206. 27. cw 6, p. 489. 28. Ibid. 29. See the strong rejection of Daumer's nature cult, CW 10, pp. 241-6;

this is discussed by Grundmann, 'The Ecological Challenge to Marx­ism', p. 110.

30. Speech at the anniversary of the People's Paper, CW 14, pp. 655-6. 31. Marx, CW 3, pp. 275-6. 32. cw 28, p. 411. 33. cw 29, p. 92. 34. cw 3, pp. 296-7. 35. Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. 3 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p. 959. 36. Ted Benton, Natural Relations: Ecology, Animal Rights and Social Jus-

tice (London and New York, 1993), p. 31. 37. Ibid., p. 36. 38. I borrow the term from Rudolf Bahro, From Red to Green, p. 169. 39. Grundmann, 'The Ecological Challenge', p. 111. 40. cw 3, p. 308. 41. Ted Benton, 'Ecology, Socialism, and the Mastery of Nature: A Reply

to Reiner Grundmann', in New Left Review 194, 1992, p. 67. 42. Peter Dickens, Society and Nature: Towards a Green Social Theory

(London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), p. 77. However, Dickens sub­stantially accepts Benton's critique of Marx.

43. Benton, Natural Relations, p. 58. 44. Ted Benton, Natural Relations, pp. 40-5. 45. Ibid., p. 32. The term 'speciesism' has been used widely following the

immensely influential work of Peter Singer, Animal Liberation, 2nd edn (London: Thorsons, 1991) - see ch. 1.

46. Ibid., pp. 49 and 43. 47. cw 3, p. 172. 48. Benton, Natural Relations, p. 42. 49. These and the subsequent quotations are found in CW 3, pp. 275-6. 50. Ibid., pp. 276-7. 51. Ibid., p. 337. 52. Benton, Natural Relations, p. 35. 53. Ibid., pp. 36-7. 54. Jon Elster, Making Sense of Marx (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1985), pp. 62-8.

182 Notes

55. cw 3, pp. 307-8. 56. For a chilling description of what happens to animals in factory-farming,

see Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (London: Thorsons, 2nd edn 1991), ch. 3.

57. Benton, Natural Relations, p. 42. 58. Ibid., pp. 152-61. 59. Ibid., p. 43. 60. Ibid., p. 35, cf. CW 1, p. 453. 61. Capital, Vol. 1, p. 286. 62. Ibid., p. 444. 63. Ibid., p. 44. 64. Peter Singer, Practical Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1993), pp. 265-9. 65. Thomas More, Utopia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991),

pp. 57, 73 and 105. 66. Natural Relations, pp. 38-9. 67. Ibid., pp. 40-1 and 226n. 68. cw 3, p. 308. 69. Reiner Grundmann, Marxism and Ecology (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1991), pp. 253-62. 70. Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man (London: Routledge, 1991),

p. 236. 71. Marcuse, Essay on Liberation (London: Allen Lane, Penguin, 1969),

p. 5. 72. Ibid., pp. 23-4. 73. Marcuse, Counter-Revolution and Revolt (Boston: Beacon Press, 1972),

p. 67. 74. Ibid., p. 68. 75. Ibid., p. 69. 76. Robert Goodin, Green Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity, 1992), pp.

42-5. 77. Ibid., p. 119. 78. I have in mind the progress of the Marxist composer Hans Werne

Henze, but the development of the work of Aaron Copland and Henryk Gorecki can also be seen in this way.

79. On Rio, see Tony Brenton, The Greening of Machiavelli: The Evolu­tion of International Environmental Politics (London: Earthscan and The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1994), ch. 10.

80. Fritjof Capra, The Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising Cul­ture (London: Fontana, 1983), p. 217.

81. E. F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful: Economics as If People Really Mattered (London: Blond & Briggs, 1973), p. 261.

8 ETHICS AND POLITICS

1. James Stephens, The Crock of Gold (London: Macmillan, 1924), p. 312. 2. Marx, Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy

in CW 29, pp. 263-4.

Notes 183

3. Marx and Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party in CW 6, p. 506. 4. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 165. 5. Ibid., p. 103. 6. cw 22, pp. 328-43. 7. cw 4, pp. 114-15. 8. Marx, 1859 Preface, in CW 29, p. 263. 9. Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, pp. 92 and 101.

