Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. R. Okey, Eastern Europe 1740-1980 (London, 1982), p. 176. 2. H. Seton-Watson, Eastern Europe between the Wars (New York, 1969),

p.129.

1. REVOLUTION IN EASTERN EUROPE

1. H. Seton-Watson, Eastern Europe between the Wars (New York, 1967), p.156.

2. On Tito and the Yugoslav Communist Party, see G. R. Swain 'Tito: the formation of a disloyal Bolshevik' in International Review of Social History (1989), where full references to non-English language sources will be found.

3. For the Comintern radio transmitter, see G. R. Swain, 'The Comintern and Southern Europe' in T.Judt (ed.), Resistance and Revolution in Mediterranean Europe (London, 1989) where full references to non-English language sources will be found.

4. For the impact of the Nazi-Soviet Pact on Eastern Europe, see Swain, 'The Comintern'. The enthusiastic support for the notion of an imperialist war given by Milovan Djilas, the future dissident Yugoslav communist, is worth noting; see M. Djilas, Memoir of a Revolutionary (New York, 1973) p. 329. For the number of East Europeans fighting in Spain, see International Solidarity with the Spanish Republic, 1936-39 (Moscow, 1975).

5. For the lessons of the Spanish Civil War, see Swain, 'The Comintern'.

6. For the prominence of the Yugoslav Communist Party at this time and the revolutionary views of Tito, see Swain 'Tito'.

7. For a clear summary history of the Yugoslav partisans, see M. C. Wheeler, 'Pariahs to partisans to power: the Communist Party of Yugoslavia' inJudt, Resistance and Revolution.

8. For communist control over the liberation committees, see G. R. Swain, 'The Cominform, Tito's International?', Historical Journal (1992) where full references to non-English language sources will be found.

227

228 NOTES

9. For Tito's talks with Mihailovic, see M. C. Wheeler, Britain and the War for Yugoslavia, 1940-43 (New York, 1980), p. 88.

10. Some details of the operation are given in London's memoirs; A. London, On Trial (London, 1970).

11. See Swain, 'The Comintern'. 12. The attitude of Communist Parties to resistance front organisations

and the whole question of 'parity' versus representation 'from below' is discussed in Swain, 'The Cominform'.

13. Swain, 'The Comintern'. 14. For the response of French and Italian communists to these

instructions, see P. Robrieux, Histoire IntCrieure du Parti Communiste (3 vols, Paris, 1981), II pp.78-81, and J. Urban, Moscow and the Italian Communist Party (Cornell, 1986) pp. 198-9.

15. Wheeler, 'Pariahs'. 16. N. Pano, The People's Republic of Albania (Baltimore, 1968)

pp.41-57. 17. The role of the Yugoslav Communists in Greece is discussed in

Swain, 'Cominform'. 18. N. Oren, Bulgarian Communism: the Rnad to Power, 1934-44 (New

York, 1971), p. 201. 19. Oren, Bulgarian Communism, p.202ff. and Sh. Atanasov, Pod

znameneto na partiyata (Sofia, 1962), p.145ff. For documents putting Yugoslav support before Red Army support, see V'orzhenata borba na B'lgarskiya narod protiv fashizma (Sofia, 1962).

20. Oren, Bulgarian Communism, p. 206. 21. Oren, Bulgarian Communism, p. 211. 22. Atanasov, Pod znameneto, p.20l. According to Bulgarian police

reports, the British had promised as early as February 1944 to support underground and partisan operations to the point of insurrection and the creation of a Fatherland Front Government; see O. Vasilev, V'or'zhenata s'protiva fashizma v B'lgariya (Sofia, 1946), p. 566.

23. S. G. Tanev, Internatsionalnata missiya na s'vetskata armiya v B'lgariya, 1944-7 (Sofia, 1971), p. 43.

24. Oren, Bulgarian Communism, p. 224ff. 25. Oren, Bulgarian Communism, p. 252ff. Incidents of Red Army sup­

port for beleaguered partisans are described in Tanev, Internatsionalnata missiya, p. 60 and Istoriya na BKP: kratkii ocherk (Sofia, 1969), p. 223.

26. 1. Tomasevich, 'Yugoslavia during the Second World War' and W. D. McClellan, 'Post-war Political Evolution' in W. S. Vucinich, Contem­porary Yugoslavia (Berkeley, 1969); Wheeler, 'Pariahs'.

27. McClellan, 'Political Evolution'; G. W. Hoffman and F. W. Neal, Yugoslavia - the New Communism (New York, 1962).

28. Hoffman and Neal, Yugoslavia; P. Auty, 'The Post-war Period' in H. C. Darby et aL, A Short History of Yugoslavia (Cambridge, 1966).

29. Hoffman and Neal Yugoslavia; Auty, 'Post-war Period'. 30. Swain, 'The Cominform'; H. Seton-Watson, 'Albania' in

A. Toynbee and V. V. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1939-46: the Realignment of Europe (Oxford, 1955).

NOTES 229

31. RJ. Crampton, A Short History of Modem Bulgaria (Cambridge, 1987), p. 145ff.

32. Crampton, A Short History of Modem Bulgaria, p.151; H. Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution (London, 1961), p. 213 . • 33. B. Petranovic, 'T~to i Staljin, 1944-6' in Jugoslovenski Istorijski

Casopis, Belgrade, 1988; C. Strbac, Jugoslavija i odnosi izmedju socialistiCkikh zemalja: sukob KPJ i Informbiroa (Belgrade, 1984), p. 69, p. 259.

34. Seton-Watson, Revolution, p. 213ff.; J. Tomaszewski, The Socialist Regimes of East CentralEurope (London, 1989), pp. 95-100.

35. Seton-Watson, Revolution, p. 216; Tanev, Internatsionalnata missiya, p.92.

36. Crampton, A Short History of Modem Bulgaria, p. 155. 37. Strbac, Jugoslavija, p. 257.

2. DIFFERENT ROADS TO SOCIALISM

1. S. Fischer-Galati, The New Romania (Massachussets, 1967), p. 18ff.; R R King, History of the Romanian Communist Party (Stanford, 1980), p.37ff.

2. King, Romanian Communist Party, p. 43ff. 3. S. Fischer-Galati, Twentieth Century Romania (Columbia, 1970),

p. 82ff.;]. Tomaszewski, The Socialist Regimes of East Central Europe (London, 1989), p. 73.

4. G.Ionescu, Communism in Romania 1944-62 (Oxford, 1964), p. 81ff.; Fischer-Galati, New Romania, p. 27.

5. Fischer-Galati, Twentieth Century, p. 83ff.; Ionescu, Communism, Communism in Romania 1944-62, p. 81ff.; N.!. Lebedev, Istoriya Rumynii, 1918-70 (Moscow, 1971), p. 445ff.

6. Ionescu, Communism, p.288; Fischer-Galati, New Romania p.28; Fieher-Galati, Twentieth Century, p. 90.

7. Ionescu, Communism, p. 105ff. 8. Ibid. 9. Tomaszewski, The Socialist Regimes, p.91. Fischer-Galati, Twentieth

Century Romania, p.l04, argues that the election result was not as fraudulent as once supposed: a contemprary observer, S. Lowery, also argued that, despite abuses before and after the poll, the opposition would not have won; see his 'Romania' in A. Toynbee and V. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1939-46: the Realignment of Europe (Oxford, 1955), p. 300.

10. J. Coutouvidis andJ. Reynolds, Poland, 1939-47 (Leieester, 1986), p.113ff.

11. Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland, p. 120; S. Lowery, 'Poland' in Toynbee, Survey, p. 135; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier (eds) , The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), p. 7.

12. Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland, p. 124ff. An idea of the impor­tance Stalin attached to this body can be seen by the fact that both the

230 NOTES

Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and the former Head of the Comintern, Georgi Dimitrov, served on it; see T. Toranska, ONI: Stalin s Polish Puppets (London, 1987), p. 232-9.

13. Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland, p. 124ff.; Polonsky and Drukier, Beginnings, pp. 16-22.

14. Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland, p. 142ff. 15. Ibid. 16. Lowery, 'Poland', p.190ff.; Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland,

p.187. 17. Lowery, 'Poland' p.223; Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland,

p.175. 18. Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland, p. 199ff. 19. Jakub Berman, Poland's security chief during the 1940s, recalled

shortly before his death: 'Stalin's one overriding aim in all this was, of course, to ensure that Poland would be bound to the Soviet Union by firm ties of loyalty .. .'; see Toranska, ONI, p. 247.

20. Toranska, ONI, p.37, p.274; Coutouvidis and Reynolds, Poland, p.278ff.

21. P. Zinner, Communist Strategy and Tactics in Czechoslovakia, 1918-48 (London, 1963) p. 74ff.

22. G. R. Swain, 'The Cominform: Tito's International?', Historical Journal (1992).

23. H. Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution (London, 1961), p. 181; Zinner, Communist Strategy, p. 99ff.

24. M. Myant, Socialism and Democracy in Czechoslovakia, 1945-8 (Cam­bridge, 1981), p. 57; J. Rupnik, Histoire du PaTti Communiste Tchichoslovaque (Paris, 1981), p. 159.

25. J. Bloomfield, Passive Revolution: Politics and the Czechoslovak Working Class 1945-8 (London, 1979), p.76 ff.; Zinner, Communist Strategy, p.118ff.

26. Zinner, Communist Strategy, p. 135ff. 27. Myant, Socialism and Democracy in Czechoslovakia, 1945-8,

pp.111-12, pp. 138-40. 28. S. Lowery, 'Hungary', in Toynbee, Survey, pp.317ff.; H. Seton­

Watson, Revolution, p. 97ff. 29. J. Tomaszewski, Socialist Regimes, p.52; Seton-Watson, Revolution,

p. 192; D. Nemesh, Osvobozhdenie Vengrii (Moscow, 1957), p. 148. 30. For the February speech of Rakosi, see A. Ross Johnson The

Transformation of Communist Ideology (Massachusetts, 1972) citing the doctoral thesis ofW. McCagg. See also Histury of the Revolutionary Workers' Movement in Hungary, 1944-62 (Budapest, 1972), pp. 39-40, 52 and 88, and Nemesh, Osvobozhdenie, pp. 185-7.

31. Lowery, 'Hungary'; Tomaszewski, Socialist Regimes, p. 52 et seq. 32. S. M. Max, The United States, Great Britain and the Sovietisation of

Hungary, 1945-48 (New York, 1985), p. 33. 33. Max, The Sovietisation of Hungary, p. 86; Lowery, 'Hungary'. 34. Max, The Sovietisation of Hungary, p. 88. 35. Max, The Sovietisation of Hungary, p. 89; Lowery, 'Hungary'.

