Notes

Introduction: Exploring a New Trajectory in Interreligious Encounter

1. A. Christian van Gorder, No God But God: A Path to Muslim-Christian

Dialogue on God’s Nature (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003),

backcover.

2. Martin Forward’s analysis of the meaning of the term “dia-logue” is

helpful here. He affirms that “dia-logue signifies worldviews being

argued through to significant and potentially transformative conclu-

sions, for one or more participants.” See his Inter-religious Dialogue:

A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld, 2001), 12. Interreligious

dialogue entails a conscious effort to think and grapple with one’s reli-

gious identity and its concomitant credentials. It involves consciously

thinking through one’s own tradition. It is not a sloppy affirmation of

religious doctrines. Rather, it is an attempt to engage in deep theologi-

cal reflections.

3. Israel Selvanayagam, “Inter-Faith Dialogue: A Clarification of

Perspectives and Issues,” Current Dialogue 23 (December 1992): 20.

4. Arvind Sharma, “Towards a Theory of Dialogue,” Current Dialogue

32 (December 1998): 36.

5. For an in-depth analysis of this phenomenon, see David Daniels,

“Reterritorizing the West in World Christianity: Black North Atlantic

Christianity and the Edinburgh Conferences of 1910 and 2010,”

Journal of World Christianity 5 (2012): 102–23.

6. Diana L. Eck, A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country”

Has Become the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation (New York:

HarperCollins, 2001).

7. “President Addresses the Ghanaian Parliament in Accra,” July 11,

2009, Accra, Ghana, http://www.uspolicy.be/headline/obama’s-

speech-ghana.

8. Bernard Lewis, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (New

York: Modern Library, 2003), 5.

9. See “Hold Your Nose and Talk,” The Economist, September 29,

2012.

NOT ES184

10. Farid Esack, quoted in Union Now, 3 (Summer 2013): 24.

11. For a good study on this phenomenon, see Daniel Smith-Christopher,

ed., Subverting Hatred: The Challenges of Nonviolence in Religious

Traditions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007).

1 Interpretations: Toward a New Approach in Christian-Muslim Encounters

1. For detailed studies of different models and voices in Christian-

Muslim relations, see Nasir Khan, Perceptions of Islam in Christendom:

A Historical Survey (Oslo: Solum Forlag, 2006); A. Hourani, Western

Attitudes Towards Islam (Southampton: University of Southampton,

1974); B. Z. Kedar, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches

Toward the Muslim (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984);

Michael Frassetto and David R. Blanks, eds., Western Views of Islam

in Medieval and Early Europe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999);

Montgomery Watt, Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and

Misperception (London and New York: Routledge, 1991); Yvonne

Y. Haddad and Wadi Z. Haddad, eds., Christian-Muslim Encounters

(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995); Jean-Marie Gaudeul,

Encounters & Clashes: Islam and Christianity in History, 2 vols.

(Rome: Pontificio Instituto di Studi Arabi e Islamici, 1990); N. A.

Newman, ed., The Early Christian-Muslim Dialogue: A Collections

of Documents from the First Three Islamic Centuries (632–900

A.D.) (Pennsylvania: Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute,

1993) Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face (London:

Oneworld, 1997); Hugh Goddard, A History of Christian-Muslim

Relations (New Amsterdam Books, 2000); O. N. Mohammed,

Muslim-Christian Relations: Past, Present, and Future (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 1999); M. A. Anees, S. Z. Abedin, and Z. Sardar,

Christian-Muslim Relations: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow (London:

Grey Seal, 1991); and H. P. Goddard, Christians and Muslims: From

Double Standards to Mutual Understanding (London: Curzon,

1995).

2. This is the title of the two-volume compilation of the various ways

Christians and Muslims have interacted with each other since the

seventh century.

3. A good study of the demographic distribution of Muslims all over

the world is Byron L. Haines and Frank L. Cooley, eds., Christians

and Muslims Together: An Exploration by Presbyterians (Philadelphia:

Geneva Press, 1987)

4. For a good introduction to the global dimension in world religions,

see Mark Juergensmeyer, ed., Global Religions: An Introduction (New

York: Oxford University Press, 2003).

5. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the

West (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2003), 56.

NOT ES 185

6. See Richard W. Rousseau, Christianity & Islam: The Struggling

Dialogue (Scranton: University of Scranton Press, 2005).

7. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islamic-Christian Dialogue: Problems and

Obstacles to be Pondered and Overcome,” Islam and Christian-

Muslim Relations 2 (July 2000): 213.

8. Runnymede Trust (Commission on British Muslims and Islamo-

phobia), Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All (London: Runnymede

Trust, 1997).

9. Mark Juergensmeyer has theorized that warfare organizes people

into a “we” and a “they.” This way of looking at reality “organizes

social history into a storyline of persecution, conflict, and the hope

of redemption, liberation, and conquest.” See his Terror in the Mind

of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of

California Press, 2003), 173.

10. Wole Soyinka, “Religion against Humanity,” lecture at the 2012

Conference on the Culture of Peace and Non-Violence, United

Nations Headquarters, New York, September 21, 2012, 1.

11. Desmond Tutu, cited in www.excellentquotations.com, accessed

on March 13, 2013. Charles Kimball adds more emphasis to this

dimension. According to him, “within the religious traditions that

have stood the test of time, one finds the life-affirming faith that

has sustained and provided meaning for millions over the centu-

ries. At the same time, we can identify the corrupting influences

that lead toward evil and violence in all religious traditions.” See

Charles Kimball, When Religion Becomes Evil: Five Warning Signs

(New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 5.

12. In a terse reference to the manipulative tendency of religion, Zhara,

the heroine in the movie The Stoning of Soraya M remarked that

the Mullah can “make a snake to swallow its tail.” This comment

underscores the volatility of religion and how it can be used to

orchestrate and validate selfish and narrow motives. Set in the con-

text of post-Khomeini Iran, the movie is a gripping account of the

pernicious potential of religion. The conspiracy to publicly stone an

innocent woman accused of adultery was sanctioned by the religious

authority.

13. Gavin D’Costa has argued that religious conflicts are often tainted

by political considerations. See his Christianity and World Religions:

Disputed Questions in the Theology of Religions (Chichester: Wiley-

Blackwell, 2009), 87–91.

14. Ninian Smart, Worldviews: Crosscultural Explorations of Human

Beliefs (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000), 5.

15. The word “encounter” captures the complexity and the dynamism of

the interaction among Christians and Muslims in Africa. The word

can be traced to the Latin contra, meaning “against,” or to the old

French encontrer, which refers to the meeting of rivals. The word

underscores the ambivalence that is involved in relationships and

NOT ES186

interactions. For a good analysis of this perspective, see Benjamin

F. Soares, “Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa,” in Muslim-

Christian Encounters in Africa, ed. Benjamin F. Soares (Leiden:

Brill, 2006), 3.

16. For a good analysis, see Martin Buss, “The Idea of Sitz in Leben—

History and Critique,” Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche

Wissenschaft 90 (1978): 157–70.

17. Kenneth Cragg, Sandals at the Mosque: Christian Presence amid

Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), 19.

18. A firm affirmation of diversity is affirmed in the Qur’an. See Surat

Al-Hujurat 49:13: “O mankind, indeed we have created you from

male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know

one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the

most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is knowing and acquainted.”

19. For a good analysis of this perspective, see Dale T. Irvin, Hearing

Many Voices (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).

20. Paul F. Knitter has developed four models to account for the vari-

ous Christian responses to Islam. They are: replacement, fulfillment,

mutuality, and acceptance. This first acknowledges that Christianity

is the only true religion. The second model affirms the elements of

truth and grace in other religions. The third states that there are

many true religions, without saying that one religion is superior to

the other. The last model affirms the diversity of religions with-

out the need to create a common ground among them. See Paul F.

Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis

Books, 2002.

21. Sulayman S. Nyang, Islam, Christianity, and African Identity

(Vermont: Amana, 1984), 84. Lamin Sanneh has however cautioned

that Sudan is the only black African country where these two pro-

cesses worked effectively. He affirms that in the rest of the continent,

one can only speak of the use of the sacred Arabic language as the

most visible sign of Islamization.

22. Lamin Sanneh, West African Christianity: The Religious Impact

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), xvi.

23. Kwame Nkrumah, Conscientism (London: Heinemann, 1964),

93–94.

24. Ali Mazrui, “Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in The Oxford

Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, ed. John L. Esposito (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 264.

25. See Madeleine Albright, The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections

on America, God, and World Affairs (New York: Harper Perennial,

2007).

26. Monica Duffy Toft, Daniel Philpott, and Timothy Samuel Shah,

God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics (New York: W.

W. Norton, 2011), 32.

27. Ibid., 56.

NOT ES 187

28. For further discussion on this issue, see Pippa Norris and Ronald

Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

29. On the shift in world Christianity, see Dana L. Robert, “Shifting

Southward: Global Christianity since 1945,” International Bulletin

of Missionary Research (April 2000): 50–58, Philip Jenkins, “The

Next Christianity,” The Atlantic Monthly 290.3, (October 2002):

55–68, Wilbert R. Shenk, “Recasting Theology of Mission: Impulses

from the Non-Western World,” International Bulletin of Missionary

Research (July 2001): 98–106, Peter C. Phan, “A New Christianity,

But What Kind?” Mission Studies 22.1 (2005): 59–83, Paul V.

Kollman, “After Church History: Writing the History of Christianity

from a Global Perspective,” Horizons 31.2 (2004), 322–42; Philip

Jenkins, “After The Next Christendom,” International Bulletin of

Missionary Research (January 2004): 20–22.

30. David Brook, quoted in Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity?

The Gospel beyond the West, 7–8.

31. Ibid., 7.

32. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, “Muslim-Christian Interrelations Histori-

cally: An Interpretation,” in his On Understanding Islam: Selected

Studies (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter., 2000), 262.

33. Ibid., 249.

34. See Peter C. Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives

on Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004) for an excellent

analysis of multireligious belonging, especially pp. 60–78. According

to him, “if non-Christian religions contain ‘elements of truth and

grace’ and if they may be considered ways of salvation from whose

doctrinal teachings, sacred texts, moral practices, monastic traditions,

and rituals and worship Christianity can and should benefit through

dialogue, then there should be no theological objection and canoni-

cal censure against someone wishing to be a Christian and at the

same time to follow some doctrinal teachings and religious practices

of, for example, Buddhism or Confucianism or Hinduism, as long as

these are not patently contradictory to Christian faith and morals”

(65–66). See also Catherine Cornille, ed., Many Mansions? Multiple

Religious Belonging and Christian Identity (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis

Books, 2002). However, an African perspective would have added a

much-needed dimension to the case studies examined in the book.

Some of the avid practitioners of multiple religious belonging are

Swami Abhishiktananda, Charles Foucault, Thomas Merton, Bede

Griffith, Raimon Panikkar, and Aloysius Pieris.

35. Raimon Panikkar, The Intra-religious Dialogue (New York: Paulist

Press, 1978), 2.

36. For a good discussion of the historical development of Hinduism, see

A. L. Basham, The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). Shankara (788–820),

NOT ES188

one of India’s greatest saints and philosophers, provides a good

analysis of the philosophical underpinnings of the Advaita Vedanta

tradition. He was an embodiment of tremendous wisdom and holi-

ness that he was viewed as an incarnation of Shiva; hence the name

Shankara, which means, “he who brings/bestows blessings.”

37. Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, trans. Swami Prabhavananda

and Frederick Manchester (New York: Mentor Books, 1957), 46.

38. For his analysis of the dipolar connections between the plurality of

religions and the plurality of victims, see Aloysius Pieris, An Asian

Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988); Aloysius

Pieris, Love Meets Wisdom: A Christian Experience of Buddhism

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); and Aloysius Pieris, Fire and

Water: Basic Issues in Asian Buddhism and Christianity (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 1988).

39. This is the central argument of Samuel Huntington’s “Clash of

Civilization,” Foreign Affairs 72.3 (1993): 22–49.

40. Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians: Face to Face (Oxford: One

World, 2000), 2.

41. Paul F. Knitter, “Common Ground or Common Response? Seeking

Foundations for Interreligious Discourse,” Studies in Interreligious

Dialogue 2 (1992): 114.

42. Some observers maintain that the crux of the issue is not conflict

among religions but rather a “clash of ignorance.” Misinformation

and misconceptions promote interreligious bigotry, hatred, and

violence.

43. Samuel Huntington, quoted in Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim,

Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (New

York: Doubleday, 2004), 20–21.

44. Ataulalla Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth

Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 54.

45. Amir Hussain, “ Life as a Muslim Scholar of Islam in Post–9/11

America,” in Subverting Hatred: The Challenge of Nonviolence in

Religious Traditions, ed. Daniel L. Smith-Christopher (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 2007), 139.

46. Charles Amjad-Ali, “Theological and Historical Rationality behind

Christian-Muslim Relations,” in Islam in Asia: Perspectives for

Christian-Muslim Encounter, ed. J. P. Rajashekar and H. S. Wilson

(Geneva, Switzerland: Lutheran World Federation, 1992), 14.

47. Ibid., 8.

48. Ibid., 6.

49. Several scholars such as Lamin Sanneh, Andrew Walls, Philip

Jenkins, Ogbu Kalu, Dale Irvin, Jehu Henciles, Kwame Bediako,

and Peter Phan have elaborated on this new radical shift in world

Christianity. In the blurb for Jenkins’s book, The Next Christendom,

Sanneh remarked, “the worldwide resurgence of Christianity is a vig-

orous movement in our day, and it coincides with the waning of the

NOT ES 189

religion in what is now a post-Christian West—the pace of develop-

ments in post-colonial societies shows no sign of slackening.”

50. Ataullah Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth

Century, 55.

51. For a good analysis on the dignity of the other, see Edward E.

Sampson, Celebrating the Other: A Dialogical Account of Human

Nature (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993).

52. It is important to point out here that the idea of Otherness is new to

African studies. Elias Bongmba used the idea of the Other, based on

the philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas, to study the ethics of witch-

craft. See Elias K. Bongmba, African Witchcraft and Otherness: A

Philosophical and Theological Analysis of Intersubjective Relations

(Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2001).

2 Glimpses of the Terrain: The Cross, The Crescent, and the Nigerian Terrain

1. Noel Quinton King, Christians and Muslims in Africa (London:

Harper and Row, 1971); Benjamin F. Soares, ed., Muslim-Christian

Encounters in Africa (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing, 2006); Lissi

Rasmussen, Christian and Muslim Relations in Africa: The Case of

Northern Nigeria and Tanzania (I. B. Tauris, 1993); Lamin Sanneh,

Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 1997); Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban:

Muslims and West African Pluralism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press,

1996); Andrew Walls, “Africa as the Theatre of Christian Engagement

with Islam in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Religion in Africa 29

(1999): 155–74; Gabriel Maduka Okafor, Development of Christianity

and Islam in Modern Nigeria (Wurzburg: Echter, 1992); Cokkie

Van’t-Leven, “Africa’s Tradition of Peaceful Co-existence: Threatened

Dream or Lasting Reality,” in Muslims and Christians in Europe:

Breaking New Grounds, ed. Dirk Mulder et al. (Kampen: Uitgeverik

Kok, 1999), 15–20; and John Voll, “African Muslims and Christians

in World History: The Irrelevance of the Clash of Civilizations,”

in Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa, ed. Benjamin F. Soares

(Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing, 2006), 17–38.

2. Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of Islamic Da’wah, With

Particular Reference to Africa,” International Review of Mission, 260

(October 1979): 410.