10. Ernst Bloch, The Principle of Hope, Vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995), pp. 208-10.

11. cw 6, p. 504. 12. Marx and Engels, The German Ideology in CW 5, pp. 52-3. 13. Jean-Paul Sartre, Search for a Method (New York, Vintage Books,

1963), p. 30. 14. Marxism was originally used as a term of abuse by Bakunin and his

followers but was endorsed by Engels after Marx's death. See Maximilien Rubel, 'Friedrich Engels - Marxism's Founding Father', in Varieties of Marxism, ed. S. Avineri (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1977), pp. 43-52.

15. Ibid., p. 516. 16. Alasdair Macintyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 2nd edn

(London: Duckworth, 1995), ch. 5. 17. Ibid., pp. 54-5. 18. Particularly in the Introduction to the Grundrisse, see CW 28, pp. 17-26. 19. After Virtue, p. 261. 20. Ibid., p. 262. 21. Erich Fromm, Man for Himself" An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics

(New York: Owl Books, 1990), pp. 91-2. 22. Ibid., pp. 19 and 245-50. 23. As summarised in To Have or To Be? (London: Abacus, 1993), pp.

167-8. 24. David Bakhurst, 'Marxism and Ethical Particularism: A Response to

Steven Lukes's Marxism and Morality' in Praxis International 5 (2), 1985, pp. 219-21.

25. Agnes Heller, 'The Legacy of Marxian Ethics Today', in Praxis Inter­national 1 (4), 1982, pp. 362-3.

26. R. G. Peffer, Marxism, Morality, and Social Justice (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), ch. 10, particularly p. 418.

27. Macintyre, After Virtue, p. 263. 28. cw 6, p. 464. 29. Arthur Bestor, 'The Evolution of the Socialist Vocabulary', in Journal

of the History of Ideas, Vol. IX, no. 3, 1948, pp. 273-4. 30. Lawrence Wilde, Modern European Socialism (Aldershot: Dartmouth,

1994). 31. The Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighbourhood

(Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); see also Richard Falk, On Humane Governance: Toward a New Global Politics (Cam­bridge: Polity, 1995).

32. For example, Stuart Holland, Towards a New Bretton Woods: Alterna­tives for the Global Economy (Nottingham: Spokesman, 1994);

184 Notes

J. Cavanagh, D. Wysham and M. Arruda (eds), Beyond Bretton Woods: Alternatives to the Global Economic Order (London and Boulder: Pluto, 1994).

33. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).

34. Simon Lightfoot and Lawrence Wilde, 'The 1996 Inter-Governmental Conference: What's in it for the Left?', in Contemporary Politics 2 (2), 1996.

35. Leslie Lipson, The Ethical Crises of Civilisation: Moral Meltdown or Advance (Newbury Park, CA and London: Sage, 1993), pp. 293-4.

36. Erich Fromm identifies the importance of humanistic management methods in Fromm, The Revolution of Hope: Toward a Humanised Technology (New York, Evanston and London: Harper Collins, 1968), pp. 100-4.

37. For example, Stuart Holland, Full Employment for Europe (Notting­ham: Spokesman, 1995).

38. Robert Michels, Political Parties (New York: Dover, 1959). 39. Herbert Marcuse, An Essay on Liberation (Boston and New York:

Beacon Press and Allen Lane, Penguin, 1969), p. 88. 40. The sudden closure of Renault's Vilvorde plant in Belgium early in

1997 prompted strikes and demonstrations in a number of European states.

Index Achilles 32 Aeschylus 10, 48 Adler, Max 1 Adorno, Theodor 5, 51, 58-9, 78,

86, 128, 148 agriculture 126 alienation 2-3, 7, 4, 10, 11, 13-14,

17, 18, 21-8, 30, 35, 53, 59-61, 64, 92, 96, 107, 115, 118, 128, 134

Althusser, Louis 3, 4, 27 American Socialist Party 54 Anabaptists 113 anarchism 22, 71, 150 Annas, Julia 32 Anderson, Perry 3, 80 animals 9, 15-16, 20, 29, 108,

110, 111, 123, 126, 131-8, 154 anthropocentrism 9, 122-3, 139 Aquinas, Thomas 136 Arendt, Hannah 36 Aristotle 2, 5, 15, 25, 31, 32, 33,

34, 39, 46, 57, 65, 72, 80, 136, 147

asceticism 93-5, 99 ataraxia 40, 41 Athenian democracy 15, 36 authoritarianism 77, 93-5 autonomy 92, 96, 98, 99, 100,

101-2, 119, 120, 128

Bahro, Rudolf 122 Bakhurst, David 46, 148 Balzac, Honore de 10 base/superstructure metaphor 80,