NOTES 231

36. Max, The Sovietisation of Hungary, p. 90. 37. Although Britain and the United States protested at the arrest of

Bela Kovacs, the British authorities at least were convinced that he was guilty of the charges brought by the Soviet authorities; see Max, The Sovietisation of Hungary, p. 96.

38. Seton-Watson, Revolution, p. 199. 39. Max, The Sovietisation of Hungary, p. IlIff.

3. AN END TO DIVERSITY

l. S. M. Max, The United States, Great Britain, and the Sovietisation of Hungary, 1945-58 (New York, 1985), p. 119ff.

2. For the Djilas-Molotov meeting, see G. R. Swain, 'The Cominform: Tito's International?', Historical Journa~ 1992.

3. J. Rupnik, Histoire du Parti Communiste Tchechoslovaque (Paris, 1981), p.193.

4. For the Founding Conference of the Cominform and Tito's speech to the Second Congress of the People's Front, see Swain, 'Cominform'.

5. Events in Slovakia during October 1947 and the first half of November suggest Shinsky first tried to reorganise the Slovak National Front, only to have Gottwald intervene to reimpose the status quo; see M. Myant, Socialism and Democracy in Czechoslovakia, 1945-8 (Cambridge, 1981), p. 173; P. Zinner, Communist Strategy and Tactics in Czechoslovakia, 1918-48 (London, 1963), p. 193.

6. K. Kaplan, The Short March: the Communist Takeover in Czechoslovakia, 1945-8 (London, 1981), p. 106; Myant, Socialism and Democracy in Czecho­slovakia, 1945-8, p. 179.

7. Swain, 'Cominform'. 8. Zinner, Communist Strategy, p. 197ff. For the civil service pay deal,

see J. Bloomfield, Passive Revolution: Politics and the Czechoslovak Working Class, 1945-8 (London, 1979), p. 211; for the popular support for the coup, see V. F. Kusin, 'Czechoslovakia' in M. McCauley (ed.), Communist Power in Europe, 1944-9 (London, 1977), p. 92.

9. Kaplan, The Short March, p. 175. 10. Swain, 'Cominform'. 11. Tito's foreign visits at this time are covered extensively in the

Yugoslav daily Borba. For Tito's reception, see M. Djilas Vlast (London, 1983), p. 109.

12. Swain, 'Cominform'; G. Ionescu, Communism in Romania, 1944-62 (Oxford, 1964), p. 151; for the shouts of 'Tito', see the reports of both congresses in Borba.

13. See the text of a resolution passed at the instigation of Rikosi by the Hungarian Communist Party Politburo on 8 April 1948, reproduced in V. Dedijer, Novi prilo1.i za biografiju Josipa Broza Tita, vol. III (Belgrade, 1984) p. 38B.

14. C. Strbac, Jugoslavija i odnosi izmedju socialistickih zemaija: sukob KPJ i Informbiroa (Belgrade, 1984), p. 83ff.

232 NOTES

15. Z. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (Cambridge Mass., 1971), p. 57.

16. Swain, 'Cominform'; E. Barker, 'Yugoslav policy towards Greece, 1947-9' in L. Baerentzen et al. (eds) , Studies in the History of the Greek Civil War (Copenhagen, 1987).

17. Swain, 'Comiform'. 18. For the text of the letters, see The Royal Institute of International

Affairs, The Soviet-Yugoslav Dispute (London, 1948). 19. Swain, 'Cominform'. 20. T. Toranska, ONI: Stalin s Polish Puppets (London, 1987), p. 282. 21. J. Coutouvidis and]. Reynolds, Poland, 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986),

p.306ff. 22. Toranska, ONI, p. 287. 23. G.Ionescu, Communism In &mania 1944-62 (Oxford, 1964),

p.151. 24. That is not to say there were no trials in Poland or Romania,

but that their nature and extent was different. In Poland the Security Chief Jakub Berman had some success in protecting the Party, and Gomulka, from the worst excesses of Stalin; while in Romania Party leader Gheorghiu-Dej used each new development in the show trials to strengthen his personal position in the Party.

25. G. H. Hodos, Show Trials: Stalinist Purges in Eastern Europe, 1948-54 (New York, 1987) p. 10ff.

26. Hodos, Show Trials, p. 15ff.;J. D. Bell, The Bulgarian Communist Party from Blagoev to Zhivkov (Stanford, 1986), p. 104. Because of the problems caused by the opposition of Dimitrov to the trial of his former collaborator, opposition removed by the death of Dimitrov on 2July 1949, the trial took place after that of Rajk.

27. Hodos, Show Trials, p.26ff. This reconstruction is based on scattered memoir references: for the existence of a USC hospital in Toulouse, see A. London, On Trial (London, 1970) p.33; for the operations of the French Communist Party's Migrant Workers' Office in Toulouse, see 1. Gosnjak, 'Jugoslaveni, bivsi dobrovljci u Spaniji, u koncentracionim logorima u Francuskoj' in Cetrdeset godina: zbornik seianja aktivista jugoslovenskog revolucionarnog radniCkog pokreta (Belgrade, 1960) p.249.

28. Hodos, Show Trials, p. 30; for the 'partisan route' through Southern France, Northern Italy and Yugoslavia, see Swain, 'Cominform'.

29. Hodos, Show Tria~ p. 33ff.; for the Cominform Resolution, see For a lasting peace, for a peoples democracy, 29 November 1949.

30. Hodos, Show Trials, p. 76ff.; E. Loebl, Stalinism in Prague (New York, 1968) p.46.

3l. London, On Tria~ p. 33ff.; E. Loebl, Stalinism, p. 46 et seq. 32. N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev &members (London, 1971) p. 217;

G. D. Ra'anan, International Policy Formation in the USSR (New York, 1983), p. 81.

33. Y. A. Gilboa, The Black Years of SovietJeuny, 1939-53 (Boston, 1971) p.226ff.

NOTES 233

34. Hodos, Show Trials, p.79fI. For tension between Gottwald and Shinsky, see E. Taborsky, Communism in Czechoslovakia, 1948-60 (Princeton, 1961), p. 102.

35. These illustrations from life in the Eastern Bloc at this time were taken more or less at random from contemporary press coverage recorded in Keesings Contemporary Archives. The workings of the Stalinist economic system are covered in Chapter 5.

36. A. Ross Johnson, The Transformation of Communist Ideology (Cambridge, Mass., 1972), pp. 87-8.

37. RossJohnson, The Transformation, pp. 161-3. 38. RossJohnson, The Transformation, pp. 101-6. 39. RossJohnson, The Transformation, pp. 164-6. 40. S. Clissold, Djilas: the Progress of a Revolutionary (London, 1983),

pp. 223-5; ibid p. 203. 41. Cited in Ross Johnson, The Transformation, p. 204. 42. RossJohnson, The Transformation, pp. 206-7. 43. M. Djilas, Rise and Fall (London, 1985), p. 320. For the Soviet offer

to resume diplomatic relations, see Keesings Contemporary Archives, p. 13001 citing The Times.

44. Djilas, Rise and Fal~ p. 320; S. Clissold, Djilas, p. 226. 45. A. Rothberg (ed.), Anatomy of a Moral: the Political Essays of Milovan

Djilas (London, 1959), pp. 39-40, pp. 62-3, p. 106, and pp. 124-42. 46. Keesings Contemporary Archives, p 13409, citing The Times. 47. RossJohnson, The Transformation, p. 169.

4. 1956: COMMUNISM RENEWED?

1. R. Service, 'The road to the Twentieth Party Congress: an analysis of events surrounding the Central Committee Plenum of July 1953', Soviet Studies, 1981.

2. For summaries of the Czechoslovak strikes gleaned from the contemporary press, see Keesings Contemporary Archives, p. 13040.

3. Hungary's Secret Speech (Report of Comrade Imre Nagy, 27 June 1953 to the HWP Central Committee), LabourFocusonEasternEurope, No.1 (1985), p. 11.

4. F. Vali, Rift and Revolt in Hungary (Cambridge, Mass., 1961), p.123.

5. Vali, Rift and Revolt, p. 123. 6. I. Nagy, On Communism: in Defence of the New Course (London, 1957),

p.207fI. 7. B. Lomax, Hungary 1956 (London, 1976), p. 24; Vali, Rift and Revolt,

p.153. 8. YaH, Rift and Revolt, p. 154, p. 206. 9. For the limitations of Malenkov's economic reforms, see A. Nove,

An Economic History of the USSR (London, 1969), p. 322ff. 10. V. Dedijer, Novi prilozi za biografiju Josipa Broza Tita, vol. III (Bel­

grade, 1984), p. 550fI.

234 NOTES

11. For Khrushchev's Statement, see Keesings Contemporary Archives, p. 14265, citing the Yugoslav news agency Tanjug.

12. Ibid. 13. Dedijer, Novi prilozi, vol. III, pp. 567-89. 14. Dedijer, Novi prilozi, vol. III, p. 461; M. Djilas Rise and Fall (Lon­

don, 1983) p. 320. 15. Dedijer, Novi prilozi, vol. III, p. 549. 16. For Tito's speech in Karlovac on 18 July 1955, see Keesings

Contemporary Archives, p. 14359, citing Tanjug. 17. P. Zinner (ed.), National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern

Europe (New York, 1956), p.9. Khrushchev confided his problems in overcoming opposition within the Communist Party Presidium to the Yugoslav ambassador Veljko Micunovic; see V. Micunovic, Moscow Diary (London, 1980) p.27

18. For Tito's speech and the text of the declaration, see Keesings Contemporary Archives, p. 14937, citing Tanjug; for the Yugoslavs' pleasure with the Declaration, see Micunovic Diary, p. 74.

19. For Tito's secret links with Gheorghiu-Dej, see Dedijer, Novi Prilozi, p. 546; for the Yugoslav glee at the downfall ofChervenkov, seeJ. F. Brown, Bulgaria under Communist Rule (London, 1970), p. 67.

20. Keesings Contemporary Archives, p. 14937; for Tito and the protest note concerning the Rajk trial, see Keesings Contemporary Archives, p. 10291, citing Tanjug.