3. It should be noted that as a religious tradition that started after the

time of Christ, Islam has always presented a formidable theological

challenge to Christianity in terms of Prophet Muhammad’s status

and the Qur’an as the Word of God. For an excellent study of the

theological differences between Islam and Christianity, see Christian

van Gorder, No God but God: A Path to Muslim-Christian Discussion

about the Nature of God (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003).

NOT ES190

4. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble With Nigeria (Oxford: Heinemann,

1983), 12.

5. Rotberg, quoted in Nasir El-Rufai, “Nigeria: Political Dynamics and

Prospects for Reform,” www.modernghana.com/news, 1.

6. See www.refworld.org for this important report.

7. Several commentators still have serious questions about the corporate

existence of Nigeria. According to Karl Maier, “the Nigerian state

is like a battered and bruised elephant staggering toward an abyss

with the ground crumbling under its feet.” See his This House Has

Fallen: Midnight in Nigeria (Public Affairs, 2000), xx. In the words

of Adebayo Williams, “like a badly mauled elephant suffering a thou-

sand cuts, Nigeria lurches about in wild disorientation, stomping and

stamping as life drains away,” in his “Towards the Transformation

of Nigeria: A Jubilee of Elite Infamy,” http://nigeriaworld.com/

articles/2003/Oct/201.html, October 20, 2003, p. 1. In another

caustic observation, another Nigeria scholar states that the present

Nigerian state is faced with “darkness and decadence, poverty and

prostitution of power, greed and graft, incompetence and inertia.”

See Femi Ojo-Ade, “Dividends of a Nascent Democracy,” http://

nigeriaworld.com/articles/2001/jun/23/231.html, June 23, 2001,

p. 4. In the words of Tam David-West, “Nigeria is like a one-act

play, like a broken disc permanently stuck in a groove,” http://nige-

riaworld.com/feature/publication/chidi-achebe/061405.html, June

14, 2006, p. 6. Speaking on the debacle of political inertia bedevil-

ing many nations in Africa and specifically Nigeria, Chinua Achebe

remarked, “We are like the man in the Igbo proverb who does not

know where the rain began to beat him and so cannot say where he

dried his body.” See his “Nigeria’s Promise, Africa’s Hope,” New York

Times, January 15, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/16/

opinion/16achebe.html.According to Niyi Akinnaso, “the theory of

the absurd life is even more applicable today as Nigeria engages in a

freefall due to endless repetitions of the same mistakes and maladies.”

See Niyi Akinnaso, “Nigeria as the Theatre of the Absurd,” Punch,

July 3, 2012, http://www.punchng.com/viewpoint/nigeria-as-the-

theatre-of-the-absurd/. For an excellent study on the potentials and

pitfalls of Nigeria, see John Campbell, Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink

(Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield, 2011).

8. See “Persecution of Christians in Northern Nigeria,” on Anglican

Mainstream, January 20, 2012.

9. See “The Report on the Inter-religious Tensions in Nigeria,” www.

Oikoumene.org, 9.

10. U. Danfulani and S. Fwatshak, “Briefing: The September 2001

Events in Jos, Nigeria,” African Affairs 101 (2002): 243–55; M.

Last, “Muslims and Christians in Nigeria: An Economy of Political

Panic,” The Roundtable: The Commonwealth Journal of International

NOT ES 191

Affairs 392 (October 2007): 605–16; and H. Mang, “Discussions

on the Sectarian Violence of the 28th of November to the 1st of

December in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria,” unpublished paper.

11. For a good historical understanding of this complexity, see Toyin

Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, A History of Nigeria (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2010).

12. Ibid., 109.

13. See Nigeria: Violence Fuelled by Impunity, Human Rights Watch

Report, London, May 22, 2005.

14. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islam,” in Our Religions, ed. Arvind Sharma

(New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 427.

15. Charlotte A. Quinn and Frederick Quinn, Pride, Faith, and Fear:

Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa (New York: Oxford University Press,

2003), 3.

16. It should be noted that the Izalatul Bidi’a wa Ikamatul Sunna, pop-

ularly known as Izala, began as an anti-Sufi movement. Its leader, the

late Alhaji Gumi, was a dominant leader in Islam in the early 1960s.

17. S. I. Cissoko, “The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century,”

in Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, ed. D. T. Niane

(London: Heinemann, 1984), 209.

18. Quoted in Peter B. Clarke, West African and Islam (London: Edward

Arnold, 1982), 260.

19. See S. U. Balogun, “Arabic Intellectualism in West Africa: The

Role of the Sokoto Caliphate,” Journal Institute of Muslim Minority

Affairs 6 (July 1985): 394–411.

20. Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology

(London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 247–48.

21. Ibid.

22. Mervyn Hiskett, quoted in Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of

Islamic Da‘wah, With Particular Reference to Africa,” International

Review of Mission, 65 (October 1976): 416.

23. Quoted in John Alembillah Azumah, The Legacy of Arab-Islam in

Africa: A Quest for Inter-Religious Dialogue (Oxford: Oneworld,

2001), 11–12.

24. Ibid.

25. For a good analysis of the confrontation between colonial powers and

the forces of dan Fodio, see Toyin Falola, Colonialism and Violence

in Nigeria (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 14–16.

26. See Jonathan Reynolds, “Good and Bad Muslims: Islam and Indirect

Rule in Northern Nigeria,” International Journal of African

Historical Studies 34 (2001): 601–18.

27. F. C. Ryder, Benin and the Europeans, 1485–1897 (London:

Longmans, 1969); O. U. Kalu, The History of Christianity in West

Africa (London: Longmans, 1980); C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese

Seaborne Empire (London: Hutchinson, 1969); J. H. Parry, Europe

NOT ES192

and a Wider World (London: Hutchinson, 1966); and Richard Gray,

Black Christians White Missionaries (New Haven, CT: Yale University

Press, 1990).

28. E. A. Ayandele, “External Relations with Europeans in the Nineteenth

Century: Explorers, Missionaries and Traders,” in Groundwork of

Nigerian History, ed. Obaro Ikime (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational

Books, 1984), 367.

29. Ibid., 369.

30. Ibid., 371.

31. Turner’s definition has to be expanded in light of contemporary

experience of globalization and border-crossing. Aladura churches

now include members from all nations.

32. James Webster, African Churches among the Yoruba, 1888–1922

(Oxford: Clarendon, 1964), 190.

33. The major monographs on Aladura Christianity includes H. W.

Turner, African Independent Church, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1967); J. D. Y. Peel, Aladura: A Religious Movement among

the Yoruba (London: Oxford University Press for the International

African Institute, 1968); J. Akinyele Omoyajowo, Cherubim and

Seraphim: The History of an African Independent Church (New York

and Lagos: Nok, 1982); Deji Ayegboyin and S. Ademola Ishola,

African Indigenous Churches: An Historical Perspective (Lagos:

Greater Heights, 1997).

34. It is not appropriate to put the stamp of syncretism on Aladura

churches. They vigorously reject any element of traditional religious

beliefs and practices which they view as evil and opposed to the

Christian faith.

35. On the demonization of African Traditional Religions, see Rosalind

I. J. Hackett, “Discourses on Demonization in Africa and Beyond,”

Diogenes 50 (2003): 61–75; Ogbu U. Kalu, “Estranged Bedfellows?

The Demonization of the Aladura in African in African Pentecostal

Rhetoric,” Missionalia 28 (2000): 121–42; Kalu, “Preserving a

Worldview: Pentecostalism in the African Maps of the Universe,”

Pneuma 24 (2002): 110–37; Kalu, “Pentecostal and Charismatic

Reshaping of the African Religious Landscape,” Mission Studies 20

(2003): 84–111; and Kalu, The Embattled Gods: Christianization of

Igboland, 1841–1991 (Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World

Press, 2003), 334.

36. See Rosalind I. J. Hackett, “Radical Christian Revivalism in

Nigeria and Ghana: Recent Patterns of Intolerance and Conflict,”

in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed.

Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999),

246–67; Hackett, “Managing or Manipulating Religious Conflict in

the Nigerian Media,” in Mediating Religion: Conversations in Media,

Religion and Culture, ed. Jolyon Mitchell and Sophia Marriage

NOT ES 193

(London and New York: T & T Clark, 2003), 47–63; Matthews

A. Ojo, “American Pentecostalism and the Growth of Pentecostal-

Charismatic Movements in Nigeria,” in Freedom’s Distant Shores:

American Protestants and Post-Colonial Alliances with Africa, ed.

Drew Smith (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2006), 115–67; and

Ruth Marshall-Fratani, “Mediating the Global and Local in Nigerian

Pentecostalism,” in Between Babel and Pentecost: Transnational

Pentecostalism in Africa and Latin America, ed. Andre Corten and

Ruth Marshall-Fratani (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,

2001), 80–105.

37. See Afis O. Oladosu and Habibah O. Uthman-Oladosu, “The

Cross, the Crescent, and the Media in Nigeria,” in Fractured

Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters in Nigeria,

ed. Akintunde E. Akinade (New York: Peter Lang, 2013), 30–42.

38. Matthew Hassan Kukah and Kathleen McGarvey, “Christian-Muslim

Dialogue in Nigeria: Social, Political, and Theological Dimensions,”

in Fractured Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters

in Nigeria (New York: Peter Lang, 2013), 14.

39. For a good study on the subject, see Daniel Jordan Smith, A Culture

of Corruption: Everyday Deception and Popular Discontent in Nigeria

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).

40. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria (Oxford: Heinemann,

1983), 38.

41. One of the blatant attacks on Christians was the Christmas Day

bombing of St. Theresa’s Catholic Church in Maddalla, Suleja City,

Niger State. The attack on St. Theresa led to the removal of the

inspector general of Nigeria’s police, Mr. Hafiz Ringim, who had

wittingly or unwittingly allowed the prime suspect to escape police

custody. Femi Fani-Kayode, one of the ardent commentators on the

Nigerian situation has remarked that “Nigeria has become an abat-

toir of human flesh and blood under the tenure of Jonathan and

all those who support him should bury their heads in shame.” See

http://www.osundefender.org/September 30, 213.

42. See Spiraling Violence: Boko Haram Attacks and Security Force Abuses

in Nigeria, Human Rights Watch Report, 2012, 40.

43. On a positive note, the Islamic Development Bank in conjunction

with the Nigerian government has announced the setting up of a

$98 million Almajiri education fund to promote bilingual education

and improve Almajiri schooling.

44. While the Nigerian government has the responsibility to protect its

citizens from terror, it must, however, take into consideration inter-

national human rights laws connected with the use of force by its

security agents, the treatment of detainees, and the need to hold

speedy and transparent trials. These rights are part of various inter-

national treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and

NOT ES194

Political Rights and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’

Rights.

45. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an

African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 192.

46. Ibid., 193.

47. For an excellent analysis of some of these initiatives for peace and

reconciliation, see Rosalind Hackett, “Nigeria’s Religious Leaders

in an Age of Radicalism and Neoliberalism,” in Religious Leaders,

Conflict, and Peacemaking: Between Terror and Tolerance, ed.

Timothy D. Sick (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press,

2011), 123–44.

48. See Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence,

and Reconciliation (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 2000).

49. For a good explanation of this phenomenon, see Francis Arinze,

Meeting Other Believers: The Risks and Rewards of Interreligious

Dialogue (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division,

1998), 17–18.

50. On the religious change in Yorubaland, see J. D. Y. Peel, “The Pastor

and the Babalawo: The Interaction of Religions in Nineteenth-

Century Yorubaland,” Africa 60 (1990): 338–69; J. D. Y. Peel,

“Religious Change in Yorubaland,” Africa, 37 (July 1967): 292–

306; H. J. Fisher, “Conversion Reconsidered: Some Historical

Aspects of Religious Conversion in Black Africa,” Africa 43 (1973):

27–40; H. J. Fisher, “The Juggernaut’s Apologia,” Africa 55 (1983):

153–73; and Matthew Hassan Kukah and Toyin Falola, Religious

Militancy and Self-Assertion (Aldershot: Avebury, 1996), especially

Chapter four on “Rumblings below the River Niger: Protest by

Yoruba Muslims,” pp. 65–97.

51. J. D. Y. Peel, “Islam and Christianity through the Prism of Yoruba

History,” a lecture for the eightieth birthday celebration of Professor

J. F. Ade Ajayi, April 28, 2009, p. 2.

52. John N. Paden, Muslim Civil Cultures and Conflict Resolution: The

Challenge of Democratic Federalism in Nigeria (Washington, DC:

Brookings Institute, 2005), 109.

53. See Adeagbo Akinjogbin, Dahomey and Its Neighbors 1708–1818

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967).

54. Jacob K. Olupona, ed. Religion and Peace in Multifaith Nigeria

(Ibadan, Nigeria: African Books Collective, 1992), 145.

55. Charles Amjad-Ali, “Theological and Historical Rationality Behind

Christian-Muslim Relations,” in Islam in Asia: Perspectives for

Christian-Muslim Encounter, ed. J. P. Rajashekar and H. S. Wilson

(Geneva: Lutheran World Federation, 1992),14.

56. Ibid., 7–8.

57. Pope John Paul II, “Address to Participants in the Annual Meeting

between the Secretariat for Non-Christians and the WCC Sub-Unit

on Dialogue,” Bulletin 62 (1986): 146.

NOT ES 195

58. Paul Gifford, The New Crusaders: Christianity and the New Right in

Southern Africa (London: Pluto, 1991).

59. Peter L. Berger, “The Desecularization of the World: A Global

Overview” in The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion

and World Politics, ed. Peter L. Berger (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,

1999), 2.

60. For an excellent study of religious violence in Nigeria, see Toyin

Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular

Ideologies (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998).

61. The International Religious Freedom Report for 2012 issued by the

US stated that “in Nigeria, Boko Haram extremists violently mur-

dered hundreds of Christians and Muslims during the year. The

group often targeted political and ethnic rivals, religious leaders,

businesses, homes, police stations, military installations, churches,

mosques, and rural villages, using assault rif les, bombs, suicide car

bombings, and suicide vests.” http://www.this daylive.com/articles/

us-religious-freedom-report, 2.

62. Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of

Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003),

248.

63. For an excellent clarification of this terminology, see Appleby, The

Ambivalence of the Sacred, 10–15.

64. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, God Is Back: How Global

Revival of Faith is Changing the World (New York: Penguin, 2009),

297.

65. Cited in Amos Yong, Hospitality and the Other: Pentecost, Christian

Practices, and the Neighbor (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books: 2008), 19.

66. Ibid.

67. This dimension can be classified under what Paul Hedges referred

to as “human dialogue.” See Paul Hedges, Controversies in

Interreligious Dialogue and the Theology of Religions (London: SCM

Press, 2010), 61.

68. Wole Soyinka, “ Between Nation Space and Nationhood,” www.

obafemiawolowofoundation.org, 20.

69. By 2050, Nigeria might have a population of about 300 million

people. By the end of the century, the population may increase to

half a billion. A nation of this size will definitely be a major regional

power. In 2000, the United States intelligence network mapped out

the major security risks over the next 15 years. The rise of ethno-

religious conflicts in Nigeria ranked highly among them.

70. See Simeon O. Ilesanmi, Religious Pluralism and the Nigerian State

(Athens: University of Ohio Press, 1997) for his prescription of dia-

logic politics as a viable model for grappling with religious pluralism

and the state in Nigeria.

71. When President Ibrahim Babangida set up a committee made up

of a balanced membership of Christians and Muslims known as

NOT ES196

the Advisory Council for Religious Affairs(ACRA), the committee

ended in a stalemate. It was a telling signal that interreligious issues

have deep political dimensions.

