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MASS COMMUNICATION

MODULE - 1Introduction to MassCommunication

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Mass Communication

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MASS COMMUNICATION

AIR FM Gold, AIR FM Rainbow, Radio Mirchi, Doordarshan, Star, Zee,Dishnet, Tata Sky… The list is unending. Breaking news, flash, stingoperation, live coverage of cricket… The way we communicate has changedin the area of mass communication or for most people in the mass media.

We enjoy all that entertainment, music, reality shows, serials, beauty paradesand fashion shows. From newspapers and magazines we have moved overto films , television and internet. All these are different forms of mass mediaand what they do is to communicate with the large unseen audiencesnationally and internationally.

In this lesson, you will learn the meaning of mass communication and thedifferent forms of mass media.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you will be able to do the following :

define mass communication;

explain the functions of mass communication;

describe the origin of mass communication;

differentiate between different forms of mass media;

describe the meaning of traditional media.

2.1 MEANING OF MASS COMMUNICATION

The simplest definition of mass communication is “public communicationtransmitted electronically or mechanically.” In this way messages aretransmitted or sent to large, perhaps millions or billions of people spreadacross the world.

Mass Communication

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Mass Communication

How are these messages sent ?

They are sent through different forms of mass media such as newspapers,magazines, films, radio, television and internet. Media is the plural for theword medium or ‘means of communication’.

Fig. 2.1: Different forms of mass media

Means of communication is also called channel of communication. Masscommunication can therefore also be defined as ‘who’, ‘says what’, ‘inwhich channel’, ‘to whom’, ‘with what effect’.

Look at the following figure.

Fig. 2.2

‘Who’ : refers to the communicator.

Says ‘what’?: Here ‘what’ means the message. What the communicatorhas written, spoken or shown is the message.

‘In what channel’: This refers to the medium or channel like the newspaper,radio, or television.

‘To whom’ : This refers to the person receiving the message or the receiver.

In whichchannel?

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Mass Communication

“With what effect”: This refers to the impact of a message on a channel ormedium. Let us assume that you have been informed about an event in anewspaper, or on radio of a social message. If this has changed your attitudetowards a social evil like dowry or if a film song on television has entertainedyou, it may be called “the effect”.

People who make films, write news, produce radio and televisionprogrammes or advertisements are all communicators who have a messagefor you. The medium through which messages are communicated such asnewspaper, radio or television are the channels. That brings us to the functionsof mass communication.

2.2 FUNCTIONS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

News and discussions may inform you; radio and television programmesmay educate you; films and television serials and programmes may entertainyou.

INFORM, EDUCATE AND ENTERTAIN

These are the functions of media.

Let us learn more about these functions of media.

Those who write, direct or produce programmes are people who give usmessages. Let us consider the example of a news bulletin on radio ortelevision or a news item in a newspaper. They inform us of some event orhappening.… “A new President is elected”, “The country has developed anew missile”, “India has beaten Pakistan in cricket”, “25 killed in a bombblast”… All these inform us. These are properly designed or writtenmessages given by people who are communicators.

A doctor speaks on radio or television or writes in a newspaper about howto prevent a disease. Experts tell farmers on radio or television about a newcrop, seed or agricultural practice. Thereby, the farmers are educated.

All the commercial cinema, television serials and music programmes areentertaining.

The channels are the means through which messages are sent. These maybe newspapers, films, radio, television or the internet.

Mass media have tremendous impact on their readers, listeners and viewers.That is the effect. People watch an advertisement on television and buy theproduct. They are motivated to buy the product to satisfy their needs.

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Mass Communication

When India became independent agriculture in the country was notdeveloped. We did not produce enough rice or wheat to feed our people.We were importing food and the population was also growing fast. Therewere too many mouths to feed. So the government used the media, especiallyradio to change this situation. The farmers who were mostly illiterate weretold to use the right seed, fertilizers and new techniques on farming. Theeffect was remarkable. We went through a revolution in agriculture and thatwas called the Green Revolution. Similarly, the media stressed on the needfor small families. Many people followed the small family norm and decidedto have only two or three children.

Take for example, the campaign on polio. The mass media informed andeducated the people about the polio vaccine to eradicate polio. Messagesare created using creativity and film stars deliver these messages. Haveyou seen Amitabh Bachhan saying “Doh boond zindagi ki” on televisionmeaning “two drops of life”?

2.3 ORIGIN OF MASS COMMUNICATIONThe term ‘mass communication’ may be considered as a 20th centurydevelopment. Sending messages to a large number of people and at greaterspeed was what man was always looking for. There was a time when menon horseback travelled long distances to convey news about say, a war.Pigeons were used as postmen to deliver messages. You may have heard ofKalidasa who was one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. In his poem ‘Meghdoot’,a Yaksha (celestial singer) sends messages to his beloved through the clouds.The invention of paper and printing, and later newspapers, were the firststeps towards mass communication. But it was only through the telegraph,invented by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1835, that messages could be sent tolong distances using a code. The next step was to send messages throughhuman voice. Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 succeeded in using wires tosend the human voice across long distances. However, it was the inventionof the radio by Marconi in 1901 which made sending of human voices overlong distances possible. In 1947 the invention of the transistor made radiothe most popular medium for sending voice messages. Today television,which can send voice as well as pictures, is found almost everywhere. Thiswas invented by Baird in 1920.