21. Micunovic, Diary, p. 75-6; p. 178. 22. Micunovic, Diary, p. 91. 23. Lomax, 1956, p. 52ff. 24. Lomax, 1956, pp. 32. 25. Lomax, 1956, p. 31, p. 34; Borba, 20 July 1956. 26. Borba, 23 and 24 July 1956. 27. Vali, Rift and Revolt, p. 249; Micunovic, Diary, p. 116. 28. Lomax, 1956, pp. 47-9, p. 70. 29. Cited in Lomax, 1956, p. 68. 30. Vali, Rift and Revolt, p. 261ff; M. Molnar, Budapest: 1956 (London,

1971), p. 122ff. 31. See Keesings Contemporary Archives, p. 15191, citing contemporary

press and newsagency reports. 32. Lomax, 1956, p. 148ff.; Molnar, Budapest, pp. 174-5; for Tito's

message to Gero and Kadar concerning workers' councils, see G. Ionescu, The Break-up of the Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe (London, 1965), p. 76.

33. Vali, Rift and Revolt, for the reminiscences of participants, see F. Feher and A. Heller, Hungary 1956 Revisited (London, 1983), p. 51. For the Cominform's assessment of Yugoslav self-management, see For a Lasting Peace, for a People~ Democracy, 7 July 1950, 12 October 1951, 20 June 1952, 7 November 1952, and 3 December 1952. While hostile, these accounts are detailed and informative, and mostly written by Romanians, adding credence to the suggestion that the Romanian leadership was not as hostile to Tito as its official stance suggested.

34. Micunovic, Diary, p. 131ff.

NOTES 235

35. For Kadar's conciliatory stance on workers' councils and the subsequent fate of workers' councils in Hungary, see Lomax, 1956, p. 164ff.; for the issue of workers' councils in Soviet-Yugoslav relations, and Yugoslavia's support for Kadar, see Micunovic, Diary, p. 178; Soviet support for the Yugoslav concept of workers' councils, and their con tinued criticism of other aspects of the Yugoslav reforms, is hinted at in Pravda articles of 23 and 29 November 1956. At the time, the public side of Soviet-Yugoslav disagreements over Hungary was the presence of Nagy in the Yugoslav Embassy. Hindsight suggests that the question of whether Kadar would stick to the agreement to introduce workers' councils seems to have been equally important.

36. Zinner, National Communism, p. 535. 37. For contemporary press coverage of the Poznan riots, see Keesings

Contemporary Archives, p. 14967. 38. Cited in K. Syrop, Spring into October (London, 1957), p. 61 ff. 39. Zinner, National Communism, p. 169. 40. Syrop, Spring, p. 83. 41. Syrop, Spring, p. 85ff. 42. Zinner, National Communism, p. 244; K. Reyman and H. Singer,

'The Origins and Significance of East European Revisionism' in L. Labedz (ed.), Revisionism, p. 217.

43. T. Toranska, ONI: Stalin's Polish Puppets (London, 1987), p. 183; J. F. Brown, The New Eastern Europe: the Khrushchev Era and After (London, 1966), p. 53-4; Reyman and Singer, 'Origins', p. 218.

44. Zinner, National Communism, p. 312. 45. For the purge in the GDR, see G. H. Hodos, Show Trials: Stalinist

Purges in Eastern Europe, 1948-54 (New York, 1987), p. 113ff. 46. W. H. Kraus, 'Crisis and revolt in a satellite: the East German case

in retrospect' in K. London (ed.), Eastern Europe in Transition (Johns Hopkins, 1966), p.47. Like all disputes within the Soviet leadership at this time personalities and politics became hopelessly mixed. Once the decision to back the GDR had been taken, Beria was saddled with the blame for proposing its dissolution and promptly purged. It seems likely that the idea was more widespread; after all, the creation of the GDR was a decision taken after Molotov's dismissal as Foreign Minister in March 1949, one of the ripple effects of Stalin's belief in a Zionist conspiracy; the first thing to happen on Stalin's death was the reappointment of Molotov to the Foreign Minister's post.

47. Dedijer, Novi Prilozi, p. 568. 48. R. A. Remington, The Warsaw Pact (Massachussets, 1971), p.18.

The text of the Warsaw Pact is given in Keesings Contemporary Archives, p.14251.

49. G.lonescu, Communism in Romania: 1944-62 (Oxford, 1964), p. 268, p. 272.

50. A. Bromke, 'Poland's Role in the Loosening of the Communist Bloc' and S. Fischer-Galati, 'Romania and the Sino-Soviet Conflict' in K. London (ed.), Eastern Europe in Transition, p. 81, p. 91, p. 266.

51. Ionescu, Communism in Romania, p. 269ff.

236 NOTES

52. J. D. Bell, The Bulgarian Communist Party from Blagoev to Zhivkov (Stanford, 1986), p. 115ff. A very brief flowering of the liberal press in Czechoslovakia was confined to the spring of 1956; see F. L. Kaplan, Winter into Spring: the Czechoslovak Press and the Reform Movement, 1963-8 (New York, 1977) p. 28ff.

53. Djilas' article appeared in the New York socialist paper, The New Leader. Extracts are reproduced in M. Lasky (ed.), The Hungarian Revolution: a White Book (London, 1957) p.270.

54. Micunovic, Diary, p. 75, pp. 237-320. 55. For the Political Consultative Committee of the Warsaw Pact, see

R A. Remington, The Warsaw Pact, p. 37.

5. ACTUALLY EXISTING SOCIALISM IN OPERATION

1. For a much fuller account of how Marx's theoretical constructs were converted into a functioning economic system see: N. Swain, Hungary: The Rise and Fall of Feasible Socialism (London and New York, 1992), pp.61-8.

2. W. Brus, 'Postwar Reconstruction and Socio-Economic Transforma­tion', in M. C. Kaser and E. A. Radice (eds), The Economic History of Eastern Eurf1Je 1991-1975, Vol. II (Oxford, 1986), p. 570.

3. J. M. Van Brabant, Socialist Economic Integration (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 31-4. The precise date within 1949 is a matter of some dispute.

4. N. Spulber, The Economics of Communist Europe (New York and London, 1957), pp. 21-2. Spulber includes neither the GDR nor Albania, but Albania was clearly the poorest nation is Europe, while the future GDR is clearly categorisable as industrial, even though it included the less industrialised parts of pre-war Germany.

5. Swain, Hungary: The Rise and Fall, p. 72. 6. Sources: J. F. Triska (ed.), Constitutions of the Communist Party

States (Stanford, 1968); B Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Governments: a World Survey, 3 vols (London, 1981); R F. Staar, Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, fourth edition (Standford, 1982); RJ. McIntyre, Bulgaria: Politics, Economics, and Society (London and New York, 1988); H-G. Heinrich, Hungary: Politics, Economics and Society (London, 1986); G. Kolankiewicz and P. G. Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society (London and New York, 1988); M. Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society (London and New York); Keesings Contemporary Archives Record of World Events.

7. E. Hankiss, East European Alternatives (Oxford, 1990), pp. 31-4. 8. J. F. Triska (ed.), Constitutions of the Communist Party States (Stanford

University,1968). 9. M. C. Kaser, Health Care in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

(London, 1976). lO. ZS. Ferge, A Society in the Making (Harmondsworth, 1979), p. 64. 11. Swain, Hungary: The Rise andFal~ p. 188. 12. It is beyond the scope of this book to consider social inequalities

NOTES 237

under 'actually eXlstmg socialism' in any greater depth. The reader is referred to the following works: D. Lane, The End of Inequality? (Harmondsworth, 1971); I. SzeIenyi, Urban Inequalities under State Socialism (Oxford, 1983); Ferge, A Society in the Making, Swain, Hungary: The Rise and FaIL

6. REFORM COMMUNISM OR ECONOMIC REFORM

1. F. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies (Harmondsworth, 1974), pp.138-55.

2. W. Brus, '1953 to 1956: "The Thaw" and "The New Course"', in M. C. Kaser (ed.), 'The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919-1975, Vol. III (Oxford, 1986), p. 53; Swain, Hungary: the Rise and Fall, pp. 85-95; M. McAuley, Marxism-Leninism in the German Democratic Republic (London, 1979), pp. 102-5.

3. Brus, '1953 to 1956 .. :, pp.54-5; W. Brus, '1957-65: In Search of Balanced Growth' in M. C. Kaser (ed.), The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919-1975, Vol. III (Oxford, 1986), pp. 97-8.

4. C. A. Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964 (Balti­more and London, 1966), pp. 80-7; Brus, '1957 to 1965 .. :, pp. 95-6.

5. Brus, '1957 to 1965 .. :, pp. 103-20. 6. J. Roesler, 'The Rise and Fall of the Planned Economy in the

German Democratic Republic, 1945-1989', German History, Vol. 9, No.1, pp.51-3.

7. Brus, '1957 to 1965 .. :, pp.110-11; W. Brus, '1966 to 1975: Normalisation and Conflict', in M. C. Kaser (ed.), The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919-1975, Vol. III (Oxford, 1986), pp. 186-7.

8. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. :, pp. 191-3. 9. For a full discussion of Hungary's New Economic Mechanism, see

Swain, Hungary: The Rise and Fall, pp. 84-114. 10. T. Bauer, 'A note on money and the consumer in Eastern Europe',

Soviet Studies, Vol. XXXV Uuly 1983), p. 381. 11. For a full discussion of developments in agriculture in Hungary, see

N. Swain, Collective Farms lVhich Work? (Cambridge, 1985). The key findings of this work are summarised in an article with the same titre in T. Shanin, Peasants and Peasant Societies (Second Edition, Harmondsworth, 1988).

12. W. Brus, '1950 to 1953: The Peak of Stalinism', in M. C. Kaser, (ed.), The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919-1975, Vol. III (Oxford, 1986), pp.22-4; F. Singleton and B. Carter, The Economy of Yugoslavia, London, 1982, p. 128.

13. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. :, pp.165-9; B. McFarlane, Yugoslavia: Politics, Economics and Society (London and New York, 1988), p. 126.

14. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. :, p. 167. 15. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. .', p. 195. 16. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. :, pp. 216-17. 17. R.J. Crampton, A Short History of Modern Bulgaria (Cambridge,

1987), pp. 178-84.

238 NOTES

18. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. .', pp.218-19; R.J. McIntyre, Bulgaria: Politics, Economics and Society (London and New York, 1988), p.112; G. R. Feiwe1, 'Economic development and planning in Bulgaria in the 1970s', in A. Nove (ed.), The East European Economies in the 1970s (London, 1982), p. 233.

19. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. .', pp.222-3; A. Smith, 'The Romanian industrial enterprise', in I. Jeffries (ed.), The Industrial Enterprise in Eastern Europe (Eastboume and New York, 1981), pp. 64-6.

20. N. C. Pano, The People's Republic of Albania (Baltimore, 1968), pp. 179-80; M. Kaser and A. Schnytzer, 'The economic system of Albania in the 1970s; developments and problems', in Nove (ed.), The East European Economies in the 1970s, pp. 316-21.

21. Pano, The People's Republic of Albania, pp. 130-80. 22. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, p. 160. 23. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, pp.158-60, 289-90,

447; M. Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society (London, 1985), pp. 50-71, 159-76; van Brabant, Socialist Economic Integration, p. 174.

24. McAuley, Marxism-Leninism in the German Democratic Republic, pp. 107, 113, 157.

25. Crampton, A Short History of Modern Bulgaria, pp. 179-90; McIntyre, Bulgaria: Politics, Economics and Society, p. 68; Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, pp. 449-50.

26. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, p. 176; G. Kolankiewicz and P. G. Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society (London and New York, 1988), p. 180.

27. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, pp. 449-50; Crampton, A Short History of Modern Bulgaria, p. 183.

28. Cited in Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, p. 443. 29. Dennis, The German Democratic Republic: Politics, Economics and Society

(Pinter, London, 1988), pp. 47, 91,118-19; Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, p.443; McAuley, Marxism-Leninism in the German Democratic Republic, p. 133.

30. Dennis, The German Democratic Republic, p. 177. 31. Brus, '1957 to 1965 .. .', pp. 118-21; A. Carter, Democratic REform

in Yugoslavia (London, 1982), pp.4-24; McFarlane, Yugoslavia: Politics, Economics and Society, pp.26 and 71; Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, p. 444.

32. G. L. Weissman (ed.), Revolutionary Marxist Students Speak Out 1964-68 (New York, 1972), p. 3; Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, pp. 179-80 and 195; C. M. Hann, A Village Without Solidarity: Polish Peasants in Years of Crisis (New Haven and London, 1985), pp. 40-1; Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 139 and 180.

33. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, pp. 178, 228 and 493, Weissman, Revolutionary Marxist Students Speak Out 1964-68, pp.5-7; Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, p. 142.

34. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, pp. 289-90, and 447-50; Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 160-1.

35. Nepszabadsag, 21 January 1962.

NOTES 239

36. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, pp. 168-9; H-G. Heinrich, Hungary: Politics, Economics and Society (London, 1986), pp. 65-6.

37. Good brief accounts of the Czechoslovak events of 1968 can be cound in A. Pravda, 'Czechoslovak Socialist Republic', in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Governments: a World Suroey, Vol. II (London, 1981), pp.261-92; H. Renner, A History of Czechoslovakia since 1945 (London and New York, 1989), pp. 49-85.

38. ]. Batt, Economic Reform and Political Change in Eastern Europe, London, 1988, p. 77.

39. G. Golan, The Czechoslovak Reform Movement (Cambridge, 1971), pp.I-8.

40. M. Myant, The Czechslovak Economy 1948-88 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 95-lO6 and 113.

41. J. Adam, Economic Reforms in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe since the 1960s (London, 1989), p. 58ff.

42. Brus, '1966 to 1975 ... , p. 2lO. 43. Golan, The Czechoslovak Reform Movement, pp 22-31. 44. Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, p.447-8; Golan, The

Czechoslovak Reform Movement, p. 278. 45. Dubcek's BluepnntforFreedom (London, 1968), pp.132, 144, 152,

165-7. 46. Ibid., p. 228. 47. Golan, The Czechoslovak Reform Movement, p. 314 48. Golan, The Czechoslovak Reform Movement, p. 307. 49. Cited in K. Dawisha, The Kremlin and the Prague Sfrring (Berkely,

1984), p. 376. 50. Renner, A History of Czechoslovakia since 1945, pp. 75-88. 51. The documents prepared for the 14th Congress ofthe Czechoslo­

vak Communist Party make clear that the next stage of the Czechoslovak reform was to pass legislation enshrining the revived National Front as the ~~w organisation to which all legal political parties and mass organisations 'W\mld belong. Once established, political pluralism would take place within the umbrella of the front. However, the documents make equally clear that, for the foreseeable future, and certainly for the next two years, 'it will be necessary to ensure by a complex of well thought out measures that relations with the National Front, and the system of elections, continues to guarantee the hegemony and priveleges of the Communist Party'; see J. Pelikan The Secret Vysocany Congress (London, 1971), p. 231.

7. NEO-STALINISM TRIUMPHANT

1. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. .', pp. 142 and 150-3. 2. A. Heller and F. Feher, From Yalta to Glasnost (Oxford, 1990),

p.163. 3. Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 38-94, 178-82

and 187, Keesings Record of World Events.

240 NOTES

4. Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 111-14, 178-82 and 187.

5. Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 117 and 142-3; Smith, 'The Romanian industrial enterprise', in I.Jeffries (ed.), The Industrial Enterprise in Eastern Europe, pp. 75-82; M. Kaser and I. Spigler, 'Economic refonn in Romania in the 1970s', in Nove (ed.), The East European Economies in the 1970s, pp. 274-5.

6. Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society, pp.l07-9 and 117-18.

7. Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 146, 150, 163 and 170-3.

8. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. .', pp. 220-1; Feiwel, 'Economic development and planning in Bulgaria in the 1970s', in A. Nove (ed.), TheEastEuropean Economies in the 1970s, 233-5; Crampton, A SIwrt History of Modern Bulgaria, p. 197; McIntyre, Bulgaria: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 99 and 101-5. For a discussion of Hungary's 'symbiotic' policies in agriculture see Swain, Collective Farms, pp. 51-79.

9. McIntyre, Bulgaria: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 120-1. 10. McIntyre, Bulgaria: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 68 and 80-1;

L. Holmes, 'People's Republic of Bulgaria', in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Gavernments: A World Suroey, Vol. I (London, 1981), pp. 116-44; H. W. Degenhardt (ed.), Political Dissent (Harlow, 1983), p. 3.

11. Crampton, A SIwrt History of Modern Bulgaria, pp.191, 201 and 205.

12. B. Szajkowski, 'Socialist People's Republic of Albania', in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Gavernments: a World Suroey, Vol. I (London, 1981), pp. 34-61; Keesings Record of World Events.

13. Kaser and Schnytzer, 'The economic system of Albania in the 1970s; developments and problems', in Nove (ed.), The East European Economies in the 197050 pp.321-4; Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. .', p. 299 (includes the quotation cited); M. Milivojevic, 'Albania', in S. White (ed.), Handbook of Reconstruction in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (Harlow, 1991), pp. 7, and 10-11.

14. Milivojevic, 'Albania', in S. Whit~ (ed.), Handbook of Reconstruction in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, pp.7, and 10-11; Szajkowski, 'Albania .. .', p.42; Kaser and Schnytzer, 'The economic system of Albania in the 1970s; developments and problems.', in Nove (ed.) , The East European Economies in the 197050 p. 329; P. Sandstrom and O. Sjoberg, 'Albanian Economic Perfonnance: Stagnation in the 1980s', Soviet Studies, Vol. 43, No.5 (1991), p. 943.

15. H. Lydall, Yugoslavia in Crisis (Oxford, 1989), p. 9 16. D. A. Dyker, Yugoslavia: Socialism, Development and Debt (London

and New York, 1990), pp. 66-7. 17. Dyker, Yugoslavia: Socialism, Development and Debt, p. 69-70. 18. Dyker, Yugoslavia: Socialism, Development and Debt, pp.69, 72-3,

80-1.114-15; Lydall, Yugoslavia in Crisis, p. 82. 19. A. Carter, DemocraticRefurm in Yugoslavia, pp. 25 and 251-4; Dyker,

Yugoslavia: Socialism, Development and Debt, pp. 77-9.

NOTES 241

20. F. Singleton, 'Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia', in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Governments: A World Suroey, Vol. III (London, 1981), p. 796; Dyker, Yugvslavia: Socialism, Deuelopment and Debt, pp. 87-8; McFarlane, Yugvslavia: Politics, Economics and Society, p.38; B. Magas, 'Yugoslavia: the Spectre of Balkanization', New Left Review, No. 174 (March/April, 1989), pp. 9-11.

21. Dyker, Yugvslavia: Socialism, Deuelopment find Debt, pp.123-4; Magas, 'Yugoslavia: the Spectre of Balkanization', New Left Review, No. 174 (March/April, 1989), pp. 13-14; M. Lee, 'Kosovo: between Yugoslavia and Albania', New Left Review, No. 140 Guly/ August 1983), p. 63

22. Renner, A History of Czechoslavakia since 1945, pp. 93-103; Fejto, A History of The People's Democracies, p. 482; Pravda, 'Czechoslovak Socialist Republic', in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Governments: a World Suroey, p.268.

23. Brus, '1966 to 1975 .. .', pp. 215-16. 24. Adam, Economic Reforms in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe since the

1960s, pp. 190-1 and 205-7; Renner, A History ofCuchoslovakia since 1945, p. 114; G. Wightman and P. Rutland, 'Czechoslovakia', in S. White (ed.), Handbook of Reconstruction in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, p. 42.

25. Renner, A History of Czechoslovakia since 1945, pp.110-11 and 179-80.

26. Renner, A History of Czechoslavakia, pp. 121-33. 27. Renner, A History of Czechoslovakia, pp. 140-4. 28. Dennis, The German Democratic Republic, pp. 35-8. 29. M. Melzer, 'Combine Formation and the Role of the Enterprise in

East German Industry', in Jeffries (ed.), The Industrial Enterprise in Eastern Europe, pp 98-105; Dennis, The German Democratic Republic, pp. 112 and 131-3.

30. A. Aslund, Private Enterprise in Eastern Europe (London, 1985), pp. 118-204; Dennis, The German Democratic Republic, pp. 140-2.

31. Dennis, TheGermanDemocraticRepublic,pp. 39-40,78,114-26,131, 147 and 151-2.

32. N. Swain, 'The Evolution of Hungary's Agricultural system since 1967' in P. G. Hare, H. K. Radice and N. Swain (eds), Hungary: a Decade of Economic Refm'm (London, 1981), pp. 244-7.

33. Swain, Hungary: The Rise and FaU . .. , pp. 115-52; H-G. Heinrich, Hungary, Politics and Society (London, 1986), pp. 48,63 and 86.