72. Afe Adogame, “Fighting for God or Fighting in God’s Name! The

Politics of Religious Violence in Contemporary Nigeria,” Religions 0

(2009): 182.

73. This idea resonates with what Paul Hedges referred to as “particu-

larities” and what David Ray Griffin described as “differential plural-

ism.” See Paul Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and

the Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 2010), 27–30 and

David Ray Griffin, “Religious Pluralism: Generic, Identist, Deep,”

in Deep Religious Pluralism, ed. David Ray Griffin (Louisville, KY:

Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 24.

3 Abiding Faith: Varieties of Christian Responses to Islam

1. Norman Daniel’s Islam and the West: The Making of an Image

(Oxford: Oneworld, 2009), documents the medieval origins and

understanding of Western Christian thinking about Islam. This clas-

sic study explores the political and religious considerations behind

skewed Western perspectives about Islam, examining Christian-

Muslim interaction from medieval times to the modern period.

2. For a good analysis of the Phenomenology of Religion, see Jason

N. Blum, “Retrieving Phenomenology of Religion as a Method for

Religious Studies,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 80

(December 2012): 1025–48.

3. Edward W. Said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts

Determine How We See the Rest of the World (New York: Random

House, 1997), 37.

4. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islam” in Our Religions ed. Arvind Sharma

(New York: HarperOne, 1995), 435.

5. Norman Daniel, Islam and the West.

6. I should note that there were some positive appreciations of Islam even

at an early period. The opinion of the Catholicos Timothy I (728–

823) is apposite here. Asked by the Caliph al-Madhi to give his can-

did thoughts about Muhammad, Timothy responded: “Muhammad

is worthy of praise by all reasonable person, O my Sovereign. He

walked in the path of the prophets, and trod in tracks of the lovers

of God.” See Archbishop Michael L. Fitzgerald, “From Heresy to

Religion,” Pastoral Review (January 2011): 2. Timothy believed that

Muhammad must be praised for his uncompromising affirmation of

the doctrine of Tawhid, the unity of God, and for his willingness to

move his people away from all the trappings of the Jahilliyya period.

7. Quoted in Jean-Marie Gaudeaul, Encounters & Clashes: Islam and

Christianity in History II (Rome: Pontificio Istituto di Studi Arabi e

Islamici, 1990), 9.

NOT ES 197

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid., 18.

10. Ibid., 19.

11. On Al-Kindi and Aquinas, see Nasir Khan, Perceptions of Islam in the

Christendoms: A Historical Survey (Oslo: Solum Forlag, 2006).

12. Quoted in Gaudeaul, Encounters & Clashes, 130.

13. Ibid., 262.

14. David A. Kerr, “The Problem of Christianity in Muslim Perspective:

Implications for Christian Mission,” International Bulletin of

Missionary Research 5 (October 1981): 156.

15. See Walter Wink’s trilogy, Engaging the Powers, Naming the Powers,

and Unmasking the Powers for a comprehensive study of our world

from a theological perspective.

16. Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West (New York: Oxford University

Press, 1993), 6.

17. On Cragg’s theological consistency, see Christopher Lamb, The Call

to Retrieval: Kenneth Cragg’s Christian Vocation to Islam (London:

Grey Seal, 1997).

18. The work of Louis Massignon (1883–1962) represents another major

development in the Christian understanding of Islam. He maintained

that instead of looking at Islam from the outside and vociferously

attacking it, one must place oneself, by a kind of Copernican turn

around, at the very center of Islam. This approach leads to a more

objective understanding of Islam. A follower of Massignon, Giulio

Basetti-Sani, further developed Massignon’s ideas and counseled the

Church to adopt a positive approach to Islam and its tenets. For a

good study on Massignon, see Patrick Laude, Louis Massignon: The

Vow and the Oath (London: Matheson Trust, 2011).

19. David A. Kerr, “Christian Witness in Relation to Muslim Neighbors,”

Islamochristiana 10 (1984): 27.

20. Jane I. Smith, “Balancing Divergence and Convergence, or ‘Is God

the Author of Confusion?’” http://macdonald.hartsem.edu/smith-

art2.htm 2.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Knowledge and the Sacred (New York: Crossroad,

1981), 289.

24. Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad Is His Messenger (Chapel

Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 54.

25. The Qur’an identifies the sin of takdhib as pervasive in human his-

tory—it smacks of kufr (unbelief), which causes people to utter “lies”

against God (S. 2:39) and God’s prophets (S. 23:44). This natural

rebellion against God led to the wanton persecution of God’s prophet

and to the reckless blasphemy against Muhammad (S. 6: 147).

26. See David A. Kerr, “He Walked in the Path of the Prophets:

Toward a Christian Theological Recognition of the Prophethood of

NOT ES198

Muhammed,” in Christian-Muslim Encounters, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck

Haddad and Wadi Z. Haddad (Gainesville: University Press of

Florida, 1995), 427.

27. Ibid.

28. Kenneth Cragg, quoted in Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face

to Face (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), 197.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid., 198.

33. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an

African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 193.

34. Hamidullah, quoted in Christopher Lamb, The Call to Retrieval:

Kenneth Cragg’s Christian Vocation to Islam (London: Grey Seal,

1997), 123.

35. See Lamb, The Call to Retrieval, 124.

36. Ibid., 125.

37. Ibid., 124.

38. For an excellent study of Christian responses to other religions, see

Jacques Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002); Paul F. Knitter, No Other

Name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes Toward the World

Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985); Paul F. Knitter,

Theology of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002); and Paul

Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and Theology of

Religions (London: SMC Press, 2010).

39. On the connections between theology and contextualization, see

Steven R. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (Maryknoll, NY:

Orbis Books, 1992).

40. The Second Vatican Council alluded to the importance of con-

textualization in theological reflections. The principle of contex-

tualization is evident in the missionary decree, Ad gentes, where

contextualization deals with the incarnation of the message of Christ

in non-Christian cultures. The Churches in other contexts belong

within the whole “economy of the incarnation.” Ad gentes speaks

of the adaptation of the cultural riches of nations into the life of the

Church. For instance, a Christian in a missionary situation should

strive to know “the riches which the generous God has distributed

among nation.” (AG 11.2).

41. Ukpong, quoted in David A. Kerr, “New Models in Christian-

Muslim Relations,” Unpublished paper, 12.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. Paul Ricouer, quoted in Emmanuel Martey, African Theology:

Inculturation and Liberation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,

1997), 54.

NOT ES 199

45. Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (Maryknoll, NY:

Orbis Books, 1992), 5.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid.

48. Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Theology Brewed in an African Pot

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), 152–3.

49. For excellent studies of Vatican II, see W. Abbott, The Documents

of Vatican II: Introductions and Commentaries (London: Geoffrey

Chapman, 1966); Miikka Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-

Christian Religions According to the Second Vatican Council (Leiden:

Brill, 1992); Michael L. Fitzgerald, “From Heresy to Religion,”

Pastoral Review (January 2004): 1–7; and Robert B. Sheard,

Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church Since Vatican II: A

Historical and Theological Study (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press,

1987).

50. See Ataullah Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth

Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 36–38, for a good

explanation of the Lumen Gentium.

51. Quoted in Peter C. Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian

Perspectives on Interfaith Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,

2004), xxii.

52. Ibid.

53. Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue, 425.

54. Ibid., 425–6.

55. See Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously, xxiii.

56. Knitter, No Other Name, 124.

57. Ibid.

58. See Jacques Dupuis, Jesus Christ at the Encounter of World Religions

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991).

59. H. Maurier, quoted in Jacques Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology

of Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997), 169.

60. “Guidelines for Dialogue between Muslims and Christians,” Rome,

1971, 17.

61. For a good account of the responses of the Catholic Church to

interreligious dialogue, see Michael L. Fitzgerald and John Borelli,

Interfaith Dialogue: A Catholic View (Maryknoll, NY; and London:

Orbis Books and SPCK, 2006).

62. Ibid., 30.

63. In the post-conciliar period, the work of Pope John Paul II gave

more clarification and guidance for interreligious dialogue within

the Catholic church. Through his writings and visits, he was able

to give concrete affirmation to the willingness of the church to

embrace other religious traditions. During his visit to West Africa,

he acknowledged the peaceful interreligious coexistence in many

African communities. In his 1990 encyclical on mission, he affirms

that the Holy Spirit is present “not only in individuals but also in

NOT ES200

society and history, peoples, cultures, and religions (Redemptoris

missio, no. 28). He also affirmed that there is the abiding presence

and action of the Spirit of God among followers of other religions.

Jacques Dupuis remarked that he “laid the theological basis for the

significance of interreligious dialogue in the mission of the church.”

See Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology, 360. For further articula-

tion of Pope John Paul II on interreligious dialogue, see Byron L.

Sherwin and Harold Kasimow, eds., Pope Paul II and Interreligious

Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999).

64. For a good study on the World Council of Churches, see Dirk C.

Mulder, “A History of the Sub-Unit on Dialogue of the World

Council of Churches,” Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 2 (1992):

136–51.

65. On the inner dynamics of the WCC, see S. Wesley Ariarajah, “Power,

Politics, and Plurality: The Struggles of the World Council of

Churches to Deal with Religious Plurality,” in The Myth of Religious

Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration, ed. Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 2005), 176–93.

66. See Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian

Responses to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland: Pilgrims Press, 2006),

106.

67. Guidelines on Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies,

Geneva, WCC, 1979, 111.4.

68. Stuart E. Brown, Twenty Years of Christian-Muslim Conversations

Sponsored by the World Council of Churches (Geneva: World Council

of Churches, 1989), 3–5. The unit on dialogue was disbanded in

1991 and a new office on Inter-Religious Relations was created

within the General Secretariat. See also J. B. Taylor, ed., WCC Papers

on 10 Years of Christian-Muslim Dialogue (Geneva: World Council of

Churches, 1977).

69. Quoted in Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith, 106.

70. Stanley Samartha, “Dialogue as a Continuing Christian Concern,”

in Christianity and Other Religions, ed. John Hick and Brian

Hebblethwaite (London: Collins, 1980), 151.

71. Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century, 30.

72. Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face, 37.

73. One important meeting was held in Broumana in July 1972. Stanley

Samartha and John Taylor edited a book on some of the papers that

were presented at the conference. Some of the participants at the

conference were: Kenneth Cragg, Lamin Sanneh, George Anawati,

Michael Fitzgerald, George Khodr, Marston Speight, Willem

Bijlefeld, Mahmoud Ayoub, Wadi Haddad, Anwar Harjono, Hasan

Askari, Mahmoud Husain, and Hassan Saab. It was an initiative that

led to other meetings on Christian-Muslim dialogue all over the

world.

NOT ES 201

74. Isma’il R. Al-Faruqi, “Islam and Other Faiths,” in The Challenge of

Islam, ed. Altaf Gauhar (London: Islamic Council of Europe, 1978),

175.

75. Quoted in Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth

Century, 73.

76. Kenneth Cragg, “In the Name of God . . . ” in Christian-Muslim

Dialogue, ed. S. J. Samartha and J. B. Taylor (Geneva: World Council

of Churches, 1973), 154.

4 Cross Meets Crescent: Forms of Christian Responses to Islam

1. On PROCMURA, see Stuart E. Brown, “A Christian Approach

to Islam in Africa,” in A Great Commission: Christian Hope and

Religious Diversity, ed. Martin Forward, Stephen Plant, and Susan

White (New York: Peter Lang, 2000), 187–200.

2. Johann Haafkens, “The Direction of Christian-Muslim Relations in

Sub-Saharan Africa,” in Christian-Muslim Encounters, ed. Yvonne

Yazbeck Haddad et. al. (Gainesville: University of Florida Press,

1995), 306.

3. J. Haafkens, “PROCMURA and the Churches in Africa,” Project for

Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, vol. 3, no. 3, May/June 1994,

p. 8.

4. For a good study on James Johnson, see E. A. Ayandele, Holy Johnson:

Pioneer of African Nationalism, 1836–1917 (New York: Routledge,

1970).

5. G. O. Gbadamosi, The Growth of Islam among the Yoruba 1841–1908

(New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1987), 134.

6. Ibid., 143.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., 144.

9. Ibid., 143.

10. Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West

Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 1.

11. Quoted in Lamin Sanneh, West African Christianity: The Religious

Impact (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), 221.

12. P. R. McKenzie, Inter-religious Encounters in West Africa: Samuel

Ajayi Crowther’s Attitude to African Traditional Religion and Islam

(London: Blackfriars Press, 1979), 13.

13. Lamin Sanneh’s work, Translating the Message: The Missionary

Impact on Culture (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008) offers an

insightful analysis of the role of translation in the missionary expan-

sion in Africa.

14. Andrew F. Walls, “Samuel Ajayi Crowther 1807–1891: Foremost

African Christian of the Nineteenth Century,” in Mission Legacies:

Biographical Studies of Leaders of the Modern Missionary Movement,

NOT ES202

ed. Gerald H. Anderson et. al (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994),

136.

15. Quoted in P. R. McKenzie, “Crowther’s Attitude to Other Faith—

During the Early Period,” Orita: Ibadan Journal of Religious Studies

5 (June 1971): 4.

16. Ibid., 9

17. Ibid.

18. Andrew F. Walls, “Africa as the Theatre of Christian Engagement

with Islam in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Religion in Africa

29 (May 1991): 161.

19. Ibid., 162.

20. Ibid., 163.

21. Ibid.

22. Quoted in McKenzie, “Crowther’s Attitude to other Faith,” 10.

23. Ibid.

24. McKenzie, Inter-religious Encounters in West Africa, 63.

25. Ibid.

26. Sanneh, West African Christianity, 224.

27. Ibid.

28. J. D. Y. Peel, Aladura: A Religious Movement among the Yoruba

(London: Oxford University Press for the International African

Institute, 1968), 164.

29. Ibid.

30. Joseph Kenny, “Christian-Muslim Relations in Nigeria,”

Islamochristiana 5 (1979): 178.

31. Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of Islamic Da’wah, with

Particular Reference to Africa,” International Review of Mission 260

(October 1976): 410.

32. Allan Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global

Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2004), 4.

33. On the Pentecostal and Charismatic phenomenon in Nigeria,

see John A. Farounbi, A Brief History of Pentecostal Movement in

Nigeria (Mushin, Nigeria: Lemuel, 1997); Emmanuel Onuh,

Pentecostalism: Selling Jesus at a Discount (Nsukka, Nigeria:

Goodwell of God Apostolate, 1999); Jerome N. Okafor, ed., The

Challenge of Pentecostalism (Awka, Nigeria: Mercury Bright Press,

2004); Matthews A. Ojo, The End-Time Army: Charismatic

Movements in Modern Nigeria (Trenton, NJ: and Asmara, Eritrea:

Africa World Press, 2006); Ogbu U. Kalu, African Pentecostalism:

An Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); and

Azohzeh Ukah, A New Paradigm of Pentecostal Power: A Study of

the Redeemed Christian Church of God in Nigeria (Trenton, NJ and

Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 2008).

34. See Gerrie ter Harr, Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in

Europe (Cardiff, Great Britain: Cardiff Academic Press, 1998), 52.

NOT ES 203

35. H. W. Turner, African Independent Church, vol. II (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1967), 317.

36. G. J. O. Moshay, Who Is This Allah? (Ibadan: Fireliners International,

1990), 87.

37. Miller, quoted in Asonzeh Ukah, “Born-Again Muslims: The

Ambivalence of Pentecostal Response to Islam in Nigeria,” in

Fractured Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters in

Nigeria (New York: Peter Lang, 2012), 51.

38. Ethel Miller, The Truth About Muhammed (Minner: CMS Niger

Press, 1929), 14–18.