81-2, 83 Bauer, Bruno Bauer, Otto 1 beauty 16 Bell, Daniel 62 Benhabib, Seyla 88 Benjamin, Walter 83, 122, 138,

140 Bentham, Jere my 28

Benton, Ted 122-3, 125-38 Biehl, Janet 120 Bloch, Ernst 4, 5, 10, 65, 87,

121, 138, 140, 144, 148 Bookchin, Murray 127-8 Bottomore, Tom 57 bourgeoisie 30, 31, 53, 67, 73,

118 Bradley, F. H. 45 Brenkert, George 4, 42 Browning, Gary 19 Bryson, Valerie 120 Buchanan, Allen 4 bureaucracy 75, 101, 150

Campanella, Tomasso 113 capitalism 2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 17, 18,

20-1, 23, 26, 27, 28, 41, 42, 49, 50, 67, 75, 84, 85, 92, 95, 96-9, 100, 106, 107, 115, 118, 119, 127, 135, 142, 145

Carlyle, Thomas 14 Castroism 93 Chauvet caves 137 Childe, Gordon 84 civil society 18, 25 class consciousness 5, 31, 47-8,

117, 118, 128, 145 class struggle 5, 7, 23, 48, 69-70,

73, 75, 116, 145-6 Coa Valley engravings 137 commodity fetishism 3, 28, 63,

78, 142, 148 communication 17, 65-6 communication paradigm 78-9,

82, 101 communism 2, 6, 7, 11, 17, 19,

21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 40, 47, 48-9, 55, 56, 88, 89, 114, 127, 129-30, 132, 143

communist parties 4, 67, 70 community 22, 23, 31, 39, 91, 99 companionship 135 conservatism 29, 117

185

186 Index

consumer boycotts 72, 154 consumerism 60-3, 74

Dante Alighieri 10 Darwinism 25 De Golyer, Michael 32 de Ste Croix, Geoffrey 84 dehumanisation 13, 17, 18, 28 democracy 6, 36, 38, 41, 48, 70,

7~ 9~ 94, 10~ 101, 143, 152 Democritus 32 Dews, Peter 80 DiStefano, Christine 107, 109-10,

111,113 dialectics 3, 8, 14, 28, 36, 43, 55,

56, 58, 65, 83, 100, 102, 104, 128, 137, 139

Dickens, Peter 131 dictatorship 70 Diderot, Denis 10 direct action 154 discourse ethics 79, 81, 88 Dutschke, Rudi 72

Eckersley, Robyn 122 ecocentrism 9, 122-3, 139 ecology 122-3 economic crises 49, 85 Elster, Jon 134 emancipation 5-9, 11, 12, 17, 19,

4~ 69, 88, 103, 121, 12~ 139 emotivism 147 Engels, Friedrich 3, 11, 14, 22, 23,

30, 47, 49, 55, 60, 89, 94, 103, 104, 107, 108, 110, 126, 131

Enlightenment 6, 58-9, 64, 78, 80, 128, 146-7

environmentalism 73, 153 Epicurus 32, 38-41, 46 equality 39, 41, 91, 101, 107, 113,

115, 119, 147 Esau 26, 44 essentialism 10, 33, 35, 41, 43-4,

55, 81, 124 ethical community 2, 14, 23, 31,

33, 75, 86, 102, 142, 143, 149 ethics 1-2, 5, 9, 29-30, 31, 32,

45, 46, 56-7, 64, 75, 78, 92, 107, 127-8, 146-9

eudaemonia 5, 33, 72 Eurocommunism 70 European integration 151-2 exploitation 5, 9, 10, 24, 27,

31, 38, 120, 135, 142, 150, 151

expressivism 79-80 exterminism 122

fascism 58, 70 feminism 73, 74, 103, 105-21,

153 Feuerbach, Ludwig 13, 18-21, 23,

80, 124, 139 Firestone, Shulamith 104, 108,

117 First International 30, 67 Fourier, Charles 17, 18, 103 Fraas, Nikolaus 125 Franklin, Benjamin 112, 136 freedom 6, 7, 10, 14, 17, 18, 23,

26, 37, 43, 48, 51, 57, 58, 63, 71, 72, 75, 77, 89, 91, 93, 97, 103, 10~ 114-15, 12~ 12~ 128, 142, 143

Freudian psychoanalysis 52 Fromm, Erich 4, 5, 7-8, 28, 50,

51-76, 83, 8~ 89, 95, 113, 140, 148, 149-50

Fukuyama, Francis 36

Galileo 3 Geoghegan, Vincent 52 gender bias 106-10 gender relations 17, 74, 103-21 Geras, Norman 5, 19, 31, 42-9 German Revolution (1919) 53,