34. Hann, A Village . .. , p. 48. 35. P. Green, 'The Third Round in Poland', New Left Review, No. 101-2

(February/April, 1977), pp. 71-8; D. Singer, The Road to Gdansk (New York and London, 1981), pp. 157-96.

36. Adam, Economic Reforms in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe since the 1960s, pp. 90-9; Green, 'The Third Round in Poland', New Left Review, No. 101-2 (February/April, 1977), p. 81.

37. Green, 'The Third Round in Poland', New Left Review, No. 101-2 (February / April, 1977), pp. 71-8, pp. 79-80, 87-96; Hann, A Village .' .. , p.44.

38. Green, 'The Third Round in Poland', New Left Review, No. 101-2

242 NOTES

(February/April, 1977), pp. 99-105; Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Poli­tics, Economics and Society, p. 67; G. Sandford, 'Polish People's Republic', in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Governments: A World Suroey, Vol. III (London, 1981), p. 570.

39. Singer, The &ad to Gdansk, pp. 212-27. 40. Singer, The &ad to Gdansk, pp. 255-72. 41. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society,

pp.109-1O and 185; M. Myant, 'Poland - The Permanent Crisis?' in R. A. Clarke (ed.), Poland: :rhe Economy in the 1980s (London, 1989), p. 1; W. Brus, 'Evolution of the Communist Economic System: Scope and Limits', in V. Nee and D. Stark (eds), Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford, 1989), p. 257.

42. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, p. 127; Polish agricultural policy is more fully discussed in K-E. Waedekin (ed.), Communist Agriculture (London, 1990), p. 279.

43. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, pp.87-93 and 164-8; G. Sandford, Military Rule in Poland (Lon­don, 1986).

44. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 54 and 62; Hankiss, East European Alternatives, pp. 82-111.

8. THE FALL OF ACIUALLYEXISTING SOCIALISM

Where no other source is cited, this chapter is based on western press reports of 1989 to 1991, Keesings Record of World Events and two useful source materials for the years of change in Eastern Europe: S. White, Handbook of Reconstruction in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (Harlow, 1991), and B. Szajkowski, New Political Parties of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (Harlow, 1991).

1. Fejto, A Histury of The People's Democracies, p. 463. 2. J. Batt, East Central Europe from Reform ,to Transformation (London,

1991), p. 25. 3. Myant, 'Poland - The Permanent Crisis?' in R. A. Clarke (ed.) ,

Poland: The Economy in the 1980s, p. 3. 4. Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Suroey of Europe in

1989-1990 (New York, 1990), pp. 87 and 116. 5. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 31,

58-9,100. 6. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, p. 71. 7. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society,

p.133. 8. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, p. 75. 9. Kolankiewicz and Lewis, Poland: Politics, Economics and Society, p. 28. 10. Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Suroey of Europe in

1989-1990, p. 204.

NOTES 243

11. Renner, A History of Czechoslovakia since 1945, pp. 152-3. 12. Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Survey of Europe in

1989-1990, pp. 116 and 204. 13. Z.A. B. Zeman, The Making and Breaking of Communist East em Europe

(Oxford, 1991), pp. 327-8. 14. Renner, A History of Czechoslovakia since 1945, p. 158. 15. Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Suroey of Europe in

1989-1990, pp. 116 and 204. 16. Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Survey of Europe in

1989-1990, p. 116. 17. Dyker, Yugoslavia: Socialism, Development and Debt, p. 140 and 143;

Magas, 'Yugoslavia: the Spectre of Balkanization', New Left Review, No. 174 (March/April, 1989), p. 6.

18. Dyker, Yugoslavia: Socialism, Development and Debt, p. 146. 19. See ch.7, for the significance of Kosovo in Serbian national

mythology. 20. San strom and Sjoberg, 'Albanian Economic Performance: Stagna­

tion in the 1980s', Soviet Studies, Vol. 43, No.5 (1991), p. 943. 21. C. Mabbs-Zeno, 'Agricultural Policy Reform in Albania', CPE Agri­

culture Report, Vol. IV, No.6 (November/December 1991), p. 7.

Index

'Actually existing socialism' in opera­tion, Chapter 5 101-26, 150, 159

Ademec, Ladislav 206 Mghanistan, Soviet intervention 159,

161 Ahmeti, Vilson 221 Allied Control Commissions (ACC)

30,31 (in Bulgaria); 50-3 (in Hungary); 36-8 (in Romania)

Albania: Agrarian Party 221 agricultural policy 166, 221 Albanian Communist Party, (Alba-

nian Party of Labour) 13, 21, 121 (Table 5.9),166,219-21 (1991 name changed to Socialist Party of Albania 221)

Albanian Democratic Front 28, 116 (Table 5.7)

Albanian People's Liberation Insur­gent Army 23;

autonomy from the Soviet Union (1960) 141-2

banking system 221 becomes a Socialist state 1945, 28 centralisation 166 collapse of communism, (1986-92)

190-1,219-21 constitution 116-17 (Table 5.7),

165-6,220 cultural revolution 140,142 decentralisation 166 Democratic Party of Albania 220-1 demonstrations against the commun-

ist regime 219-21 economic reform 132,138,140,219,

221 electoral reform 220 foreign policy 166 foreign trade 166 leaves Warsaw Pact 142 People'sAssembly 116 (Table 5.7)

Provisional Democratic Government 22

political reform 219 political, social and economic situa-

tion 1970-85, 165-7 privatisation 221 reform communism 190-1 relations with China 141,166 Republican Party 220 return of collectivised land 221 Social Democratic Party 220 Soviet economic aid programmes

discontinued 141 Soviet Union breaks off diplomatic

relations 142 trade deal with China (1961) 141;

Alia, Ramiz 219-21 Antall,J6zsef 198,200-1 Antonescu (fascist dictator of Roma-

nia) 35,40 Atanasov, Shteryu, (Bulgarian Comin­

tern official) 23, 30 Arab-Israeli War (1967) 150 Austrian Communist Party 15

Bahro, Rudolf 177 Balcerowicz, Leszek 193 Balkan Federation 30, 32, 38, 62, 63,

65,67,107,141 Benary, Arne 131 Benes, (Czechoslovakian President)

48 Behrens, Fritz 131 Beria, Levrantii, (Soviet Security Cheif)

78,81-2 Berlin 97, 131, 133, 174 Berlin Treaty (1970) 145 Berlin Wall, (construction) 133, 145;

(destruction) 201,203,205,209 Bevin, Ernest (British Foreign Minis­

ter) 54 Bielecki,Jan Krzysztof 194

244

INDEX 245

Bierut, Boleslaw 40-4, 66 Brezhnev 144, 158 (transform-

ation of communism) 171 (events in Czechoslovakia 1966-70) 190

'Brezhnev doctrine' 157, 159-1, 180, 181, 185

British Communist Party 15 British Labour Government 1947 (on

Hungary) 54, 57 British Labour Party 49 British Military Mission (to Albania)

67; (to Bulgaria) 23-4; (to Yugo­slavia) 21

British support for Tito 21, 67 Brus, Wlodzimierz 139, 149, 153 Bujak, Zbigniew 192, 194 Bulganin, Nikolai (Soviet Prime Minis­

ter) 81-2,93 Bulgaria:

Agrarian Union 119 (Table 5.8), 210

'Agreement Guaranteeing a Peace­ful Transition to Democratic So­ciety' 211

agriculture in crisis (1962) 139 agricultural reform 164, 211 banking system 164, 211 becomes a socialist state (1945) 28-32 Bulgarian Communist Party,

(changed name to Bulgarian Social­ist Party (BSP) 1990) 13, 15, 22-3, 25,29,31,58,121,145,164,165, 209-11

Bulgarian Government during Second World War 23-5

Bulgarian Peace Treaty (1947) 28, 31-2,61

Bulgarian People's Militia 29 constitution 115, 116-17

(Table 5.7),118,165,211 cultural policy 146,165 diplomatic relations with West Ger­

many established 1973 165 economic reform 132, 139, 164,

208-11 electoral reform 211 Fatherland Front 24-6,28-31, 116

(Table 5.7) foreign policy 145-6, 165 'Great Leap' (1958-59) 145 impact of Hungarian Revolution

(1956) 99 land reform 29, 211

Land Reform Law (1991) 211 'New Economic Mechanism' 164 Party of Rights and Freedoms 210 'Pladne group (Agrarian Party) 24-5,

29 political changes 1956, 99 political reform 208, 210 political, social and economic situa-

tion (1970-84) 163-5 privatisation 211 price increases 211 recentralisation 164 reform communism 190-1, 209 trade union movement 29,209-11 transition to democracy (1985-

92) 190-1, 208-11 Treaty with Turkey (1969) 145 Turkish minority issue 209 Union of Democratic Forces 209-

11 'Zveno' Military League'

(zvenari) 24-5, 29, 31

Caifa, Marian 206 Carnogursky, Jan 207 Ceausescu, Elena 161,212 Ceausescu, Nicolae (President of the

Republic of Romania) 115,121 (Table 5.9),142-4,160-1,163,191, 212, 213 (fall from power 1989)

Ceausescu, Nicu 161,213 Ceausescu family's domination of the

Communist Party 160-1,212-13 Central Planning (Stalinist Model

of) 106-7 (Table 5.1), 110-12, 114, 127-8, 134-5 (East Germany), 136 (Hungary), 139, 142 Romania)

Charter 77, 163, 165, 172-3, 188,205 Chervenkov, Vulko (Bulgarian party

leader) 83,99, 145 Chou En-Iai 129, 142 Churchill 20-1,37,63-4 Cold War Politics 56-65, 96 Comecon 107,112,132-3,141-3,156,

161, 163, 167,176,187,192,202,222, Cominform (The Communist Informa­

tion Bureau) 57-9,61-3,65-7,69, 71-2,81-3,96,98-9,106-7

Comintern (Communist Internation-al) 13-16, 18-20,40,57,99, 144

Communist movement in Eastern

246 INDEX

Europe during the Inter-War peri­od 12-14

Communist movement in Eastern Europe during the Second World War 14-26

Communist Party 'Bureau' 35 (Roma­nia) , 40-2 (Poland)

'Communist International, The' (jour­nal of Com intern) 18

Cornea, Doina 213 Customs Union (1947 - Albania, Bul­

garia, Romania, Yugoslavia) 63 Czechoslovakia:

Action Programme (1968) 154-6 agrarian reform 48 Christian Democracy Movement 207 Civic Forum 206-7; 207 (split into