39. Colin Chapman, quoted in Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face

to Face (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), 98. The works of Henry Martyn,

Temple Gairdner, Constance Padwick, and Lewis Bevans Jones offer

a more sympathetic understanding of Islam.

40. See Ogbu U. Kalu, “Sharia and Islam in Nigerian Pentecostal

Rhetoric, 1970–2003,” Pneuma 26, (2004): 242–61; and Timothy

O. Olonade, ed., Battle Cry for the Nations: Rekindling the Flames of

World Evangelization (Jos, Nigeria: CAPRO Media, 1995).

41. Matthews A. Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest

for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim

Relations 2 (2007): 175.

42. Ruth Marshall, “The Sovereignty of Miracles: Pentecostal Political

Thought in Nigeria,” Constellations 2 (2010): 204.

43. Ukah, “Born-Again Muslims,” 42–62.

44. Ibid., 55.

45. Ibid.

46. See Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics

and Secular Ideologies (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press,

1998) for a comprehensive analysis of interreligious conflicts in con-

temporary Nigeria.

47. Ogbu U. Kalu, Power, Poverty and Prayer, (New York: Peter Lang,

2000), 157.

48. On the shari’a in Nigeria, see Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir, and

Franz Kogelmann, eds. Comparative Perspectives on the Shari’ah in

Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 2005); Lamin Sanneh, “Shari’ah

Sanctions as Secular Grace? A Nigerian Islamic Debate and an

Intellectual Response,” Transformation 20 (2003): 232–44; Philip

Ostein, “Islamic Criminal Law: What It Means in Zamfara and

Niger States,” Journal of Public & Private Law 14 (2000): 1–18;

Frieder Ludwig, “Christian-Muslim Relations in Northern Nigeria

since the Introduction of Shari’ah in 1999,” Journal of the American

Academy of Religion 76 (2008): 602–37; Yusuf Turaki, The British

Colonial Legacy in Northern Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Jos University

Press, 1993); C. Ubah, “Problems of Christian Missionaries in the

Muslim Emirates of Nigeria, 1900–1928,” Journal of African Studies

3 (1976): 351–71; Matthew Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam

NOT ES204

and the Contest for Public Sphere in Northern Nigeria,” Islam &

Christian-Muslim Relations 18 (2007): 175–88; Abdulmalik Bappa

Mahmud, A Brief History of Shari’a in the Defunct Northern Nigeria

(Jos, Nigeria: Jos University Press, 1986.

49. www.tribune.com.ng/news2013, 1.

50. Boko Haram: Oritsejafor Addresses US Congress, http://www.edo-

nation.net.

51. I should point out that the US government has put a $7 million

bounty on Abubakar Shekau’s head. He is the leader of the Boko

Haram movement in Nigeria. This bounty is $2 million more than

the one on Mullah Omar, the leader of Afghanistan’s Taliban.

52. For a good study on this issue, see Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and

the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Denver: Westview

Press, 1997).

53. It should be noted that prior to the rise of the modern secular state in

the West, Muslims in Africa have been engaged in discussions regarding

the relationship religious order and political power. From the twelfth

century, Muslims in the Sudanic city of Jenne, Mali, and Songhay have

debated the role of religion vis-à-vis the limitations of state power.

54. A number of Nigerian Muslims are questioning the “silent majority

syndrome.” Their stance affirms the pluralistic and secular nature of

Nigeria. In this context, all the religious traditions must develop new

models of living together.

55. For a good analysis of the debate on the shari’a in Egypt, Saudi

Arabia, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Afghanistan, see The

Review of Faith & International Affairs, 10 (2012): 1–16.

56. From the Muslim standpoint, shari’a law is a divinely given injunc-

tion from God. It stipulates the various ways to humbly submit to

Allah. Muslim apologists crave for an ideal context that will guar-

antee the rights of Muslims. Liberals, on the other hand, see the

shari’a as an ideal way to resist Western impositions and worldview.

In a multireligious setting like Nigeria, safeguarding Christian rights

remains a contentious issue.

57. It must be noted that a full implementation of the shari’a entailed

a broad range of legal system pertaining to matters such as alcohol,

gambling, prostitution, land reform, banking system, and educa-

tional reform.

58. It is also possible to see the rumblings in northern Nigeria as an

aftermath of the colonial arrangement. At the beginning of colonial

rule in Nigeria, the British inaugurated a system of “indirect rule”

in the northern region by allowing the existing Muslim emirates

to retain their political power. By the time the drumbeats of inde-

pendence starting getting louder, these leaders became irrelevant or

became more or less putative heads. They became ceremonial figures

who could only perform civic responsibilities. Igbo Christians who

migrated from the South also started acquiring land in the northern

NOT ES 205

region of the country. They also started assuming leadership posi-

tions in this region. This may have led to a feeling of resentment by

the Hausa-Fulani populace.

59. Amos Yong, Hospitality & Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and

the Neighbor (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), 21.

60. Hassan Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria

(Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 1994), 199–200.

61. On the response of the Roman Catholic Church of Nigeria (RCC) to

Islam in Nigeria, see Casimir Chinedu Nzeh, From Clash to Dialogue

of Religions: A Socio-Ethical Analysis of the Christian-Islamic Tension

in a Pluralistic Nigeria (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2002). With the

influence of Vatican II, the RCC has maintained a program of cau-

tious dialogue with Islam in Nigeria. It is however clear that one

of the major concerns of the Church is the high rate of its mem-

bers joining the Pentecostal churches. On this trend, see Evaristus

Bassey, Pentecostalism and the Catholic Church in Nigeria (Calabar,

Nigeria: Mariana, 1993) and Hilary C. Achunike, The Influence

of Pentecostalism on Catholic Priests and Seminarians in Nigeria

(Onitsha, Nigeria: Africana First, 2004).

62. The Gallup poll conducted by John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed

confirmed that there is tremendous support among Muslims for

both shari’a and democracy. See John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed,

Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think (New

York: Gallup Press, 2007).

63. Balewa was an ardent advocate of the rights of northern Nigeria, and

with Ahmadu Bello, who held the hereditary title of Sardauna of

Sokoto, he established the Northern People’s Congress (NPC).

64. Many of these social critics felt that the main reason for agitating

for the shari’a at this point was to undermine the administration

of Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba and a self-proclaimed born-again

Christian. It was a calculated move by several northern states to flex

their political muscle.

65. For further discussion on the historical development and applica-

tion of the shari’a in Nigeria, see Joseph Kenny, “Shari’a in Nigeria:

A Historical Survey,” Bulletin on Islam and Christian-Muslim

Relations in Africa 1.1 (1986): 1–21; John Onaiyekan, “The Shariah

in Nigeria: A Christian View,” Bulletin on Islam and Christian-

Muslim Relations in Africa 5.3 (1987): 1–17; David Laitin, “The

Shari’a Debate and the Origins of the Nigeria’s Second Republic,”

Journal of Modern African Studies 20.3 (1982): 411–30; Jonathan

T. Reynolds, “Nigeria and Shari’a: Religion and Politics in a West

African Nation,” in History Behind the Headlines: The Origins of

Conflicts Worldwide, ed. Meghan O’Meara (Farmington Hills, MI:

Gale Group, 2001), 214–20; and John Hunwick, “An African Case

Study of Political Islam: Nigeria,” Annals of the American Academy

of Political and Social Science 524 (November 1992): 149–55.

NOT ES206

66. Abdullahi An-Na’im, “Reforming Islam,” Harvard International

Review 19 (1997): 26.

67. Abdullahi An-Na’im, “Political Islam in National Politics and

International Relations,” in The Desecularization of the World:

Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter Berger (Grand

Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 117.

68. Ibid., 116.

69. Ibid., 117.

70. Ibid.

71. See Franz Rosenthal, Al-Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History,

vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 427.

72. Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West

African Pluralism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 180–81.

73. See Simeon Ilesanmi, Religious Pluralism and the Nigerian State

(Athens, OH: Center for International Studies, 1997), 186.

74. In a lecture at the Royal Courts of Justice in February in 2008, the

Rt. Reverend Rowan Williams, Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury,

caused a considerable stir by remarking that it was desirable and

unavoidable that certain aspects of the shari’a be recognized in Britain

for reasons of equal rights and treatment. See Robert W. Hefner,

“Global Politics and the Question of Shari’a: An Introduction to the

Winter Issue,” Review of Faith & International Affairs 10 (2012): 1.

75. See Miroslav Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A Theological Exploration

of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville, TN: Abingdon

Press, 1996) for a good exposition of this idea.

76. Ibid, 124.

77. Miroslav Volf, “Living with the ‘Other,’” Journal of Ecumenical

Studies 39 (2006): 16.

78. Ibid., 18, 19.

79. The Guardian, quoted in http://odili.net/news/source/2009/

may/15/36.html, Friday, May 15, 2009, 1.

80. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel Beyond the

West (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 6.

81. Chinua Achebe, “The Crossroads in Our Cultures,” Sunday Times,

November 12, 1989, 18.

82. Ibid.

83. See Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses

to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2006).

5 On Faithful Presence: Religion and Human Wholeness in Nigeria

1. Ogbu U. Kalu, “African Traditional Religion and Its Modern Fate,”

in The World’s Religions: Continuities and Transformations, ed. Peter

B. Clarke and Peter Beyer (London and New York: Routledge, 2009),

11–12.

NOT ES 207

2. Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa,

a report by the Pew Charitable Trusts and the John Templeton

Foundation.

3. Kenneth Cragg, Sandals at the Mosque: Christian Presence Amid

Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), 68.

4. See Ebenezer Obadare, “Pentecostal Presidency? The Lagos-Ibadan

‘Theocratic Class’ & the Muslim ‘Other,’” Review of African Political

Economy 33 (2006): 665–78.

5. Ibid., 673.

6. This perspective is at the core of the narrative on the praxis of inter-

religious engagement.

7. Jean-Marc Ela, African Cry (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986),

84–85.

8. Ibid., 85.

9. See Farid Esack, Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism (Oxford:

Oneworld, 1997); and Farid Esack, On Being a Muslim: Finding a

Religious Path in the World Today (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009).

10. “We’re the cause of our problems in the North,” http://www.van-

guardngr.com/2013/01, accessed January 20, 2013.

11. Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses

to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2005),

110–11.

12. Thomas Thangaraj, The Common Task: A Theology of the Christian

Mission (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1999), 28.

13. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the

West (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 39.

14. Lewis S. Mudge’s proposal for a “covenantal humanism” is inti-

mately connected with the discussion on the linkages between reli-

gion and transformation. According to him, religious traditions

have a gift of responsibility toward the well-being of humankind.

See his The Gift of Responsibility: The Promise of Dialogue among

Christians, Jews, and Muslims (London and New York: Continuum,

2008).

15. James H. Cone, “Black Theology and Solidarity,” in Struggles for

Solidarity: Liberation Theologies in Tension, ed. Lorine M. Getz and

Ruy O. Costa (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1992), 47.

16. Two texts that deal with interreligious dialogue and global responsi-

bility are Paul F. Knitter, One Earth Many Religions (Maryknoll, NY:

Orbis Books, 1995) and Raimon Panikkar, Cultural Disarmament:

The Way to Peace (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press,

1995). For Knitter, the specter of environmental degradation and

social injustice demand interreligious alliances. In the book, Knitter

advocates a “this-worldly soteriology” necessary to overcome the

global eco-human problem. Panikkar, on the other hand, is con-

cerned with the question of peace. He weaves together insights from

Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity to construct a new vision of

NOT ES208

peace and intercultural dialogue. See also his “Toward a Liberative

Interreligious Dialogue,” Cross Currents 45 (1995): 451–68. The

essence of the article lies in the fact that “the word shaped in dia-

logue that accords the oppressed a privileged place will grant authen-

ticity to the conversation among world religions” (451).

17. At the height of the Liberian civil war, it was a coalition of Christian

and Muslim women who led the charge that would eventually lead to

peace talks.

18. The Executive Council of Women’s Interfaith Council is Kathleen

McGarvey OLA, Comfort Fearon is the Christian Coordinator, and

Amina Kazaure, the Muslim Coordinator.

19. I am very grateful to Professor Yomi Durotoye, Wake Forest

University for this insight.

20. Francis Mading Deng, The Dinka of the Sudan (New York: Holt,

Rinehart and Winston, 1972), 24. The quality of alaafia is analo-

gous to the concept of dheeng among the Dinka people of Sudan.

This represents qualities such as generosity, kindness, compassion,

and good manners. The opposite of such positive virtues is yuur,

which means selfishness, ugly manners, and wanton disregard for

others. See Benjamin C. Ray, African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and

Community (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), 94.

21. Desmond Tutu, No Future Without Forgiveness (New York:

Doubleday, 1999), 31.

22. John Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (New York: Doubleday,

1970), 282.

23. Aloysius Pieris, “The Place of Non-Christian Religions and Cultures

in the Evolution of Third World Theology,” in Irruption of the Third

World: Challenge to Theology, ed. Virginia Fabella and Sergio Torres

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), 113–14.

24. Paul F. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions,” in The Myth of

Christian Uniqueness, ed. Paul F. Knitter and John Hick (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books),181.

25. Ibid., 185.

26. This perspective is related to the praxis of interreligious dialogue.

Paul Knitter also connected this dimension to what he described as

the “global theological reality,” which combines tradition with praxis.

See Paul Knitter, No Other Name? A Critical Survey of Christian

Attitudes to World Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985),

91–2. Religion is not simply about what people believe, it is also a

matter of what they do. Religion deals with thought, feeling, and

action. See also his One Earth, Many Religions: Multifaith Dialogue

and Global Responsibility (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995).

27. Ibid., 187.

28. Harvey Cox, quoted in Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions.”

29. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions,” 181.

NOT ES 209

30. Quoted in Knitter, “Toward a Liberation Theology of Religions,”

189.

31. Walter Bruegemann, Living Towards Vision: Biblical Reflections on

Shalom (New York: United Church Press, 1982), 15.

32. Stanley Samartha, quoted in Paul F. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation

Theology of Religions,” 189.

33. Hans Kung, quoted in Paul F. Knitter, “Towards a Liberation

Theology of Religions,” 189.

34. Hans Kung, “A Global Ethic: Development and Goals,” Interreligious

Insight 1 (January 2003): 10.

35. The project on Global Ethic cannot ignore the voices and concerns

of the dispossessed. For a critical appraisal of the notion of Global

Ethic, see Paul Hedges, “Are Interfaith Dialogue and a Global

Ethic Compatible? A Call for an Ethic to the Globe,” Journal for

Faith, Spirituality and Social Change 1.2 (2008): 109–32; and Paul

Hedges, “Concerns about the Global Ethic: A Sympathetic Critique

and Suggestions for a New Direction,” Studies in Interreligious

Dialogue 18.1 (2008): 157–63.

36. See S. J. Samartha and J. B. Taylor, eds., Christian-Muslim Dialogue

(Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1973) for the memorandum of

the conference in Broumana.

37. See the final statement of “Dialogue in Nigeria,” Second International

Conference on Youth and Interfaith Communication, Jos, Nigeria,

October 22–24, 2010.

38. Editorial Symposium, “Spirituality and Liberation: A Buddhist-

Christian Conversation,” Horizons 15.2 (1988): 361.

39. Miroslav Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A Theological Exploration of

Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon Press,

1996), 220.

40. Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Prophets (New York: Harper Collins,

1962), 19.

41. S. J. Samartha, “Religious Identity in a Multi-Faith Society,” Current

Dialogue 13 (2004): 12.