Mass MediaNewspapersMagazinesAdvertising

FilmsRadio

TelevisionInternet

Fig. 2.3

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Mass Communication

You may be wondering what actually is the difference between masscommunication and mass media.

The moment someone mentions the term mass media, you would probably

think of television because that is the most popular mass medium today.

When we discussed mass communication we used the word ‘channel’ or

‘medium’. Media , as you have already learnt is the plural of medium. A

medium is just a means used to send messages. When we meet someone

and speak to that person, it is face to face communication. But when we

talk about a mass medium like television it is not face to face communication.

There is a mass or a very large number of people watching it.

The first medium used to communicate with a large number of people was

the newspaper. Then came a truly mass medium, the radio invented by

Marconi. Newspapers had limitations like the time factor. News had to be

collected, compiled, edited and printed in advance and then sent for people

to read them. All these took plenty of time. For example, what you read in

your morning newspaper was printed around midnight. That means it does

not contain anything that happened after midnight. Of course, those who

read a newspaper have to be literate. You will learn more about differentforms of mass media in the subsequent modules.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1

1. List at least five forms of mass media.

2. Name any one function of media with an example.

2.4 PAPER

You have already studied that the invention of paper was a turning point incommunication.

Before the invention of paper, writing was done on rocks, leather, palmleaves etc. You might have seen some old writings on rocks or, say, some‘stupas’ of Ashoka or some old Sanskrit or other Indian language documentswritten on palm leaves. Though the Chinese are credited with the use ofsome sort of paper in 105 AD, the word ‘paper’ is derived from the name ofa plant Papyrus, that grows on the banks of river Nile in Egypt.

For us, today, paper of different kinds and colours is neither a wonder nor arare thing. Can you think of a world without paper? Your studies are almostentirely dependent on paper.

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Mass Communication

Your textbooks, note books, copies, examination question papers, different

forms you fill in to join an educational institution , the answer sheets that

you use to write the examination are all made of paper. Can you also think

of a world without newspapers, magazines and even wall posters?

With paper universally available, ideas and thoughts of people could be

shared by others. Paper plays an important role in every field of literary

human activity, from education and knowledge to entertainment and

business. Train, bus, air or cinema tickets are all made of paper.

Fig. 2.4 : Print Media

2.5 PRINTING

It is believed that Johannes Gutenberg of Germany was the first to develop

printing around 1439. With printing, there was a revolution in the way

communication developed.

Knowledge and information, which were till then the monopoly of certain

sections of the upper strata of society, slowly became available to ordinary

people. Spread of knowledge, available in print between two hard covers,

was fast. Schools, colleges and universities were places with their libraries

making books available to those who wanted to read even if they could not

afford to buy them. Later newspapers and journals also became popular.

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The printing process that Gutenberg developed later underwent muchchanges and mechanization. Today printing has become highly sophisticatedand the print media, namely newspapers, weeklies and monthlies use thesemodern printing presses which are capable of printing very fast. Computershave further improved printing operations. You will learn more aboutprinting in your next module on ‘print media’.

Activity 2.1

Visit a small printing press near your place and later a newspaperprinting press to understand how printing is done.


1. Match the following:

i) paper palm leaves

ii) early writing developed printing

iii) Johannes Gutenberg papyrus

iv) print media India Today

v) weekly newspapers

2.6 DIFFERENT FORMS OF MASS MEDIA

NEWSPAPERS AND JOURNALISM

You have already studied that the invention of paper and printing led to thedevelopment of newspapers. Newspapers are printed and published forproviding information of public interest, advertisements and views. Thesepublications are usually issued daily, weekly or at other regular intervals.Newspapers were first published in countries like Germany, Italy and theNetherlands in the 17th century. Later it spread to countries all over theworld. Early owners of newspapers were people who took up journalism tofight social problems. You may now ask what is ‘journalism’. Journalisminvolves the collection of information and communicating it. It also involvesthe selection and editing of information and printing and presentation ofevents, ideas, information and controversies in their proper context. Youwill learn more about this in your next module.

Journalism was started in India during the British days by Englishmen andlater by national leaders and social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy,Bal Gangadhar Tilak and later Mahatma Gandhi. They used journalism tofight the British during our freedom movement. Gandhiji started the Indian

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Opinion in 1903 in South Africa to fight for the rights of the Indians there.Later in India he started the ‘Harijan’ and wrote for ‘Young India’. Todayin India, a large number of newspapers in various languages reach millionsof people every morning.

You will also learn more about newspapers in the module on ‘print media’.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

When we discussed the origin of mass communication two inventions werementioned . The first was the efforts of Samuel Morse in sending messagesusing a code in 1835. Later on the international Morse Code was developedin 1851. Until, recently we had the electric telegraph of Morse to sendmessages across the continents. In course of time messages could be sentwithout using any wires or cables. The cell phone that we use today is a fineexample of wireless communication.