Civic Democratic Party and Civic Movement in 1990)

collapse of communism 1986-92 190,204-8

collectivisation 208 Communist Coup (1948) 59-61 Communist Party of Czechoslova-

kia 34,47-9,58-61,70-1, 121 (Table 5.9),153-7,171-2,204-6

constitution U5, U6-17 (Table 5.7) UB, 152 (1960 new constitution), 206

cultural policy 152-4 currency reform 78, 207 decentralisation 208 Democratic Party 47 demonstrations against the commun-

ist regime 78, 205-6 'divorce' between Slovakia and the

Czech lands (1992) 207 economic reform 132, 153, 171, 204,

207-8 Emergency Laws (1969) 171 Federal structure U5-18 foreign trade 153, 171-2 Law on Assembly (1968) 155 legislation passed returning national-

ised property and land (1991) 208 nationalisation 47-9 National Front 49, 59-60, U6

(Table 5.7), 154-7 National Socialist Party 47, 60-1 New Course 152-3 'normalisation' 157-9, 170 People's Party 47,60, U9 (Table

5.8)

Platform for a Democratic Slo-vakia 207

political events 1945-47 46-9 political events 1956 99 political reform 207 political, social and economic situa­

tion (1969-85) 170-3 Prague Spring (Czechoslovak Spring)

1968 147, 150, 152-8 privatisation 207-8 recentralisation 171-2 reform-communism 206 'revolutionary national committees'

46-7 Slovakian Christian Democracy Move­

ment 207 Slovak Communist Party 13, 15, 47,

154 Slovak Democratic Party 60 Slovak Freedom Party 119 Slovak National Council 46, 207 Slovak National Uprising 46-7,59 Slovak nationalists 207 Slovak Public Against Violence 206-7 Slovak Revival Party 119 Slovakia becomes a republic (1969)

171 Social Democratic Party 155-6,207 Socialist Party 47-8,56,59,60, U9

(Table 5.8) Soviet/ Czech Friendship Treaty

(1970) 171 taxation 171 Warsaw Pact invasion (1968) 126,

142,144,146,152,156-58,171, 180-1,189,205

workers' councils 154 workers' self-management 172

Daniel (Soviet dissident author) 130, 150

'Das Kapital' 102 de-Stalinisation 77,81-4,130,146-7,

152, 220 dissidents and dissident movements

164-5,209 (in Bulgaria); 160, 173, 188 (in Czechoslovakia); 176-7, 202, (in East Germany); 160, 177, 179-180, 188, 196-7 (in Hungary); 160,188, (in Poland); 163, 213, (in Romania); 130, 150, (in Soviet Union)

Dimitrov, G. M. 29

INDEX 247

Dimitrov, Georgi (Bulgarian Party lead­er) 24-5, 30, 32, 62-3, 67

Djilas, Milovan (Yugoslav Party lead-er) 57-8, 73-6, 79, 81,85, 92, 99, 100,154,217

Dubcek, Alexander (Czechoslovakian Party leader) 153-7, 170-1, 189, 206

East Germany: attempt to gain international recogni­

tion 144-5, 174 Basic Treaty with the Federal Republic

(1972) 174 Christian Democrat Party 96, 119

(Table 5.8), 203-4 collapse of communism (1985-92)

190,201-4 collectivisation 133, 175 constitution 115, 116-17 (Table

5.7), 118, 122 (1952), 145, 147 (1968),174 (1974), 203

Communist Party (renamed Party of Democratic Socialism - PDS in 1990), 173,203

cultural policy 147 Democratic Farmers' Party 119 (Ta­

ble 5.8) demonstrations against the commun­

ist regime 202-3 diplomatic relations established with

the United States (1974) 174 economic reform 130-6,147,175 foreign policy 130, 174, 176 foreign trade 176, 202 foreign travel issue 201-3 Four Power Agreement on Berlin

(1971) 174 'General Perspective' 133-4 German / Polish Treaty (1990), con­

firmed Oder-Neisse line as national border, 204

kombinat 174-5 Liberal Democrats 96, 119 (Table

5.8) membership of the Soviet Bloc 96 nationalisation 175 National Council of Defence 145 National Democratic Party 119 National Front 96, 116, 202 'New Economic System' - NES (re­

named 'Economic System of Socialism' in 1967), 134-5, 139

plan des wohlstands 133 political events 1949-56 96-7 political, social and economic situa-

tion (1970-86) 173-7 privatisation 204 reform communism 203,144-5 relations with West Germany 173-6,

203 Reunification (possibility and actual­

ity) 96-7,172,174,201,203-4, 222;

Social Democratic Party 204, social reforms in the 1960s 147 Socialist Unity Party (Eastern

Zones) 96, 121 (Table 5.9) Soviet occupation 96-7 'Two-plus-Four' talks on German re­

unification 204,222 VVB 134-5, 174

Eastern European economies ch. 5, ch.6

foreign indebtedness 159; 167 (Al­bania); 209-10 (Bulgaria); 204 (Czechoslovakia); 175-6, 202 (East Germany); 160, 196, 204 (Hungary); 160,182-4,187191,195,204 (Po­land); 160, 163,212-13,215 (Roma­nia); 167, 215 (Yugoslavia); growth rates 127 (Table 6.1),133,159; 219 (Albania); 139,209 (Bulgaria); 172,204 (Czechoslovakia); 201 (East Germany); 187 (Poland); 163,212 (Romania) education systems 123, 125-6

ELAS 22 Eppelmann, Rainer 177 European Community 162,176,202,

218-19

Field, Noel 67-70,96 Fock,Jeno 179 Four Power Conference (1955) 97 French Communist Party 15,19,56-8,

68 French socialists 56

Georgiev, Kimon 24 Geremek, Bronislaw 185 German Communist Party (Western

Zones) 96 German Social Democrats 97 Gera, Erna, (Hungarian Communist

leader) 50-1,86,88-9,178

248 INDEX

Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorge (Romanian Party leader) 34-8,40, 62, 66, 69, 83,98-9, 142-4

Gierek, Edward (Polish Party lead-er) 150, 182, 184-5

glasnost 189, 209 Glemp, Archbishop 186 Goma, Paul 163 Gomulka, Wladslaw (Polish Party lead­

er) 40-4,65,92-5,99, 149, 150, 182, 184

GOncz, Arpad (President of the ~epub­lic of Hungary) 198

Gorbachev, Mikhail (Soviet Par-ty leader) 154 (challenge from functionaries to economic reform); 155 (concern for legality); 158 (tran­sition to democracy); 159, 189 (ends support for Eastern Europe); 190 (new generation); 196 (Hungary no longer needs to compromise); 201 (refusal to intervene in Eastern European affairs); 202 (warns East Germany against stalling reforms); 204 (Czechoslovakia ignores impli­cationsofGorbachev's premiership); 205 (position appears to be unassail­able); 222 (resignation 1991)

Gottwald, Klement (Czechoslovakian Party leader) 47-9,58-61,69,71, 152

Greece: Balkan military support for Greek

partisans 63 Communist insurrection crushed by

British (1944) 37-8 Greek Communist Party 15, 62-3

Grol, Milan 26 Groza, Petru 36, 38-9 Gysi, Gregor 203

Haraszti, Miklos 178 Havel, Vaclav (Czechoslovakian Presi-

dent) 153,173,205-7 Havemann, Robert 147,177 Healey, Dennis 57 health and social welfare in commun­

ist regimes 124-6, 139 (Bulgaria); 183 (Poland)

Hegedus, Andras 178 Helsinki Final Act (1975) 159, 166 Hitler 13 (New order in Europe)

15-16

Honecker, Erich (East German General Secretary) 121 (Table 5.9), 144, 147,173,174,176,203

Hoxha, Enver (Albanian First Secre­tary) 22, 28, 63, 66, 121 (Table 5.9),141,166,219,220

Hungary: abolition of monarchy and establish-

ment of republic (1946) 52 agricultural policy 178 Alliance of Free Democrats 197-200 banking system 200 Central Workers' Council of Greater

Budapest 91-2 Christian Democratic People's

Party 197-8 collapse of communism (1985-

92) 189-90, 196-201 collectivisation 178 Communist Party (Hungarian Work­

ers' Party; renamed 1956 Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party; renamed 1989 Hungarian Socialist Par-ty) 15,34,49-52,54,56,62, 69,121 (Table 5.9),189,197-8

Communist Youth League 86 Compensation Law (1991) - denation­

alised property and land 197 constitution 115, 116-17 (Table

5.7),118,122 (1949), 177 (1972), 179, 198

cultural policy 151-2 debate on role of Communist Par­

ty 79-80 Democratic Pary 51,54,89 economic, social and political situa­

tion in the 1960s 151-2 economic, social and political situa­

tion in the 1970s and the 1980s 177-80

economic reform 130-2, 135-57, 146, 177, 179~80, 189-90, 196, 200-1

electoral reform 152, 179, 198 Enterprise Economic Work Partner­

ship (EEWP) 180 FIDESZ - Alliance of Young

Domocrats 197-9 foreign trade 178-80, 200 foreign policy 146, 180, 196 Freedom Party 53 Hungarian Democratic Forum (HDF)

197-9

INDEX 249

Hungarian Revolution (1956) 84-90,99-100, 180 (impact on in­ternational communism)

Independence (Freedom) Party 54, 62

Independent Smallholders Party 197-200

labour unrest 78 (1953) 86 (1956) 'Left Bloc' 52-54 mass organisations banned

(1948) 122 National Independence Front (re­

named People's Independence Front 1949) 50,63

National Peasant Party 52, 54, 79 Nagy proposes democracy 79, 80,

157 National Assembly 116 (Table 5.7) Network of Free Initiatives 197 New Course 78, 87, 201 New ·Economic Mechanism

(NEM) 135-7, 152, 162, 177-8, 189

'normalisation' 178 opposition movements in tbe 1970s

179 Peace Treaty (1947) 52-3,57 'Peasant Alliance' 50 People's Independence Front 79 People's Patriotic Front 79-80, 86,

88,116 (Table 5.7),179 Pet6fi Circle 86-7,90 political events (1942-47) 49-55 political events (1953-56) 77-81 political, social and economic situa-

tion (1972-86) 177-80 price increases 199-200 privatisation 200-1 Radical Party 54 recentralisation 178 reform communism 151-2,197-8 Smallholders' Party 50-4, 79, 89 Social Democrat Party 197 Socialist Party 50-1,54,56-7,62,71,