42. See CTC Bulletin, XVIII (April 2002): 2–3.

43. Kwesi Dickson, Theology in Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,

1984), 62.

44. See Elias K. Bongmba, The Dialectics of Transformation in Africa

(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) 200–2.

45. Jean-Marc Éla, “Christianity and Liberation in Africa” in Paths of

African Theology, ed. Rosino Gibellini, 146. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis

Books, 1994).

46. The classical typology of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism was

introduced by Alan Race to describe Christian approaches to other

religions. See his Christians and Religious Pluralism (London: SCM

Press, 1983). Paul Hedges has identified four potential problems

NOT ES210

with the typology: it oversimplifies the possibilities, not everyone fits

neatly inside the categories, the terms are polemical, and they do not

represent an accurate classification. See Paul Hedges, Controversies

in Interreligious Dialogue and the Theology of Religions (London:

SCM Press, 2010), 18.

47. Christians Meeting Muslims: Papers on Ten Years of Christian-Muslim

Dialogue (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1977), 68.

48. Marc Gopin, “The Use of the Word and Its Limits: A Critical

Evaluation of Religious Dialogue as Peacemaking,” in Interfaith

Dialogue and Peacemaking ed. David R. Smock (Washington, DC:

United States Institute of Peace, 2002), 131.

49. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an

African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 193.

Conclusion: On Living and Walking Together into the Future

1. For a good exposition of this position, see Judith Berling, A Pilgrim

in Chinese Culture: Negotiating Religious Diversity (Eugene, OR:

Wipf and Stock, 1997), 36.

2. See CTC Bulletin XVIII (April 2002): 2–3.

3. See John Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and

Leadership (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1986), 3.

4. Diana Eck, cited in David Smock, ed., Interfaith Dialogue and

Peacemaking (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace,

2002), 6–7.

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Index

1918 influenza pandemic, 54, 117

1991 Gulf War, 12

1992 riots, 166

1999 elections in Nigeria, 12

2003 elections in Nigeria, 125

2011 elections in Nigeria, 37

2015 elections in Nigeria, 60

Abacha, Sani, 57, 131

Abbott, Freeland, 87

ibn Abdallah, Muhammad Ahmad, 43

Abe, Masao, 168

Abeokuta, 38, 53, 109, 118

Abhishikananda, Swami, 22

Abia, 34

Abimbola, Wande, 61

Abiodun, Christianah, 119

ablution, 118, 119

Abrahamic legacy, 4, 41, 74, 92

“Abrahamic monotheism,” 92

Absolute, union with, 22, 23

absolute divine transcendence, 85

absolute state, pitfalls of, 133

Abubakar, Sa’ad, III, 152

Abyssinia, 16

accountability resulting from creative

dialogical engagement, 58

Achebe, Chinua, 32, 56, 140, 141

ACRA (Advisory Council for Religious

Affairs), 196n71

Ad gentes, 198n40

Adam, religion of, 124

Adamawa, 34, 38

Addis Ababa, 96

Adeboye, Enoch Adejare, 125, 126

Adefuye, Ade, 37

Adogame, Afe, 68

adultery, 124

advaita vedanta tradition, 22

Advisory Council for Religious Affairs,

196n71

affirmation and alteration within

African religion, 121

afiyah, 157

African Baptist Church, 54, 117

African Cry, 149

African Independent Church, 54, 111,

116–21

African Initiated Church. See Aladura

churches

African Islam, distinct characteristics

of, 42

African liberation theology. See

liberation theology

African Nations Cup tournament, 180

African Pentecostal and charismatic

churches, 121–6

See also Pentecostalism

African Reformation, 54

African religions, Christianity and Islam

as, 18

African Slave Trade and Its Remedy, 52

Agarenes, 76

agency within theology, 72, 73

aggiornamento, 91

agreeing to disagree, 81

Ahl al-Kitab, 17

Ahmadu, Seku, 48

Ajobi and Ajogbe: Variations on the

Theme of Sociation, 61

Akinjogbin, Adeagbo, 61

Akinola, Jasper, 150

Akiwowo, Akinsola, 61

Akwa-Ibom, 34

INDEX226

al-Din, Nasir, 45

al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 87

al-Faruqi, Raji, 99

al-Hajj, Umar, 48

al-Hindi, Sheikh Rahmatullah, 78

Al-Kindi, Risala of, 77

al-Maghili, Muhammad, 44–6

alaafia, 156, 157

alaafia (holistic well-being), 156

Aladura churches, 54, 55, 117–20

etymology of aladura, 118

relationship with Islam, 117

alcohol consumption, 120

Alexandria, 17

Algeria, 17

alienation as result of exclusive

theological propositions, 98

Alive to God, 87

All Progressives Congress (APC),

60

“Allah” as god kept in Kaa’ba, 124

Allahu Akbar, 116

Allen, William, 109

almajiri education, 42–4, 58

Almajiris, 173

Aloma, Idris, 44

Amin, Samir, 24

Amjad-Ali, Charles, 25, 26, 61, 62

An-Na’im, Abdullahi, 132, 133

Anambra people, 34

Anang people, 38

Anderson, Allan, 122

Angel Gabriel as messenger of God,

112–14

Anglican Church, 37, 81, 119

anthropological model of contextual

theology, 90

antichrist, 77, 124

anti-Semitism, 75–8

antislavery campaigns, 111

APC (All Progressives Congress), 60

appeals, Sharia courts, 130

appropriation in religious transmission,

7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, 53, 68, 100,

110, 111, 118, 121, 152–5

Aquinas, St. Thomas, 77

Arabic language, 22, 107, 110, 119

Arabization, 17

Bibles in Arabic, 112, 115

art, role of Islamic religion in, 129

Ashafa, Ustaz Muhammad Nurayn, 9,

166–8

Asia, dialogical and liberative theologies

in, 22, 23

Askiya Mohammed, 44

Asoro Kukuru, 107

Atlantic Monthly, 21

The Attitude of the Church towards the

Followers of Other Religions, 99

authenticity and authentic faith, 30, 45,

63, 90, 100, 117, 123, 181

authoritarianism, 133

autonomy, within Christian and Muslim

understanding, 23, 41, 49, 118

avidya, 161

awakening, spiritual, 21, 97, 109, 118,

149, 165–9

Awolowo, Obafemi, 66

Ayandele, E. A., 51, 52

Ayetoro, 120

Azikwe, Nnamdi, 178

Babangida, Ibrahim, 57, 127, 195n71

Babylon, 17

Bakare, Tunde, 150

balance

alaafia, 157

“communal equilibrium,” 170

peaceful interreligious coexistence in

parts of Nigeria, 65–7

Balewa, Abubakar Tafawa, 131, 132

Banu Ma’qil, 45

Basetti-Sani, Giulio, 197n18

baths, ritual, 120

Bauchi, 34, 38

Beatitudes, 171, 172

Bediako, Kwame, 144

begging, 58

“believers” vs. “unbelievers,” 77

Bello, Alhaji Ahmadu, 68, 178, 205n63

belonging

explanation of multireligious

belonging, 187n34

See also the Other/Otherness

Benedictine monk, 22

Benin, Republic of, 104

Benin Empire, 51

Benue, 38

Berber peoples, 45

Berger, Peter, 63

INDEX 227

Berom, 36

bestial beings, 77

Bevans, Stephen, 90

Bible, 78, 107, 111–15, 154, 176

Arabic language, 112, 115

common ground for interreligious

dialogue and communication found

in scriptural texts, 167

dialogue as Biblicist and affirming

of reconciliation and mutual

exchange, 114

gospel command for love,

compassion, and understanding,

100, 101

litafi, 113

textual level, Christian-Muslim

relations at, 27

Yoruba language, 111

Bida, 116

bilad al-harb (territory of non-Muslims),

46

bilingual education within almajiri

schooling, 193n43

Bishops Conference of Nigeria (CBAN),

8, 131

black stone, mockery of Islamic practices

and beliefs, 76

Boko Haram

aggravated violence by, 58, 64, 129

designation as terrorist group,

128, 129

generally, 5, 33, 40

increasing sophistication of, 35

International Religious Freedom

Report on, 195n61

bondage

economic bondage. See poverty

slavery. See slavery and slave trade

border-crossing

contemporary experience of, 192n31

See also immigration

born-again Christians. See

Pentecostalism

“born-again Muslims,” 126

Borno Empire, 44, 52

Bornu, 39

See also northern Nigeria

Borrmans, Maurice, 84

borrowing. See appropriation in

religious transmission

Bourdieu, Pierre, 78

bowing, 120

Brahman in advaita vedanta tradition,

22

Britain

civilizing agenda and mission, 52

collapse of Sokoto Caliphate, 48

in Crown Colony of Lagos, 38

English Penal Code, 130

establishment of British hegemony,

105

expatriates, 124

“indirect rule” by, 48, 204n58

Islam in, 25

See also colonization and colonial

mentality

broadcast media. See media

Brook, David, 21

Broumana, 100, 165, 200n73

Bruegemann, Walter, 162

Buddhism, 22, 158, 165, 168,

207n16

noted practitioners of multiple

religious belonging, 187n34

Buhari, Iman, 17

Building Bridges Seminar in Doha,

Qatar, 176

Burkina Faso, 45, 180

burning of churches, 128

Buxton, Fowell, 52

Byzance, Nicetas of, 77

Byzantium, 17, 76

Calabar, 53

The Call of the Minaret, 85–7

Cameroon, 45, 104

Campbell, John, 33, 37

CAN (Christian Association of Nigeria),

122, 127–31, 152

Canada, 25

CANAN (Christian Association of

Nigerian-Americans), 129

Canterbury, Archbishop of, 206n74

Cantwell Smith, Wilfred, 21, 22, 86

Cape Town, 137

Capita Philosophica: Philosophical

Chapters, 76

Capuchins, 51

Cartigny, Switzerland, 97

cartoons of Prophet Muhammad, 84

INDEX228

Catholicos Timothy, 196n6

Catholics, 87, 91–4, 128, 193n41,

205n61

Catholic Bishops Conference of

Nigeria (CBAN), 8, 131

Constitution of the Church, 91

Council of Trent, 94

ecclesia reformanda, 164

Lebanese Catholic scholar, 84

missionaries. See missionaries and

missionary movements

popes. See Popes

Second Vatican Council, 91–4, 99,

198n40

Triune God, 22

CBAN (Catholic Bishops Conference of

Nigeria), 8, 131

Celestial Church of Christ, 54, 117

censorship, 127

Chad, 45

Chambesy, Switzerland, 95

Chapman, Colin, 125

charismatic movements. See

Pentecostalism

chauvinism, 5

Cherubim and Seraphim movement, 54,

117–20

children, 119, 157

International Conference of Christian

and Muslim youths, 16

Muslim/Christian Youth Dialogue

Forum, 166

schooling at Madrassehs, 42–4, 58

Christ Apostolic Church, 54, 117,

119

Christ Jesus. See Jesus

Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN),

122, 127–31, 152

Christian Association of Nigerian-

Americans (CANAN), 129

Christian Council of Nigeria, 104

Christian Responsibility in an

Independent Nigeria, 104

Christian Students’ Movement, 127

Christianity as African religion, 31

robust presence in Nigeria, 37

Christmas Day bombing, 193n41

The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque:

Christians and Muslims in the

World of Islam, 71

Church Missionary Society (CMS), 53,

77, 105, 107–8

in India, 77

Church of the Lord, 54, 117

Church of the Lord (Aladura). See

Aladura

CIFR (Commission on International

Religious Freedom), 33, 138

civic responsibility, 157

civil service system, 56

civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130

Clapperton, Hugh, 52

Clarke, Peter, 44

clash of culture and civilization theses,

24, 25, 32, 41, 60, 125

“clash of ignorance,” 188n42

Clashes & Encounters: Islam and

Christianity in History, 74

clean worship, ablution as, 118, 119

CMS (Church Missionary Society), 53,

77, 105, 107, 108

Cobb, John, 159

codes and laws

Catholic Constitution of the Church,

91

code of conduct for Muslim rulers, 44

Constitution of Nigeria, 127, 130–2

English Penal Code, 130

international human rights laws,

193n44

shari’a, 35, 39, 43, 46, 47, 127, 130–

4, 203n48

Coe, Shoki, 88, 89

Cold War era, 23

Cole, M. S., 107

colonization and colonial mentality, 14,

26, 38, 39, 42, 43, 51–5, 115

early explorers, 51, 52

ethnic amalgamation, 55

foreign domination of Christian

churches, independence from,

116–21

independence of Nigeria, 32, 130

“indirect rule,” 204n58

legacies of, 5, 71

transformation of African

Christianity, 49–55

See also missionaries and missionary

movements

commandments, obedience to, 97

INDEX 229

commerce and trade, 32, 34, 39, 42, 43,

48, 50, 52, 55

Arabic as language of and trade, 17, 22

globalization, 3, 4, 87, 94, 192n31

slave trade, 38, 43, 52, 111

Commission on International Religious

Freedom (CIFR), 33, 138

“common source” of religion, 160

The Common Task: A Theology of the

Christian Mission, 154

A Common Word Between Us and You,

140

“communal equilibrium,” 170

communal well-being, 157

communality, 170

community life, meaning of, 151

compassion, prophetic call for, 100, 101

Cone, James, 155

Conference of European Churches, 95

“conflict of jealousies,” 32

conscience, consensus of, 162

conspiracies, religio-political, 126

Constitution of Nigeria, 127, 130–2

contextualization

“context-as-object,” 89

“context-as-subject,” 89

defined, 88, 89

as dynamic process, 26

etymology of “context,” 26

conundrums/dilemmas/paradoxes, 6,

22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117,

129, 145, 177

conversions, 17, 32, 44, 78, 105, 113,

119, 126

surreptitious ways of converting, 93, 99

transmission and transformation of

African Christianity, 49–55

See also missionaries and missionary

movements

Coptic Christians, 17, 22

corruption in Nigeria, 5, 34, 55–7, 64,

65, 67

Council, Vatican II, 91–4, 99, 198n40

Council of Foreign Relations, 33

Council of Trent, 94

courts of appeal, sharia, 130

“covenantal humanism,” 207n14

Covering Islam, How the Media and the

Experts Determine How We See the

Rest of the World, 65, 66

Cox, Harvey, 161

Cracknell, Kenneth, 97, 141, 153

Cragg, Kenneth, 15, 32, 79–87, 100,

144

bravery of, 80

creativity in religious understanding and

appropriation, 121

criminal issues

crimes against humanity, 13

English Penal Code, 130

shari’a penal law, 132

Cross River Valley, 53

The Crown and The Turban: Muslims

and West African Pluralism, 133

Crowther, Ajayi, 8, 54, 110–17

crucified Africa, 171

crucified Christ, 83, 98, 135, 143

relationship between the Cross, the

Self, and the Other, 137

crucified mind, 169

“crucified people,” 143

Crusades, 12, 23, 32, 50, 74, 87

“transcendent moralism” that justifies

violence, 67, 68

culture

appropriation in religious

transmission, 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49,

53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118, 121,

152–5

creative ways of relating gospel to

concrete existential conditions,

89, 90

cultural context of religion, 31, 89, 180

cultural dynamics of Nigeria, 26–8

cultural solipsism, 24

religion as transcending cultural

barriers, 21

Culture of Peace and Non-Violence

conference, 13

Cyrus, 17

daily life

Islam as a way of life, 59

poverty, disease, unemployment, and

death, transformational power of

religion, 146–8, 153

situations where faith and life relate,

15, 16, 83, 90

See also existential concerns; praxis/

practical model

INDEX230

dan Fodio, Abdullah, 47

dan Fodio, Mohammed Bello, 47

dan Fodio, Usman, 39, 43, 45, 47, 130,

191n25

Daniel, Norman, 75

Daniels, David, 183n5

Danish cartoons of Prophet

Muhammad, 84

darkness, spiritual, 161

da’wah, 95, 177

De Fide Orthodoxa: The True Faith, 76

De Haeresibus: False Beliefs, 76

Decalogue, obedience to, 97

defamity of Islam, 77

definition of Christian-Muslim

encounters, 26, 27, 103

dehumanization, 79, 136, 147, 181

demagogues, 69, 111, 126, 182

democratization of society, 19, 20, 122

demographic shifts, 20, 21, 29, 37, 144

demographics of Islam and Christianity

in Nigeria, 6, 36–9

demonization, 12, 13, 55, 63, 76, 125,

136

Deng, Francis, 157

Denham, Dixon, 52

dependency and domination, 149

See also colonization and colonial

mentality

destructive power of religion, 11–30

DFI (Dialogue with People of Living

Faiths and Ideologies), 96

dheeng, 208n20

Dhimmi, 17

diakonia, 98

dialogical faith, 30, 134–41

essentialist dialogue, 178

vs. exclusivism, provincialism, and

monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88,

94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155,

159, 177

liberation theology, 158–61

“dialogue”