73 Giddens, Anthony 91 global summits, 141 globalisation 96, 100, 150 Goethe, J. W. von 10 Gorz, Andre 77-8, 89, 91-102 Goodin, Robert 139 Gramsci, Antonio 4, 83, 117 Grun, Karl 21 Grundmann, Reiner 123, 126,

130, 138 Green politics 123, 153

Index 187

Habermas, Jiirgen 8, 77-91 harmony 15, 21, 38, 41, 63, 73,

93, 94, 113, 127, 128, 129, 139-41

Hartmann, Heidi 105 Hartsock, Nancy 106 Hegel, G. W. F. 2, 3, 10, 13, 20,

23, 25, 31, 45, 46, 55, 56, 65, 80, 88, 133, 142

Held, David 151 Heller, Agnes 148-9 Heraclitus 65 heteronomy 92, 101 Himmelweit, Susan 108, 117 historical materialism 7, 10, 11,

18, 20, 29, 81, 85, 118, 142 Homer 32 Hobbes, Thomas 25 Horkheimer, Max 58-9, 78, 86,

128 human essence 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10,

11, 12, 15-17, 18-30, 33, 38, 54-8, 75, 78, 79-80, 88, 92-3, 103, 108, 120, 124, 133-4, 137, 142

Burne, David 6 Husami, Ziyad 43

ideology 12, 20, 51, 61-3, 64, 65-6, 70, 87, 114, 115, 138

Iliad 32 individualism 22, 24-5, 26, 60,

63-4, 72, 93-4, 117, 146, 147 Ingelhart, Ronald 71 Ingold, Tim 25 internationalism 67, 150-2 Irish famine 131

Jaggar, Alison 8, 107-8, 118, 120 justice 7, 33, 38-46

Kain, Philip 5, 19, 21, 22, 35 Kamenka, Eugene 7 Kant, Immanuel 2, 6, 80, 14 7 Kautsky, Karl 1, 3, 7, 55 Keane, John 97 Kolakowski, Leszek 4 Korcula 4 Korsch, Karl 3, 53

Kosik, Karel 4 Kriege, Hermann 22

law 38, 78, 81-2, 91 Lefebvre, Henri 4, 5, 65, 83, 87 Lenin, V. I. 3, 7, 68, 72, 76, 147 Lessing, G. E. 10 liberalism 70, 90, 113, 143, 150 Liebig, Justus von 125 Liebknecht, Karl 54 lifeworld 78-9, 90, 92, 100 Lipset, Seymour Martin 62 Lipson, Leslie 151-2 Little, Adrian 101 Liverpool dockworkers 154 Love, Nancy 90 Lukacs, Georg 3, 53, 118-19, 147 Lukes, Steven 5, 7, 38, 42 lumpenproletariat 69 Luxemburg, Rosa 54, 150

McCarney, Joseph 31, 42-3 McCarthy, Eugene 150 Macintyre, Alisdair 6, 9, 35, 143,

146, 148, 149 Malthus, Thomas Robert 123 Mandel, Ernest 66, 85 Maoism 93, 94 Marburg School 1 Marcuse, Herbert 3, 7-8, 50,

51-76, 78, 79, 87, 89, 113, 138-40, 149, 153

Markovic, Mihailo 5, 35, 65 Markus, Georg 88 Marx, Karl

Capital, Vol. 1 2, 24, 27, 29, 34, 39, 43, 53, 105, 106, 107, 113

Capital, Vol. 3 45, 48, 106, 116, 125, 129

The Civil War in France 44, 47,143 Comments on James Mill 2, 11,

17, 26, 49, 89 Contribution to the Critique of

Hegel's Philosophy of Right 11

Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy 11, 20, 23, 27, 34, 37

188 Index

Marx - continued Critique of the Gotha

Programme 41, 42, 44, 94 Doctoral Dissertation 32, 40 Economic and Philosophical

Manuscripts 2, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 48, 49, 54, 63-4, 110, 111, 113, 129, 132, 133

The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte 33

The German Ideology 2, 11, 20-3, 40, 43, 89, 94, 103, 107, 110, 111, 124

Grundrisse 24, 26, 36, 43, 83, 95-6, 129

The Holy Family 2, 17, 23, 113 Manifesto of the Communist

Party 16, 23, 89, 94, 106, 127

On the Jewish Question 2, 132 The Poverty of Philosophy 33 Speech for the People's