81 Soviet invasion (1956) 89-92,96-

97, 157 tax reform 136,200 Varga Commission 131 workers' councils 89-92

Husak, Gustav, (Czechoslovakian Gen­eral Secretary) 46,121 (Table 5.9), 144,170,172,205-6

Iliescu, Ion 213-14 industrialisation 110-12, (Table 5.5),

128-9 International Monetary Fund (IMF),

loans to: Bulgaria 211; Czecho­slovakia, 207; Hungary 172, 178, 200; Poland 195; Romania 162; Yugoslavia 170

International Zionism 70 Israel 71 (Czechoslovakian support);

144 (Romania establishes diplomatic relations); 70 (Soviet support);

Italian Communist Party 15, 56-8 Italian socialists 56

JakeS, Milos 171,205 Jaruzelski, Wojciech (Polish First Secre­

tary) 121 (Table 5.9), 185-6, 188, 192-4

Kadar,Janos (Hungarian First Secre­tary) 86, 88-9, 91-92, 121 (Table 5.9),131,135,146,151,157,172, 180, 196-7

Kania, Stanislaw 185-6 Kardelj, Edward (Yugoslav Foreign Min­

ister) 58, 72-5, 79, 169 Katyn massacre (1943) 40 Khrushchev, Nikita, (Soviet Party

leader) 77,84,130,152,158 (de-Stalinisation); 77, 81-3, 100 (relations with Yugoslavia); 86, 90-2 (relations with Hungary); 94-5,146 (relations with Poland); 97 (support for East Germany); 99 (attempt to maintain international commun­ism); 127, 131, 134, 143 (economic policy); 129 (relations with China); 142 (fall of Khrushchev 1964); 145 (support for Zhivkov); 146 (attack on modernism); 158 (transforma­tion of communism)

King Michael (Romania) 35-6, 38, 212

Kiraly, Zolt<in 179 Kiril, Patriarch 146 Kis,Janos 179,200 Kiszczak, General Czeslaw 193 Klaus, Vaclav 207 Konrad, Gy6rgy 178 Kolakowski, Leszek 149-50 Kornai,Janos 130 Kostov, Traicho 67, 99

250 INDEX

Kovacs, BeIa, (General Secretary of the Hungarian Smallholders' Party), 52-4

Krenz, Egon 203 Kriegel, Frantisek 171 Kuron,jacek 149-50, 185

Lange,Oskar 149 Lenin (his concept of the Party) 102 Leninist Party 104-5, 114-15 Liberman, Professor Y. 134 Loebl, Eugene (Czechoslovakian Depu-

ty Minister for Foreign Trade) 70 London, Artur 19,68-9 Losonczy, Geza 80,88, 91 Luca, Vasile 35, 38 Lukanov, Andrei 210

Malenkov, Georgii (Soviet Prime Minis­ter) 78,80-1

Mao (Chinese Chairman) 129, 166 Maoism 140,142,166 (in Albania);

152 (in Hungary); 149 (in Poland) Marosan, Gyiirgy 135 Marshall Aid 57; 58 (in Czechoslova­

kia) Marshall Plan 56 Marx 102-3 (on capitalism); 105 (on

democratic socialism); 111 (on con­cept of social man); 114 (on post­capitalist society); 123 (on religion); 143 ('Notes on the Romanians'); 155 (on the bourgeosie)

Marx's 'labour theory of value' 102-5, 114,120,125, 130

Marxism 102-5, 123-5, 161 Marxism-Leninism and politics 114-

20 Marxism-Leninism and the econo­

my 105-14 Marxism-Leninism in culture and every­

day life 120-6 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz (Polish Prime

Minister) 184-5, 193-4 Meciar, Vladimir 207 Michnik, Adam 150, 185, 192-3 Mihailovic, DraZa (Serbian Nationalist

leader) 18, 21, 27, 31 Mikolajczyk, Stanislaw 43, 45-6 Mikoyan, Anastasii (Soviet Foreign

Trade Minister) 81,86,93 MiloSevic, Slobodan 216 Mindszenty, Cardinal (Catholic Primate

of Hungary) 71,199 Mladenov, Petur 209-10 Mlynaf, Zdenek 173 Moczar, General Mieczyslaw 150 Modrow, Hans 203 Modzelewski, Karol 149-50 Mojsov, Lazar (Yugoslav President ofthe

Presidency) 121 (Table 5.9) Moldavia 34-5, 39 Molotov, Vyacheslav (Soviet Foreign

Minister) 57, 70 Moscow Declaration (1956) 83-4 Moscow Treaty (1970 between the Soviet

Union and West Germany) 173 Miinnich, Ferenc 91 Mussolini 16,35

Nagy, Imre (Hungarian Prime Minis­ter) 78-9,81, 84-9, 91-2, 98, 154-5, 157

Nagy, Ferenc (Hungarian Smallholders' Party leader and Prime Minister) 50, 52-4

Nazi-Soviet Pact 15 neo-Stalinism 127-8,141,143, ch. 7

(159-89),190 New Course 78, 112, 128-30 Novotny, Antonin (Czechoslovakian

Party leader) 152-5, 157 Nyers, Rezsii, 135 178

Ochab, Edward (Polish Party Lead­er) 92-4

Olszewski, jan 195-6 Osobka-Morawski, Edward 42-5

Palach,jan 167,205 partisan movements 20, 22; 23-5, 28,

67 (in Bulgaria); 46-7 (in Czecho­slovakia); 63 (in Greece); 122 (in Hungary); 150 (in Poland); 37,99 (in Romania); 23, 26, 64, 68 (in Yugoslavia)

Pata~anu, Lucretiu (Romanian Com-munist leader) 34,38,40,66

Pauker, Ana 35-8 perestroika 189, 209 Peter, Gyiirgy 130 Petkov, Nikola (Bulgarian Agrarian Par­

ty leader) 24, 30-2 Poland:

agrarian reform 43, 45, 65-6, 181 Agricultural Circles 149;

INDEX 251

agricultural policy 181-3, 188 An ti-Crisis Pact (1988) 192 anti-semitism 149-50 Army 95,193 Baltic Crisis (1970-6) 181-4 Catholic Labour Party 44 Church opposition to the communist

regime 184, 187 collapse of communism (1986-

92) 189-96 Committee for Modernising the Eco­

nomic System 182 Committee for the Defence of Work­

ers (KOR) 184-5 Communist Party (Polish United

Workers' Party, renamed Social Democratic Party in 1990) 13, 39-41, 44-5, 58, 65-6, 121 (Table 5.9), 149-50, 183, 186, 188, 191-3

'conference of workers' self­management' 131

constitution U5, U6-17 (Table 5.7), 118, 183 (1976), 193 (1989), 194

Council of National Unity 44 cultural policy 149 currency reform 194 Democratic Party 119 Democratic Union (Mazowiecki's par­

ty) 195 demonstrations and strikes 150

(1968); 138, 181-3 (1970s); 183-4 (1976); 184-5 (1980); 192 (1988)

Economic Council 131 economic reform 130-2, 138, 149,

181-2, 185, 187, 192, 194 electoral reform 149, 192, 194 foreign trade 146,182-3,187, 191 Government-in-Exile 40-1,43 Government of National Unity 44-5 Home Army (Pro-London) 40,

43-4,71 Homeland National Council 41-2 Initiative Group 40 Martial Law (1981-83) 186-8,

190-1 Military Council of National Salvation

(WRON) 187 'Natolin group' 94-5 National Front organisations 118-

20,122,154 (in Czechoslovakia); 192 (in Poland)

National Unity Front (PRON) 116

(Table 5.7) nationalisation 44-5 New Course 201 Peasant Party 43-5 People's Guard 40 political, social and economic situa­

tion in the 1960s 149-50 political reforms 92-6 (1956); 149,

181, 192, 194 Polish Committee for National Libera-

tion 42-3 Poznan Riots (1956) 84,86,93-4 price increases 181-4, 187, 192, 194 privatisation 195-6 Revolution (1944) 39-46 'second society' 188 Socialist Party 42-5, 65 Socialist Workers' Party 41 Solidarity (NSZZ Solidarnosc) 176,

185-8,190, 192-5;(Centre Alliance) 194; (Civic Committee) 192, 194; (Democratic Action Civic Movement - ROAD) 194

Solidarity Crisis (1980-81) 184-6, 190

Solidarity led new government (1989) 193

Solidarity split (1990) 194 Soviet financial aid 187 Union of Polish Patriots 41-2 United Peasant Party 119 (Table

5.8) Warsaw City Committee 94-5 workers' councils and self­

management 93-5, 131-2 Workers' Councils Law (1956)

131 Zionists 150

Popov, Dimitur 210 popular front movements 16,18,20-1,

58-9, 63, 106, 118; 24, 62 (in Bul­garia); 46-7, 59, 61 (in Czechoslova­kia); 58 (in France); 50, 62, 69, 79 (in Hungary); 58 (in Italy); 39-41 (in Poland); 33-5, 39,62 (in Romania); 26, 58, 62, 64 (in Yugoslavia)

Potsdam Conference (1945) 30-1,38, 44

Preisausgleich (price equalisation sys­tem) 106-7

purges (Post-War) 66-7 (in Albania); 66-7,71, 145 (in Bulgaria); 69-71, 170-1,173 (in Czechoslovakia); 96

252 INDEX

(in East Germany); 67-9, 71 (in Hungary); 65-6,188 (in Poland); 65-6,71 (in Romania); 147, 168-9 (in Yugoslavia)

purges (denunciation and reassessment of) 77-8; 152, 154-5 (in Czecho­slovakia); 151 (in Hungary); 144 (in Romania)

Radescu, Nicolae 37-8 Rajk, Laszlo (Hungarian Party lead­

er) 50, 68-9, 78, 84, 86-7, 151 Rajk, Laszlo (son of Laszlo Rajk)

179-80 Rakowski, Mieczyslaw 186, 192-3 Rikosi, Maty.is (Hungarian General Sec­

retary) 51, 62-3, 69, 78-81, 84-6, 88,93,135,154

Rankovic, Aleksandar 147-8 religion, policies on and influence

on the communist regimes 101, 123-4, 126; 142, 166 (in Alba-nia); 146-57, 165 (in Bulgaria); 154,205 (in Czechoslovakia); 147, 177 (in East Germany); 152, 198-9 (in Hungary); 184, 187 (in Poland); 151,161,212 (in Romania); 149 (in Yugoslavia)