etymology, 26

explained, 2, 69, 103

as happenstance, 160

as show, 139

Dialogue with People of Living Faiths

and Ideologies (DFI), 96

Dickson, Kwesi, 170

dilemmas/paradoxes/conundrums, 6,

22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117,

129, 145, 177

din, separation from doula, 47

al-Din, Nasir, 45

Dinka people of Sudan, 208n20

Diop, Cheikh Anta, 24

diplomacy

religion as means to, 43

role of Islam, 43, 59, 129

role of priests, 51

discernment, 6, 73, 86, 147

The Disintegration of Islam, 125

disparity of wealth, 58

dispensation, 73, 98, 154, 171

divine grace, 85, 91, 92, 171

divine mandate to work for humanity

and community, 169

divine prophecy. See prophecy

divine transcendence. See transcendence

divorce, 76, 130

doctrine-centered theories of dialogue,

62

Doha, Qatar, 176

donations to church, 126

double belonging in spiritual affiliation,

159

doula, separation from din, 47

dramatis personae, 15

dreams, interpretation of, 44

Dupuis, Jacques, 92

Durkheim, Emile, 19

East subregion, 38

EATWOT (Ecumenical Association of

Third World Theologians), 161

ebi commonwealth social theory, 61

ecclesia reformanda, 164

Eck, Diana, 3, 180

ecological degradation, 56, 207n16

Economic Community of West

African States Monitoring Group

(ECOMOG), 36

economic dynamics of Nigeria, 26–8,

34, 35, 56, 58, 64, 65, 129

economic context of religion, 31, 89,

180

effect on need for rebirth and

orientation, 155

GDP of northern Nigeria, 5

INDEX 231

poverty in Nigeria, 5, 56, 58, 180

prosperity of minority, 149

Ecumenical Association of Third World

Theologians, 161

ecumenism, 16, 21, 87, 98, 127, 176

global ethic, 162–5

Edinburgh Missionary Conference of

1875, 106, 107

Edo, 34, 38

education

almajiri education, 42–4, 58

as antidote to violence, 5

autonomy of Christian schools, 127

European system, 42

intellectual elite, 43, 44

intellectualism of Islam, 47, 48

scholarship, promotion by

missionaries, 106, 107

student killings, 58

training of clerics, scholars, lawyers,

doctors, and administrators, 44,

107

value of educational structure of

Islam, 46

WCC irenic scholarship, 95

Efik, 38

egalitarianism, 109, 148

Egypt, 17, 20, 36, 37

El-Kanemi, 52

Ela, Jean-Marc, 149, 150, 171

elders, 158

elections in Nigeria, 12, 37, 60, 125

empire. See colonization and colonial

mentality

“encounters,” explained, 15, 16, 84

English language, 107, 115

enlightenment ideals, 25, 28, 32, 85,

98, 144, 161, 165

environmental degradation, 56, 207n16

Enwerem, Evan, 127, 130

Epe, 105

epoche, practice of, 86

equilibrium

alaafia, 157

“communal equilibrium,” 170

peaceful interreligious coexistence in

parts of Nigeria, 65–7

Esack, Farid, 6, 150

esoteric elements of religions, 79, 83,

123

essentialist dialogue, 178

estrangement, explained, 170

“eternal shari’a,” 132

ethics, 125, 133, 134

ethical significance of religion, 32,

63, 64, 122

global ethic, 162–5

Middle Belt of Nigeria, 39

within Islam, 109, 129

Ethiopia, 16, 104

ethnicity and ethnic conflicts, 32, 34,

35, 40, 55, 57, 67

ethnicity politics, 128

modern pluralistic Nigeria,

38–41

religion as transcending ethnic

barriers, 21

shifting identities, 35

See also specific ethnic groups by

name

Euler-Ajayi, M. T., 107

evangelization, 80, 88, 89, 94, 100,

105–10, 112, 122, 126

backed by American collection-plate

money, 65

da’wah, 95, 177

The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95,

124

tension between evangelism and

dialogue, 95

See also missionaries and missionary

movements

evil, transformation of, 30

“evolutionary” transformation, 89

exclusivism, provincialism, and

monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88,

94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155,

159, 177

executions of heretics, 75

Existence alone, 22, 23

existential concerns, 83, 89, 165, 170,

181

poverty, injustice, moral decadence,

and unemployment, 153

separation of theology from real

human experiences, 25

See also daily life; praxis/practical

model

existential darkness (avidya), 161

exorcism, 55

INDEX232

Experiences with Heathens and

Mohammedans in West Africa, 112,

114

expressway prayer grounds, 146

extra ecclesiam nulla salus, 94

extremism/fanaticism, 32, 33, 40, 57,

63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9

See also violence and warfare

face-to-face dialogue, 100

failing state, Nigeria as, 33, 34, 36–8,

69, 146

faith

authentic faith, 30

in contemporary landscape, 19–21

daily situations where faith and life

relate, 15, 16, 83, 90

new sense of, 170

Faith and Witness of WCC, 96

faith healing, 119

“Faith Meet Faith Series,” 1

family life

ebi commonwealth social theory, 61

role of Islam in, 129

fanaticism/extremism, 32, 33, 40, 57,

63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9

See also violence and warfare

al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 87

al-Faruqi, Raji, 99

fasting, 55, 120

federal Sharia court of appeals,

130

federalist character of Nigeria, 132

De Fide Orthodoxa: The True Faith, 76

Fisher, Humphrey, 44

flu pandemic, 54, 117

Foday Kaba, 43

dan Fodio, Usman, 39, 43, 45, 47, 130,

191n25

football, 180, 181

Foreign Affairs magazine, 25, 37

foreign domination of Christian

churches, independence from,

116–21

foreign investment in Nigeria, 5, 57

Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO)