Paper 128 Theories of Surplus Value 27,

124 Theses on Feuerbach 13, 18-19 Wage Labour and Capital 24 Workers' Questionnaire 53, 106

Meikle, Scott 33, 37 Merquior, J. G. 3 Mewes, Horst 14, 36 Mies, Maria 8, 107, 108-9 Mill, James 104 Mill, John Stuart 104 money 16, 25-6, 28, 39, 79, 132 monogamy 107 moral argument 1, 7, 10, 14, 30,

41, 47, 105-6, 107, 137, 143, 144, 146-9

More, Thomas 61, 137 Morgan, Lewis 104 Munzer, Thomas 132, 135, 137 music 139, 140 myth 101

nationalism 30, 53, 152 naturalistic fallacy 34-5 nature 55, 58-9, 73, 76, 100,

107-13, 122-41

needs 60-1, 71, 72, 73, 90, 98, 132, 133, 135, 138

neofascism 70 new social movements 69-76,

141, 153 Nielsen, Kai 5 Nietzsche, Friedrich 147, 148 Norman, Richard 2, 34

O'Brien, Mary 112 Odysseus 32 Odyssey 32 Orpheus 139 Orwell, George 66 oppression 5, 9, 38, 69, 91, 103,

104, 107-8, 117, 119

Paris Commune 47-8, 89, 143 patriarchy 60, 74, 105, 115, 117 Peffer, Rodney 5, 19, 149 perfectionism 38 Pericles 74 phallogocentrism 103 Plato 75 Pol Pot 1 positivism 64 Praxis Group 4 Priam 32 production 14, 17, 20, 28, 38,

48-9, 60, 75, 78, 81, 82, 83, 96-7, 101, 105, 109, 110-15, 125-~ 131, 135, 14~ 143

productiveness 57, 62, 72 productivism 77 Prometheus 32, 48 Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph 34 public house 24, 95

race/racism 30, 116, 118, 154 Rawls, John 149 rebirth 101 Reich, Wilhelm 56 religion 12, 25, 72, 94 renunciation 95, 101 revolution 6, 21, 23, 55, 67, 69,

71, 73, 75, 143 Ricardo, David 24, 27, 123, 124 Rickert, John 52 Rothenberg, Paula 120

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 25 Ruge, Arnold 17 Russian Revolution 6, 7

Sand, George 33 Sartre, Jean-Paul 4, 79, 83, 87,

145, 148 Sayers, Sean 31, 45 Schumacher, E. F. 141 servility 10 sexism 116, 117, 118, 154 sexual reproduction 27, 103,

104, 105, 108-12, 115, 117, 126

Shakespeare, William 10, 25 Smith, Adam 24, 95 social democracy 7, 67, 76, 99,

101, 150, 152-3 socialism 17, 38, 49, 53, 67, 68,

76, 77, 88, 89, 146, 150 solidarity 67, 68, 75, 118, 150,

153-4 Sorel, Georges 101 South Africa 63 Soviet Marxism 6, 56, 67 species 22, 29, 67, 111 species being 19, 23, 57 Spinoza, Benedict 57 Stalin, J. V. 1, 72 Stalinism 92, 93, 94, 118 state 4, 14, 66, 67, 70, 84-5, 91,

92, 117, 143, 152 Stephens, James 142 Stirner, Max 21, 22, 124 surplus value 24 system 78-9, 83, 85, 89, 90, 92,

100

Index 189

Taylor, Harriet 104 teleology 23, 33, 35-6, 45, 72, 83,

86, 114, 137, 142 Third International 3 Thompson, John 87 Thompson, William 103, 104 Thomson, George 84 totalitarianism 7, 60, 67 Trotsky, L. V. 76

United States of America 63, 69 universality 15-16, 19, 56-7, 88,

94, 104, 115, 118, 133-4 utilitarianism 147 utopianism 17, 36, 47, 49, 55, 79,

89, 93, 95, 96, 99, 113, 145, 150

Verne, Jules 76 Vietnam 63 Volosinov, V. N. 83

Wallerstein, Immanuel 37, 116 Weber, Max 82, 90-1, 101 Wheeler, Anna 104 Wilde, Oscar 25 Winckelmann, Johann 32 Wittfogel, Karl 84 Wood, Allen 42 workers 14, 21, 28, 53-4, 69-70,

73, 77, 81, 82, 91, 96, 98-9, 105-6, 118, 119, 142, 144-5

World War I 53, 68

xenophobia 117

Zeus 32 Zinoviev, Grigori 3