Rokossowski, Marshal (Polish Defence Minister) 95

Roman, Petre 213-15 Romania:

agrarian reform 36,66, 163 Alecsandrescu National Peasant Par-

ty 39 agricukural policy 162-3 Anti-Hitlerite Patriotic Front 34 Army 213 becomes a socialist state (1946)

:14-"9 Coup led by King Michael

agaillstAntonescu (1944) 35-6 CommunistP4rty (until 1965 the Ro­

manian Workers' Party) 35-7,39, 58,66,121 (Table 5.9),143,160-1, 163,~12

constitution U5, 116-17 (Table !i7}, 118,212,215 (1991)

~riSis {~56) 98-9 cultural policy 122, 151 Democratic Front 33, 116 (Table

5.7) demonstrations and strkes

against the communist regime 37, 99, 163, 211-15

diplomatic relations established with Israel and West Germany (1967) 144, 155

economic reform 132-3, 138-40, 143, 162, 213-14

fall of the Ceausescu regime (1986-92) 191,211-15

foreign policy 130, 142, 144, 160-1 foreign trade 161-2 General Agreement on Trade and Tar­

iffs (1971) 162 Hungarian minority issue 151 Hungarian Minority Organisation

(MADOSZ) 34 Hungarian Revolution 1956, (im-

pact of) 98-9 independence from Moscow 61 Independent Socialist Party 39, 66 Nationalism 123, 130, 191 National Democratic Bloc 34, 36 National Democratic Front, 36-9 National Liberal Party 34-6, 38, 213 National Peasant Party 34-8, 213 National Popular Party 39 National Salvation Front

(NSF) 191,213-15 'New Economic and Financial

Mechanism' (introduced 1978) 162

Peace Treaty (1947) 98 Ploughmen's Front 34-6, 38 political reforms 213 political, social and economic situa-

tion in the 1970s 160-3 price increases 214-15 privatisation 214-15 recentralisation 162 reform communism 191, 215 relations with China 161 relations with Hungary 212 return of collectivised farm land 213 'Romanianisation' 151, 163 Securitate (security police) 213 Social Democrat Party 143 Socialist Party 35-6, 38 Socialist Unity Front 116 (Table

5.7); Soviet / Romanian Treaty of Friend­

ship and Mutual Aid (1970) 161 Soviet troop withdrawal (1958) 141,

143

INDEX 253

Soviet Union 98 (links with); 142-4 (autonomy from)

'systematisation' 163 Tartarascu Liberals 38 Treaty with the Khmer Rouge 161 United Workers' Front 34 workers' councils 160 Workers' Party 62

samizdat literature 173; 179-80 (Hun-gary); 163 (Romania)

Sanatescu, General Constantin 36-7 Shehu, Mehmet 166 Sik, Ota 153, 170 single party system 118-20, 122-6,

146; 166 (in Albania); 16£i (in Bulgaria); 154,206 (in Czechoslo­vakia); 203 (in East Germany); 80, 198 (in Hungary); 183, 185-6, 192-3 (in Poland); 160 (in Romania); 217 (in Yugoslavia)

Sino-Soviet Split (1960-61) 128-30, 140-6

Sinyavsky (Soviet dissident author) 130, 150

Slansky, Rudolf (Czechoslovakian Gen­eral Secretary) 46, 59, 71

Soviet Union: Central Committee Department for

Liaison with Communist and Work­ers' Parties in Socialist Coun-tries 189

Communist Party 58, 64, 70, 77, 83, 145, 189

Declaration on Friendship and Co­operation between the Soviet Un­ion and other Socialist States (1956) 89,95

dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991) 222

East-West relations (1956) 96-7 economy 103-6, 110, 112-13 economic reforms 80-1

(1953); 130-1 Gosplan Model 106 Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee 70-1 purge of Jewish cultural organisa-

tions 70 Red Army 14,17,23,26,89; 25, 28-9

(in Bulgaria) ; 47, 49 (in Czechoslova­kia); 50-3, 57, 88, 91 (in Hungary); 33,41-4,95 (in Poland); 33, 35, 37-8,98-9 (in Romania); 64 (in

Yugoslavia) relinquishes control over Eastern

Europe (1988) 189 restores full sovereignty to East Germa­

ny and West Germany (1955) 97 Soviet-Yugoslav intervention in Hun­

gary (1956) 89-92 Soviet-Yugoslav rapprochement

77-8,81-3,90,93,100,129,141 Spanish Civil War 16, 19,22; 67-70

(veterans) Stalin (Soviet Party leader):

Balkan Federation 30, 32, 38, 63, 141

death (1953) 75,96 5 Year Plans 72 intervention in and control of Eastern

European Parties 13-14,20-2,24, 31,33,35-7,39,41,43-6,58

Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) 15 popular front movement 65 relations with Albania 66, 141 relations with British Labour

Party 49 relations with Bulgaria 24-5, 31 relations with Czechoslovakia 47,51,

55-6,58-9,61,69,71 relations with Hungary 55-7,80 relations with Israel 70 relations with Poland 41,42 (Red

Army invasion) 43-6, 54, 66 relations with Romania 35-7,54,

65-6, relations with Yugoslavia 21-2 Stalin-Tito Dispute (1948) 61-6, 72,

90, 141 Stalinism 122, 127-8, 130, 160-1,

180 Stepinac, Cardinal 27 Stolojan, Teodor 214-15 Strougal, Lubomir 204 Subasic, Ivan 26 Svoboda, Ludvik (Czechoslovakian

President) 154-7 Swiss Communist Party 15 Szczepanski,Jan 149 Szelenyi, Ivan 178 Szonyi, Tibor 68-9

Tamas, Gaspar Miklos 179 Tito,Josip Broz, (President of the Re­

public of Yugoslavia): 72,81,85,87,99

254 INDEX

Balkan Federation 30 Cominform 83 death (1980) 169 dismisses Rankovic 148 made President 115 opposition to Marshall Aid 57 relations with Bulgaria 62 relations with China 166 relations with East Germany 97 relations with Hungary 62,69,84,86,

88,90-1,98,152 relations with Poland 62, 92 relations with Romania 62 relations with the Soviet Union

61-5,67-8, 141 (Stalin-Tito Dispute); 82, 83, 86, 97, 129, 147

role of Communist Party 74 struggle for Communist Party su­

premacy in Yugoslavia 14, 16-19, 21-3,26

workers' councils and self-management 73, 75-7, 88, 100

Tolgyessy, Peter 200 Tokes, Laszlo, 212 Toq¢n,]ozsef 200 Trade Union movements 124; 29,

209-11 (in Bulgaria); 48, 59-60, 154,156, (in Czechoslovakia); 97 (in East Germany); 50-1, 79, 89-90, 122, (in Hungary); 43, 93-4, 131, 182, 184-6, 188 (in Poland); 36, 39,99, 163 (in Romania); 90 On Yugoslavia)

Truman Doctrine (1947) 56 Tudjman, Franjo 217,219 Tyminski, Stanislaw 194

Ulbricht, Walter (East German Party leader) 97, 144-5, 147, 173-4

Unitarian Service Committee (USC) 68

United Nations 174,219 United States Office of Strategic Services

(OSS) 68

Vaculik, Ludvik 173 Vekhev, General Damian 31

Wal,.sa, Lech (Polish Solidarity lead­er) 184-6, 192-5

Warsaw Pact (1955) 89,97-8,100,126, 142-4, 156, 172,222

Xoxe, Ko~i (Albanian Minister of the Interior) 66-7

Yalta Conference (1945) 26,43-4 Yugoslavia:

Agrarian Reform Law (1945) 27 AJTny 64,218-19 banking system 137-8,167 Basic Law on Co-operatives

(1946) 27 becomes socialist state (1945) 26-7 Belgrade Accord (1955) 85 collectivisation 64-5 Communist Party (renamed League of

Communists 1952) 13-16.19-20,26,58.63-5,67,72. 74-6,86,100, 121 (Table 5.9), 148, 167,216-18

constitution 115,116-17 (Table 5.7), U8, 148 (1963), 149, 169 (1974),216-17,217 (Croatian). 217 (Serbian)

Constitutional Court ug, 148 critique of Soviet bureaucracy 73,75 Croatian Assembly 217-18 Croatian Democratic Union 217 Croatian Party 167, 216 cultural policy 148 currency reform 27, 168, 216, 218 decentralisation 73,75, 137, 148,

219 debate on the 'Leading Role of the

Communist Party' 74-6 DEMOS 217 demonstrations against the commun­

ist regime 148,167,217 disintegration of the fugoslav Feder­

ation and the descent into civil war (1982-92) 189-91,215-19;eco­nomic reform 137-8. 147-9. 167, 190, 216

Federal structure U5. U6 (Table 5.7), U8

First Five Year Plan (1947) 27 Financial indebtedness to the West

82-3, 167-9 foreign trade 137 Government-in-Exile 17,-21,26,69 Law on Associated Labour

(1976) 169 Martial Law declared in Kosovo

(1981) 167, 170 nationalisation 27

INDEX 255

nationalism and ethnic tensions 168-70, 190-1, 216-19

National Liberation Committee 26 National Anti-Fascist Liberation

Council 18, 21 partisan movement 17-19,23,26 Party of Democratic Renewal (Former­

ly League of Communists) 217 People's Front (renamed Social­

ist Alliance of Working People 1953) 26-7,58,64,74,75,79, 116 (Table 5.7)

People's Liberation Army 17, 23 political events (1953-56) 81-4 political reform 147-9, 169,216 political, social and economic situa-

tion in the 1960s 147-9 political, social and economic situa-

tion (1970-84) 167-70 Praxis Group 148, 169 regionalisation 169 revisionism 72-6 Serbian National Council 217 Serbian Party 216 Slovene Democratic League 217

Slovene Liberation Front 19-20 Slovenian Assembly 217-18 Socialist Party of Serbia 218 Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc break

off diplomatic relations (1949) 69, 96, 107, 141

Soviet-Yugoslav Declaration (1955) 82

Soviet-Yugoslav Declaration (Novem­ber 1957) 100

Soviet Union takes over Western loans to Yugoslavia 83

tax reforms 137-8 Veterans' Association 148 workers' self-management and work­

ers' councils 72-5,90, 112, 138, 167, 169,215, 219

Zhelev, Zheliu (Bulgarian Presi­dent) 209-11

Zhivkov, Todor (Bulgarian General Sec­retary) 121 (Table 5.9), 145-6, 164-5,209

Zhivkova, Liudmila 165