designation, 129

forgiveness and reconciliation, 60, 66,

112, 114, 134–8, 158, 162, 165,

179, 181

the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,

172, 173

Forward, Martin, 183n2

foundationalism, 160

The Fount of Knowledge, 76

France, 25

Francophone countries in Africa, 105

French incursions, 39

French missionaries, 52, 53

Franciscans, 51

freedom of religion, 20, 69, 128, 131,

132, 134, 182

constitutional injunction for secular

state, 132

report, 33

US Commission on International

Religious Freedom’s

French. See France

Friday (Jimo), 119

FTO (Foreign Terrorist Organization),

129

Fulani people, 34, 36, 38, 39, 47, 127

Futta Jallon, 50

Gabriel as messenger of God, 112–14

Gadaffi, Muammer, 57

Gallup poll, 205n62

the Gambia, 62

Gandhi, Mahatma, 182

Gao, 43, 44

Gaudeul, Jean-Marie, 11, 74

Gbadamosi, G. O., 108

Gbonigi, Bola, 150

general elections. See elections in

Nigeria

generosity within Islam, 109, 208n20

genocide, 14, 135

“geography of religious expression,” 68

geopolitics, 1, 8, 41, 122

German interests, 39, 77

“getting along,” 81

Ghana, 62, 104

Ghazi bin Muhammad, 36

Gifford, Paul, 63

global affairs and considerations, role of

religion in, 19, 20

Global Ethic Foundation, 162, 209n35

global perception of interreligious

relations in Nigeria, 65

global relevance of Nigeria, 38

INDEX 233

globalization, 3, 4, 87, 94, 192n31

global ethic, 162–5

world system of exploitation, 171

“globalization from below,” 3

glossolalia, 123

Gobir, Sultan of, 47

God has a Dream, 138

God is Back: How Global Revival of Faith

is Changing the World, 65

God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and

Global Politics, 19, 20

Goiten, 86

gold, Levant route to, 50

Gopin, Marc, 173

gospel command for love, compassion,

and understanding, 100, 101

Gospel of Luke, 135, 147

grace, divine, 85, 91, 92, 157, 171

Gramsci, Antonio, 61

The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95, 124

Greek Christendom, 27

Greek etymology of “dialogue,” 26

Greek language, 22

Greek mythology, 40

Greek style of writing, 119

Griffith, Sidney, 71, 72

gross domestic product (GDP) of

northern Nigeria, 5

“the ground of our being,” 175

growth of Christianity, 144

growth of Islam, 11, 42, 73, 74

The Guidelines for Dialogue between

Christians and Jews (Borrmans), 84

Guidelines on Dialogue (WCC), 93, 94,

96, 97

Gulf War, 12

Guru Maharaji temple, 152

Hadith, 120

De Haeresibus: False Beliefs, 76

al-Hajj, Umar, 48

Hamartolos, George, 77

Hanbali school, 42

Hartford Seminary, 80

Harvard School of Government, 33

Hassan, Abdille, 43

Hausa-Fulani hegemony, 127

Hausa people and Hausaland, 34, 39,

46, 47, 115, 127, 157

health care, 5

heathenism, 114–16

Hegemony and Culture: Politics and

Religious Change among the

Yoruba, 61

heresy, 75, 100

hermeneutics

of change, 99, 138, 150, 180

contextualization within, 90

of suspicion, 147, 160

Heschel, Abraham Joshua, 168, 169

highway prayer grounds, 146

“highway to heaven,” 146

hijrah (migration), 17, 85

al-Hindi, Rahmatullah, 78

Hinduism, 22, 158, 187n36, 207n16

practitioners of multiple religious

belonging, 187n34

Hiskett, Mervyn, 45, 47, 48

historical considerations

Abrahamic religions, historical

relations among, 4, 25, 27, 31

emergence of Nigeria as nation state,

32, 55

overview of voices shaping Christian

response to Islam, 71–101

role of Islam and Christianity in

Africa, 7, 16–18

role of religion in the world, 108

spread of Islam, 11, 42, 73, 74

See also colonization and colonial

mentality

Hodgson, Marshall, 24

holistic well being/wholeness, 149–74

holocaust, 168

Holy Spirit, 114, 199n63

charismatic movements. See

Pentecostalism

dialogue requiring, 97

discernment of meaning and content

of religion, 91

Holy Ghost Night, 146

liberative perspective, 123, 124

The Holy Spirit, Chi, and the Other: A

Model of Global and Intercultural

Pneumatology, 124

honor, “presence” as silent honor, 59

hope, sense of, 7, 30, 64, 98, 140, 147,

151, 162–6

eschatology connected to hopes of

people, 170–2

INDEX234

hospitality ethos, 19, 51, 52, 105, 109

Hossein Nasr, Seyyed, 12

House of Prayer, 120

human, meaning of, 151

“human dialogue,” 195n67

human rights, 5, 127, 133

crimes against humanity, 13

international human rights laws,

193n44

human well-being (maslaha), 143, 154,

156

human wholeness, 149–74

humanum, 161, 163

humility within dialogue, 93, 98, 101

Huntington, Samuel, 24, 25

Hussain, Amir, 25

hypersexualization, 77

Ibadan, 38, 53

Ibadan, Olubadan of, 119

Ibadan, University of, 104

Ibibio, 38

ibn Abdallah, Muhammad Ahmad, 43

Ibn Khaldun, 133

Iconoclastic debates, 76

Id al-Fitr, 140

idolatry, 112, 114

Ifa diviner, 114

Ife, University of, 61

Igbo, 38, 53, 140, 204n58

Ijaw, 38

I’jaz al-Qur’an, The Qur’an inself is not

a Miracle, 78

Ilorin, 113

Imam, 111–13

the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,

172, 173

imitation and appropriation in religion,

7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, 53, 68, 100,

110, 111, 118, 121, 152–5

immigration, 17, 34, 44, 92, 192n31

effect on affiliation and identity, 3

effect on demographics, 21

hijrah (migration), 17, 85

imperialism. See colonization and

colonial mentality in Africa

incarnation, 25, 26, 62, 74, 82, 98,

198n40

“inculturation model” of

indigenization, 89

independence of African countries, 31

independence of Nigeria, 67, 130

independency of African religions,

116–21

India, 20, 77, 78, 106, 154

indigenenous African people

agents in African Christianity, 50

appropriation of faith, 7, 18, 19, 29,

43, 49, 53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118,

121, 152–5

evangelization by indigenous

Christians, 107

“indigenization,” 31, 54, 89

as pawns in scheme of religio-political

dispensation, 51

pluralistic context, indigenous

understanding of meaning and

purpose of mission, 109

trappings of empire and indigenous

circumstances, influence on

religions traditions, 71

See also traditional African religions

individuality vs. communal

responsibility, 157

Indonesia, liberal politics in, 20

infidel, use of term, 79

influenza pandemic, 54, 117

inheritance practices, 39

instrumentalization of religions, 14

intellectual elite, 43, 44

intellectualism of Islam, 47, 48

“interfaith dialogue industry,” 1

Interfaith Forum of Muslim and

Christian Women’s Association,

156

Interfaith Meditation Center, 167, 168

intermarriages, 55

international affairs and considerations,

role of religion in, 19, 20

International Conference of Christian

and Muslim youths, 16

international human rights laws,

193n44

International Missionary Council, 94

International Religious Freedom Report

for 2012, 195n61

Internet evangelism, 55

intra vs. interreligious dialogue, 137

invisible and visible, intrinsic connection

between, 123

INDEX 235

Isa, 119

See also Jesus

Iseyin, 105

Ishmaelites, 76

Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan

Africa, 144

Islam and Orientalism, 86

“Islam in the West,” 25

Islamic conference, 127

“Islamic heresy,” 76

Islamization, 17

resistance to, 126–9

Islamophobia, 12

Iwo, 105

iyasimimo (sanctification), 120

Izhar al-Haqq (The Demonstration of

Truth), 78

Jahiliyyah period, 85, 124, 144, 196n6

Jama’atu Nasril Islam (JNI), 130

Jameelah, Maryam, 86

“janjaweed,” 58

Jenkins, Philip, 28, 144

Jesuit order, 90, 158

Jesus, 59, 151

crucified Christ, 83, 98, 135, 143

emasculated Jesus, 85

as great prophet, 112, 113

incarnation, 25, 26, 62, 74, 82, 98,

198n40

messianic role of Jesus, 32

miraculous birth of Christ, 32, 112,

113

relationship between the Cross, the

Self, and the Other, 137

Jews and Judaism

anti-Semitism, 75–8

Jewish-Christian mode of thinking,

76

possibility of salvation to, 91

Ji-Sun Kim, Grace, 124

Jibrila (Gabriel), 112–14

jihad, 23, 39, 43, 45, 48

“transcendent moralism” that justifies

violence, 67, 68

See also violence and warfare

Jimo (Friday), 119

jingoism, 40

JNI (Jama’atu Nasril Islam), 130

John of Damascus, 76

John Paul II, 62, 63, 199n63

John Templeton Foundation on

Tolerance and Tension, 144

John XXIII, 91–4

Johnson, Reverend James, 106–9

Jos, 35, 36, 64, 68, 137

joys of religious inquiry, 79, 80

Judaism. See Jews and Judaism

judicial system, 56

Islamic scholars as jurists, 44

Sharia courts, 130

Juergensmeyer, Mark, 64, 67, 185n9

jurisdiction of shari’a law, 131–4

justice, 64, 65, 137, 141, 147, 150–63,

207n16

constant battle against injustice, 170,

171

as existential concern, 153

historical legacy of injustice, 49

justice of God among all people, 164

liberation from injustice. See

liberation theology

perspective of the other, justice

requiring, 168

Socratic approach, 157

Kaa’ba, 124

Kaduna, 9, 34, 38, 131, 137, 152, 156,

166

Kairos document, 181

Kalam, 82

Kalu, Ogbu, 68, 121, 126, 144

Kandy, Sri Lanka, 97

Kanem-Bornu Empire, 39

Kano, 34, 43, 66, 131, 137

Kanuri, 39

Katsina, 43

Kenny, Joseph, 120

Kenya, 104

Kerr, David, 78, 80

Kim, Grace Ji-Sun, 124

Kimball, Charles, 185n11

Al-Kindi, Risala of, 77

“Kingdom-centered” view, 161

kitab, 74

Knitter, Paul, 24, 92, 159

Koran. See Qur’an

Koyama, Kosuke, 14

kufr, 197n25

Kukah, Hassan, 131, 150

INDEX236

Küng, Hans, 162, 163

Kuti, Fela, 57

Kwara, 34

Kwashi, Ben, 35

Kyoto, 161

Lagos, 38, 53, 108, 109, 120–2, 181

Crown Colony of Lagos, 38

Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, 146

Laitin, David, 61

Lambeth Conference of 1888, 112

language

Anglophone countries in Africa, 105

Arabic. See Arabic language

bilingual education within almajiri

schooling, 193n43

religious jingoism, 40

religious language and symbolism, 29

time-fuse of vernacular literacy, 117

translation of Bible to local languages,

154

warfare, language of, 64, 125

Laroui, Abdullah, 24

Last, Murray, 45

Latin American paradigm of liberation

theology, 161

Lausanne Congress on World

Evangelization, 89

laws. See codes and laws

lectures on ways to foster peace among

Christians and Muslims, 168

Leo III of Byzantium, 76

Levant route to spices and gold, 50

leviathan state, 133

Levtzion, Nehemia, 43

Lewis, Bernard, 4, 24, 25, 79

lex credendi, 15

liberal political theory, 62

liberal view of interreligious encounters,

27

liberation theology, 6, 143, 147, 150–63

common ground, 151

identification of liberation as core

value in religion, 98

ongoing process of liberation, 170

prophetic connection with dialogue,

158–61

prosperity of minority, 149

Soteria, 160

within meaning of “mission,” 154

Liberian civil war, 208n17

life, dialogue of, 139–41

“The Light of the Nations,” 91

listening, 170

a “listening” church, 164

“teacher’s complex,” 165

litafi, 113

See also Bible

literacy

Arabic language, 22, 48

Islamic scholars, 43, 44, 47

missionaries’ role, 106, 107

vernacular, 54, 117

liturgy/ritual, 54, 117, 118, 123, 133,

134, 149

creative paradigms, 49

models relevant to Africa, 54, 116–21

Living Faith Church, 125

Lokoja, 116

love, gospel command for, 98–101

Luke, Gospel of, 135

Lumen Gentium, 91

Luther, Martin, 78

Maba Jahu, 43

Macquairre, John, 63

Maddalla, 193n41

Madhi, 45

Madrassehs, 42–4, 58

Maeir, Karl, 33

al-Maghili, Muhammad, 44–6

Maghrib, conquest of, 17

magisterium, 16

Maitatsine, 33, 40

Mala, Babs, 104

Malawi, 104

Mali, 44, 45

Maliki School of law, 17, 42

Mamluks, 17

manifestations of Islam and Christianity

in Nigeria, 31–69

Mansa Musa, 44

Mansur B. Sergun, 76

Ma’qil, 45

marginalization, 143, 167

marriage, 39, 43, 130

intermarriages, 55

mockery of Islamic practices and

beliefs, 76

Marshall, Ruth, 125

INDEX 237

maslaha, 143, 154, 156

Massignon, Louis, 4, 197n18

Maurier, H., 92

Mauritania, 45

Mbiti, John, 158

Mecca, 16, 85

media, 55, 75

censorship, 127

portrayal of Nigeria, 65, 66

medicine

native medicine, 119

training of doctors, 44

medieval thinking, 27, 65, 75, 82, 99,

105, 125, 196n1

Medina, 17, 46, 85

meditation, 22, 23

Interfaith Meditation Center, 167,

168

“meeting” within interreligious

relations, 84

Meier, Karl, 37

Melkite Christians, 17, 22

menstruation, 120

Merton, Thomas, 158

messianic role of Jesus, 32, 113, 114

Methodists, 53

United African Methodist Church,

54, 117

Mexico, liberal politics in, 20

Middle Belt of Nigeria, 34, 38, 39, 48

Middle East, 22, 23

migration. See immigration

militant/radical ideology, 32, 33, 40,

57, 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9

resistance to Islamic revivalism and

militancy, 126–9

See also violence and warfare

military corruption, 57

military rule, 34, 35, 66, 67, 131

Miller, Ethel, 124

ministerial obligations vs. intellectual

engagement, 83

misogyny, 124

missionaries and missionary movements,

6, 20, 28, 29, 39, 44, 47–55, 100,

103, 125, 126

dialogue and proclamation as

authentic elements of evangelizing

mission, 100

and “faithful presence,” 111

freedom from oppression and

ignorance, as meaning of

“mission,” 154

The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95,

124

Islamic theology, knowledge by

missionaries, 107

missionary agenda of Christianity and

Islam, 121

passive recipients of religious

traditions, 31

paternalism, 111

secession of African religions from

foreign domination, 116–21

shift from mission to dialogue, 81

surreptitious conversions, 93, 99

transmission and transformation of

African Christianity, 49–55

whole world conversion as goal, 154

in Yorubaland, 105–10

See also colonization and colonial

mentality; conversions

Mizan al-Haqq (The Balance of Truth),

78

mockery of Islamic practices and beliefs,

76

Models of Contextual Theology, 90

modesty within interreligious

understanding, 81

monks, 22, 76, 77

monogamy, 43

monologue/exclusivism/provincialism,

3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88, 94, 96, 98,

99, 110, 145, 153, 155, 159, 177

Monophysite church, 17

monotheism, 4, 74

“Abrahamic monotheism,” 92

theological jealousies, 32

moral significance of religion, 32

Morocco, 17

Moshay, G. J. O., 124

mosques, 108, 119

Moubarac, Youakim, 84

Mountain of Fire, 152

Muhammad Bello, 47, 52

Muhammad (Prophet), 16, 17, 73–6,

113, 119, 120, 125, 151

Christian understanding of, 84, 85

“shared theism,” 84

sunna, 46, 151

INDEX238

mujahid (fighter in the path of God), 46

multilateral vs. unilateral evangelism,

126

Muslim/Christian Youth Dialogue

Forum, 166

“the Muslim World,” 23

Muslims and Christians: Face to Face, 24

Mveng, Engelbert, 161, 170, 171

mysterium tredemdum et fascinans,

169

mystery within religion, 79, 80, 168,

173

mysterium tremendum, 100, 169

vs. practical, 173

Soteria, 160

Ultimate Reality, 22, 50, 73, 155,

175

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, 12, 42, 73, 82

“nation for God,” 52

National Council of Nigeria and

Cameroons, 178

National Council of Nigerian Citizens,

178

nationalism, 31, 106, 181

religion as transcending ethnic,

national, and cultural barriers, 21

secession to develop theological and

worship models relevant to Africa,

116–21

transnationalism, 87

Nations Cup tournament, 180

nation-states, 25, 182

emergence of Nigeria as nation state,

32

failing state, Nigeria as, 33, 34, 36–8,

69, 146

native medicine, 119

natural gas, 56, 57

natural resources, 34, 56

neighborliness, 134

The New Crusaders, 63

Newbigin, Lesslie, 1

The Next Christendom, 28

Nicetas of Byzance, 77

Niger, 45

Niger Delta, 56

Niger Mission, 54, 117

Niger state, 131, 193n41

Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink, 33

Nigeria, idea of Nigeria founded on

political compromise, 41

Nigeria, liberal politics in, 20

“Nigeria on the Brink: What Happens if

the 2011 Elections Fail?,” 37

Nigeria Supreme Council for Islamic

Affairs (NSCIA), 152

Nigerian civil war, 40, 64, 67, 130

Nkrumah, Kwame, 18, 19

No Other Name?, 159

North Africa, 17, 31, 39, 43

Northern and Southern Protectorate, 39

Northern Christian Association, 127

Northern Governors Peace and

Reconciliation Committee, 152

northern Nigeria, 57, 58, 68, 130, 131,

134, 178

civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130

creation of Northern Protectorate, 39

framework for understanding

conflicts within Nigeria, 38–41

gross domestic product of, 5

historical competition between north

and south, 34, 35

ideal spot for missionary work, 125,

126

informal power-sharing structure

shifing presidential position

between northerner and

southerner, 41

Islamic fortress of, 53

north as Muslim, south as Christian,

34

Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178,

205n63

Northern Peoples Congress, 178

Nostra Aetate, In our Time, 92, 93, 99

NSCIA (Nigeria Supreme Council for

Islamic Affairs), 152

Nyang, Sulayman, 17

Obadare, Ebenezer, 145

Obafemi Awolowo University, 61

Obama, Barack, 4

Obasanjo, Olusegun, 125, 129, 131

obedience to piety (taqlid), 44, 78

The Obligations of the Princes, 44

obscurantist tendencies, 82

Ogbomosho, 53

Ogere, 119

INDEX 239

Ogunbiyi, T. A. J., 107

OIC (Organization of Islamic

Conference), 36, 43, 127, 128

oil drilling, 56, 57

Ojo, Matthew, 125

Okogie, Olubunmi, 128, 150

Old Calabar, 53

Olubadan of Ibadan, 119

Olupona, Jacob K., 3

Oluwole, Reverend, 108

Omoyajowo, J. Akinyele, 119

Onaiyekan, John, 150, 152

Ondo, 119

one world, 180

oneness of God, 45, 115

Organization of Islamic Conference

(OIC), 36, 43, 127, 128

Orientalism, 24

Oritsejafor, Ayodele Joseph, 128, 129

Orobator, Agbonkhianmeghe, 90

Oshitelu, Josiah Olunowo, 119

the Other/Otherness, 29, 62, 80, 134–

7, 157, 175, 176, 189n52

dehumanization, 79, 136, 147, 181

double belonging in spiritual

affiliation, 159

as fellow participant in project for

personal and communal well-being,

168

relationship between the Cross, the

Self, and the Other, 137

Ubuntu, 136, 158, 170

Otto, Rudolf, 169

Oudney, Walter, 52

Oyedepo, David, 125

Oyo, 38

Paden, John, 61

padroado agreements, 51

paganism, 114–16

“pagan” point of view, 48

Pakistani Christians, 25

Panikkar, Raimon, 22, 90, 159, 160

paradise, mockery of Islamic practices

and beliefs, 76

paradoxes/dilemmas/conundrums, 6,

22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117,

129, 145, 177

passive recipients of religious traditions,

31

“the pastor and the imam,” 166, 167,

172, 173

paternalism, 82, 99, 111

patience within interreligious

understanding, 81

Paul, Saint, 135

payment of evangelists, 108

PDP (Peoples Democratic Party), 60

peace, 152, 165–70

affected by political machinations and

power play, 165

entrenchment in Christianity and

Islam, 152

“indigenous model to peacemaking,”

166

interreligious coexistence in parts of

Nigeria, 65–7

Peel, J. D. Y., 60, 61, 120

Penal Code of England, 130

Pentecostalism, 20, 21, 55, 121–6

charismatic renewal, 49, 50, 55

as fundamentalism, 63–5

people of the book (Ahl al-Kitab), 17

“people of the ship,” 17

Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), 60

persecution, 5, 16, 17

Persia, 27, 77

personal witness, 81

petroleum, 56, 57

Pew Charitable Trusts, 122, 144

Pew Forum, 37

Pfander, Karl, 77, 114

Phan, Peter, 1

phenomenological study of Islam,

explained, 72

Philpott, Daniel, 19

Pieris, Aloysius, 23, 158, 159

piety, 46, 119, 133, 134

framework for appraising theological

credentials of Islam, 118

taqlid (blind obedience to piety), 78

pilgrimage, 127, 130

Plateau State, 38, 64

ploys for conversion or proselytization,

93, 99

pluralism, 7, 67, 155, 156

challenges of, 181, 182

complacent pluralism, 138

ecumenical pluralist theology, 163

and “faithful presence,” 111

INDEX240

pluralism—Continued

framework for appraising theological

credentials of Islam, 118

indigenous understanding of, 109

modern pluralistic Nigeria, 38–41

new awareness of role of religion in

pluralistic society, 165

polarizing language, 12, 25

political activism, 168

political dynamics, 19, 20, 26–8, 35, 57,

89, 133

allocation of offices on basis of

religion, 68

corruption, 5, 34, 55–7, 64, 65, 67

creative ways of relating gospel to

concrete existential conditions,

89, 90

elections, 12, 37, 60, 125

framework for understanding

ethnoregional politics, 38–41

historical interaction of Christians

and Muslims, 71

idea of Nigeria founded on political

compromise, 41

Middle Belt of Nigeria, 39

peace process colored by political

machinations, 165

political context of religion, 31, 89,

180

religio-political conspiracies, 126

role of Islam, 129, 130

shifting identities, 35

theology, political, 122

Yoruba, political toleration, 61

poll tax, 17

polycentric, Christian-Muslim

understanding as, 23

polygamy, 43

polytheism, 115

Islam as polytheistic, 77

Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious

Affairs, 93

Pope John Paul II, 99

Pope John XXIII, 91–4

Pope Paul VI, 92

Pope Pius IX, 92

population of Nigeria, 36, 67, 195n69

Portuguese influence, 38, 51

poverty, 5, 56, 58, 164, 180

blessedness of poor, 158, 159

liberation from. See liberation

theology

violence, relationship to, 167

world system of, 171

See also economic dynamics of Nigeria

power

coloring peace process, 165

connections between religion and

power, 146

informal power-sharing structure

shifing presidential position

between northerner and

southerner, 41

relationship between human and

sacred, power as essential to, 123

of religion, 11–30

“symbolic imposition,” 78, 79

“power over,” 79

praxis/practical model, 150

afiyah, 157

connection between faith and action,

174

daily life. See daily life

dialogue, to fulfill common practical

responsibilities, 96

human actions as practical condition

for religious experience, 168

link between orthodoxy and

orthopraxis, 148

peacemaking born out of, 166

poverty, injustice, moral decadence,

and unemployment, 153, 161

separation of theology from real

human experiences, 25

situations where faith and life relate,

15, 16, 83, 90

See also existential concerns

prayer, 55, 118–20, 157

Presbyterian missionaries, 53

“presence” as silent honor and witness,

59

president, 146

elections. See elections in Nigeria

informal power-sharing structure

shifing presidential position

between northerner and

southerner, 41

“the presiding idea,” 42

Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad, 36

Principles of Christian Theology, 63

INDEX 241

profane. See secular vs. sacred

Programme for Christian-Muslim

Relations in Africa (PROCMURA),

59, 103–5

prophecy, 72, 81, 119

mandates of Christianity and Islam,

6, 163, 164, 172, 176, 180

theological jealousies, 32

within liberation theology, 158–61

Prophet Muhammad. See Muhammad

proselytism. See evangelization

prostration, 119

Protestantism, 94–100

African Reformation, 53, 54

independency of African religions,

116–21

World Council of Churches, 36, 88,

93–100, 165, 172

provincialism, exclusivism, and

monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88,

94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155,

159, 177

public life, role of religion in, 28, 122,

129, 145

purification process, 153

Qadriyya Brotherhood, 42

Qatar, 176

Qur’an, 74–8, 80, 83, 84, 112, 120,

124, 176

common ground for interreligious

dialogue and communication found

in scriptural texts, 167

prescriptive principles within, 41

primeval covenant with God and

man, 97

textual level, Christian-Muslim

relations at, 27

understanding by Christians, 104

Yoruba translation, 107

Qur’anic schools (Madrassehs), 42–4,

58

Raba, 116

Race, Alan, 209n46

“radical astonishment,” 169

radical/militant ideology, 32, 33, 40,

57, 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9

See also violence and warfare

Rahmatullah al-Hindi, Sheikh, 78

Ramadan, 116

RCC (Roman Catholic Church of

Nigeria). See Catholics

re-awakening, spiritual, 21, 97, 109,

118, 149, 165–9

reciprocity within dialogue, 136

reconciliation and forgiveness, 60, 66,

112, 114, 134–8, 158, 162, 165,

179, 181

the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,

172, 173

reconquista agenda, 50

Redeemed Camp, 146, 152, 153

Redeemed Christian Church of God,

125, 146

redemption and redemptive faith, 30,

52, 181

See also salvation

Redemptoris Missio, 99, 200n63

regional identities in Nigeria, 38–41

See also ethnicity and ethnic conflicts

Religious Encounter and the Making of

the Yoruba, 60, 61

religious freedom. See freedom of

religion

renewal, spirit of, 12, 31, 44–9, 91–4,

155

resistance

to Islamization, 126–9

jihad, 45

to love, 137

prophet mission of Muhammad, 85

religion as avenue for, 153

See also liberation theology

responsibility to God, Islamic ideas of,

172

responsibility to transform society, 168,

169

resurrection message in Christianity,

134, 136

revelation jealousies, 32

revelation of Godself, 81

revivalism, Islamic. See militant/radical

ideology

“revolutionary” transformation, 89, 90

Ricoeur, Paul, 90

Ringim, Hafiz, 193n41

riots, 66, 131, 166

Risala of Al-Kindi, 77

ritual. See liturgy/ritual

INDEX242

River Senegal basin, 50

Roman Catholic Church of Nigeria

(RCC). See Catholics

“The Roots of Muslim Rage,” 25

rosaries, 119

Rossano, Bishop, 93

Rotberg, Robert, 33

Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic

Thought, 36, 140

rule of law, 5, 56, 57

ruling class, 57

Runnymede Trust, 12

rural communities, 17, 36, 195n61

Sabbath, 119

sacred black stone in Islam, 76

sacred vs. secular, 19, 20, 32, 129

Constitution of Nigeria, secularism

within, 127

power as essential to relationship

between human and sacred, 123

Safran, Nadav, 86

Sahel region, 44

Sahih Buhari, 17

Said, Edward, 24, 65, 73

Saint John of Damascus, 76

Saint Luke, 147

Saint Paul, 135

Saint Theresa’s Catholic Church in

Maddalla, 193n41

Saint Thomas Aquinas, 77

Salafis, 42

salat, 134

salvation

common salvation history, 72

implications for human development,

152

Jesus Christ’s salvific work, 83, 97

within manifest destiny, 52, 92

Muhammad, status of, 84

possibility to Jews, Muslims, etc., 77,

91, 92, 94, 97, 99

salvation history, 84

Soteria, 160

witin Islamic Kalam, 82

Samartha, Stanley, 97, 162, 169, 170

sanctification (iyasimimo), 120

Sandals at the Mosque, 83

Sanneh, Lamin, 12, 32, 59, 86, 121,

133, 139, 144, 154, 173

Saracens, 76

Sardauna ethnic group, 38

Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178,

205n63

satan-possessed murderer, Islam

described as, 124

Sati Mati, 43

Schimmel, Annemarie, 84

scholars, Islamic, 44–7

Scottish missionaries, 53

scripture

textual level, Christian-Muslim

relations at, 27

See also Bible; Qur’an

seccesionism in Nigeria, 32

secession of African religions from

foreign domination, 116–21

Second Vatican Council, 91–4, 99,

198n40

Secretariat for Relations with Non-

Christians, 92, 93

secular vs. sacred, 19, 20, 32, 129

Constitution of Nigeria, secularism

within, 127

power as essential to relationship

between human and sacred, 123

seizure of properties, 46

self, 29

human quest to make sense of, 167

relationship between the Cross, the

Self, and the Other, 137

self-analysis and criticism, 41, 98, 153

“to each his own,” 157

self-reliance/self-help, 107, 108, 110

Selvanayagam, Israel, 2

seminars on ways to foster peace, 168

Senegal River basin, 50

Senegambia, 45

sentimentalism, 81

separation of church and state, 129,

132, 133

non-separation of din (religion) and

doula (state), 47

separation of theology from real human

experiences, 25

September 11, 2001, 12

Sergun, Mansur B., 76

service, command to, 98

sex, hypersexualized beings, 77

Shafi’l school, 42

INDEX 243

Shah, Timothy Samuel, 19

Shaikh Muhammad, Khalid, 43

shari’a, 35, 39, 43, 46, 127, 130–4,

203n48

“historical shari’a,” 132

Sharma, Arvind, 2

Shekau, Abubakar, 58, 204n51

shema Israel, 74

Shi’a groups, 42

shibboleth of faith, 109

Shiraz Bible merchant, 78

shoes, removal of, 120

Siddiqui, Ataullah, 25, 29

Sierra Leone, 104, 106, 112, 113

sincerity, interreligious, 81

sincerity within interreligious

understanding, 81

Singulari quadam, 92

sitz im leben, 15

slavery and slave trade, 14, 38, 43, 52,

55, 181

abolishment, 111

freed slaves, 110

historical legacy, 49

Smart, Ninian, 15

Smith, Huston, 83

Smith, Jane, 80, 81

social issues, 26–8, 57, 129, 144,

150–63

21st century sociopolitical landscape,

14

creative ways of relating gospel to

concrete existential conditions,

89, 90

human quest to make sense of society,

167

ideals of social commitment, 173

interconnectedness of Christianity

and Islam, 25

Islamization of society vs.

Islamization of state, 133

responsibility to transform society,

168, 169

social action, retreat from religion, 173

within context of religion, 31, 89, 180

See also liberation theology

Society of Holy Ghost Fathers, 53

Socratic approach to justice, 157

Sokoto Caliphate, 39, 45–8, 52, 55,

130, 133, 152

Sokoto (state), 34, 52

Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178,

205n63

solidarity, spirit of, 65–7, 156

religion as avenue for solidarity, 153

solipsism, 24

Songhai cities, 44

Soteria, 160, 161

soulless beings, 77

South Africa, 14, 137, 138, 150, 180

African Nations Cup tournament,

180

Kairos document, 181

Southern Baptist Convention

Missionaries, 53

southern Nigeria, 38–41, 61, 62, 130,

131

civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130

creation of Southern Protectorate, 39

framework for understanding

conflicts within Nigeria, 38–41

historical competition with North,

34, 35

north as Muslim, south as Christian,

34, 41

Soyinka, Wole, 13, 66, 67, 132

spice trade, 50, 51

“Spirit-Chi,” 124

spirit of renewal enlivening Christianity

and Islam, 12

spirit of solidarity and service, 65–7

Spirit of the Lord, 121–6

See also Holy Spirit

spiritual sophistry, 145, 146

spiritual warfare, 55

Sri Lankan priest, 158

St. John of Damascus, 76

St. Luke, 147

St. Paul, 135

St. Theresa’s Catholic Church in

Maddalla, 193n41

St. Thomas Aquinas, 77

stereotyping, 31, 66, 72, 73, 75, 97,

136, 177

student killings, 58

Sudan region, 39, 43–5, 48, 186n21,

208n20

Sufism, 17

anti-Sufi movement, 191n16

Tariqa (Sufi Brotherhoods), 43

INDEX244

Suleja bombings, 193n41

Summoned from the Margin:

Homecoming of an African, 59

Sunday Sabbath, 119

sunna of Prophet Muhammad, 46, 151

supererogatory prayers, 118

superstitition, 19, 76, 114, 115

Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13, 186n18

surreptitious conversions, 93, 99

suum cuique, 157

The Sword of Truth, 45, 48

symbiotic religious experiences, 15, 22

“symbolic imposition,” 78, 79

synthetic model of contextual theology,

90

Syrian Christians, 22

Tainan Theological College, 88

takbír, 134

takdhib, 84, 197n25

Tambaram Missionary Conference, 96

Tanakh, 111

taqlid (blind obedience to piety), 44, 78

Tariqa (Sufi Brotherhoods), 43

Tawhid, 74, 196n6

taxation, 17, 46

“teacher’s complex,” 165

technology, modern, 92

Internet evangelism, 55

TEF (Theological Educational Fund),

88

television. See media

Ten Commandments, 118, 119

terrorist groups, 35, 128

See also Boko Haram

Tessiers, former Archbiship from

Algiers, 34

Thangaraj, Thomas, 154

“The Gospel, Cultural

Contextualization and Religious

Syncretism,” 89

“the People of God,” 91

“theocratic class,” 145

Theological Educational Fund (TEF),

88

This House has Fallen: Midnight in

Nigeria, 33, 37

Thomas Aquinas, 77

Tijaniyya Brotherhood, 42

Tillich, Paul, 175

Timbuktu, 43, 44

Timothy, 196n6

“to each his own,” 157

Toft, Monica Duffy, 19

tolerance, traditional ethos in Africa,

105

Tracts for Mohammedans, 107

trade. See commerce and trade

traditional African religions, 19, 53,

114–16, 139

appropriation in religious

transmission, 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49,

53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118, 121,

152–5

ethos of hospitality and tolerance, 105

jointly waged war against, 114–16

See also indigenenous African people

training of clerics, scholars, lawyers,

doctors, and administrators, 44,

107

transcendence, 85

“transcendent moralism” that justifies

violence, 67

transcendental model of contextual

theology, 90

transformative power of religion, 11–30,

165

translation model of contextual

theology, 90

translation model of indigenization, 89

transnationalism, 87

The Transparency International

Corruption Index, 55

Trent, Council of, 94

trickery

clandestine approaches in conversion

and mission, 95

tension between evangelism and

dialogue, 95

Trinitarian doctrine, 74, 112, 114

trinity, 125

trinity, questions regarding, 112

Triune God, 22

The Trouble with Nigeria, 56

truth, fidelity to, 101

The Truth about Muhammed: An Appeal

to Englishmen in Nigeria, 124

Tuareg populations, 47

Tunisia, 17

Tunolashe, Moses Orimolade, 118

INDEX 245

Turkey, liberal politics in, 20

Turkish dominions, 109

Turks

Euro-Mediterranean axis of

encounters, 27

Turner, Harold, 53, 54

Tutu, Desmond, 13, 138, 158

Tveit, Olav Fyske, 36

Ubuntu, 136, 158, 170

Ukah, Asonzeh, 126

Ukpong, Justin, 89

Ultimate Reality, 22, 50, 73, 155, 160,

163, 164, 175

Umar, Jibril B., 45

Umayyad period, 76

umma, 11, 42, 43, 176

“unbelievers” vs. “believers,” 77

understanding, gospel command for,

100, 101

unilateral vs. multilateral evangelism,

126

United African Methodist Church, 54,

117

United Nations, 13, 58

United Native African Church, 54, 117

United Presbyterians, 53

United States, missionaries from, 52

United States collection-plate money, 65

United States Commission on

International Religious Freedom

(CIFR), 33, 138

United States congress subcommittee

on Africa, Global Health, and

Human Rights, 129

unity in Nigeria, 32, 34, 165

ethos of, 40

potential benefits of breaking up the

country, 57

“the universal sacrament of salvation,”

91

“universal theory” of religion,

160

University Obafemi Awolowo, 61

University of Ibadan, 104

University of Ife, 61

Upper Niger areas, 112

“us versus them,” 13

See also the Other/Otherness

Uzukwu, Elochukwu, 164

van Gorder, Christian, 1

Vatican II, 91–4, 99, 198n40

“velvet curtain of culture,” 23

vilification, 75

violence and warfare, 40, 49, 58, 63–7,

69, 152, 167

civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67,

130

Crusades, 12, 23, 32, 50, 67, 68, 74,

87

institutionalization of religious

violence, 33

language of warfare, 64, 125

Liberian civil war, 208n17

mass killings, 36

militant ideology, 32, 57, 65, 68, 74,

126–9

northern Nigeria, 35

obligation of warfare, 46

rioting, 66, 131, 166

Saint Theresa’s Catholic Church in

Maddalla, 193n41

spiritual warfare, 55

terrorist groups, 35, 128

traditional African religions, war

against, 114–16

“transcendent moralism” that justifies

violence, 67, 68

See also Boko Haram

virgin birth of Christ, 32, 112, 113

visible and invisible, intrinsic connection

between, 123

visions, interpretation of, 44

Volf, Miroslav, 135, 136, 168

voting, elections in Nigeria, 12, 37, 60,

125

wali, 118

Walls, Andrew, 144

war. See violence and warfare

Warner, Stephen, 3

water in rites and practices, 120

Watt, Montgomery, 84

WCC (World Council of Churches), 36,

88, 93–100, 165, 172

Weber, Max, 19

Webster, James, 54

well-being (maslaha), 143, 154,

156

Wesleyan Methodists, 53

INDEX246

“the West,” 23

West subregion, 38

Western Sudan, 39, 43, 44

Who Is This Allah?, 124

wholeness, 149–74

Whose Religion Is Christianity: The

Gospel beyond the West, 154

WIC (Women’s Interfaith Council), 156

Wilfred, Felix, 170, 178

Williams, Rowan, 206n74

witness, personal, 81

woli, 118

women, 5, 120, 124, 154, 156

Women’s Interfaith Council, 156

workshops on ways to foster peace

among Christians and Muslims,

168

World Conference on Religion and

Peace, 161

World Council of Churches (WCC), 36,

88, 93–100, 165, 172

World Missionary conferences, 94

worship. See liturgy/ritual

wudu before prayer, 119

Wuye, James Morel, 9, 166–8

the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,

172, 173

Yerima, Ahmed Sani, 131

Yobe, 58

Yoruba people, 34, 38, 53, 54, 105–10,

139, 156, 157

ancestral origin, 61

communal responsibility, 157, 158

grassroots dialogue, 62

language, 114

liturgical innovation, 54

secession of African religions from

foreign domination, 116–21

tolerance of religious worldviews,

60–3, 109

traditional religion of, 157

yuur, 208n20

Zamfara, 131

Zango region, 166

Zebiri, Kate, 24, 98

Zwemer, Samuel, 86, 125