PHOTOGRAPHY

You may be familiar with a camera and of course photographs. Inphotography, images are produced using light. Photography was developedin the 19th century by two people from France, Nicephore Niepce and Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre. Till a few years back we were taking black andwhite photographs. Later colour photographs could be taken using anemulsion. Newspapers, magazines and advertisements used photography.By the end of the 20th century photographers began using the digitaltechnology, making photography easier and the cameras user friendly. Evencell phones today have such digital cameras.

FILMS

In the previous section, we discussed photography. The pictures orphotographs taken using a camera may be called ‘still photographs’ becausethey are permanent and do not move. The logical development from stillphotography was what we call ‘motion pictures’ or ‘movies’. In thistechnology, a series of still photographs on films were projected in rapidsuccession onto a screen. The camera used for this was called a moviecamera. The motion picture machines used to project the films into movingimages and later talking pictures were developed by Thomas Alva Edisonin the USA and the Lumiere brothers in France. In fact the Lumiere brotherscame to India and showed moving pictures in Bombay. Just as in Hollywoodin America, India also developed the art and technology of motion pictures.

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First they were silent and then the talkies came in 1927. The first Indianmotion picture was Raja Harischandra by Dada Saheb Phalke and the firsttalkie was Alam Ara.

Today films are an integral part of our lives. Films brought in the cult ofstars. Who are your favourite film stars? In India the early films were basedon mythology and later social issues were also taken up which continueseven today.

Activity 2.2

Write down the names of two Indian films which were based onsocial issues.

RADIO

From mere curiosity and technical experiments radio became a truly powerfuland popular medium of mass communication. After it was developed in thewest we had radio by the 1920s and the first formal radio station was startedin Bombay. You will learn about radio in detail in the module on ‘Radio’.

TELEVISION

One of the technological marvels of the 20th century was television inventedin 1920 by Baird. In India, television started in 1959 on an experimentalbasis and the first television station was set up in Delhi. The beginningswere modest and slow but television was popular and became available incolour in 1982. Today Doordarshan has one of the largest television networks.From early 1990s satellite television also came to India and later Direct toHome (DTH) television. You will learn more about television in a latermodule.

NEW MEDIA

Development and widespread use of computers and information technologyhave resulted in the emergence of what is called ‘new media’. It includescomputers, information technology, communication networks and digitalmedia. This has led to another process in mass communication called‘convergence’. Convergence means coming together of many forms of mediaand other formats like printed text, photographs, films, recorded music orradio, television etc. Though it is hard to separate old media from newmedia the world wide web or internet has changed the way in which wecommunicate. You will learn more about this later.

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TRADITIONAL MEDIA

Traditional media are a part of our country’s rich heritage. They have as abase our strong oral tradition. They belong to our own land and are stronglyrooted in our culture. They are as varied and diverse as our culture itself.

Life in India is deeply influenced by agriculture and religion. So also arethe seasons. From very ancient days we have been having fairs and festivalscelebrated with spontaneous songs and dances. These songs and dances aretraditional forms of media which inform, educate and entertain people.

The advent of more faster forms of media has affected traditional media.However the performers or communicators and the audience in traditionalmedia are known to each other unlike in radio or television. The environmentin which the performances take place is natural, known and friendly. Themessages are also simple; the content known and the language and idiomsare familiar. Unlike other modern media, people never get tired of them.

Let is consider the example of the Ram Lila celebrated and performed allover north India. The story of Ramayana is known to every one and so arethe performers. They repeat the same story every year, yet people come inlarge numbers to see them. But can you see an ordinary Hindi film a numberof times?

There are several forms of traditional media in our country. They are knownby different names in different regions. Some common examplesof traditional media are story telling, folk songs, street theatre andpuppetry.

Some forms of traditional media like traditional songs and mythologicalstories are written down as proper text. But different forms of folk mediaare generally spontaneous or are made on the spot.


1. List any three forms of traditional media found in India

————————————————————————————

————————————————————————————

2. What is meant by the term ‘ convergence’.

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2.7 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

Mass Communication

Definition of mass communication

Functions of mass communication

inform

educate

entertain

Origin of mass communication

invention of paper and printing

invention of telegraph, radio and television

Different forms of mass media: wireless communication

photography

newspapers

radio

television

films

new media

traditional media

2.8 TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Define the term ‘mass communication ‘ with examples.

2. Describe the functions and origin of mass communication.

3. Explain briefly the different forms of mass media.

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2.9 ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

2.1 1. i) newspapers ii) films iii) radio iv) television v) internet vi) anyother

2. Refer to Section 2.2

2.2 1. i) papyrus ii) palm leaves iii) printing iv) newspapers v) IndiaToday

2.3 1. Refer to Section 2.6

2. Refer to Section 2.6

Principles of Newspaper Management

Management principles are the guidelines and ground rules for managing any organization effectively. Thus the management of a newspaper organization should also be based on a set of principles.

These principles guide the managers of the newspaper organization to take managerial decisions on the basis of certain well. Tested generalizations rather than on the basis of trial and error. It may be noted that while the principles of management are universal, they may have to be modified to suit the needs and requirement of different situation in the newspaper organization. The principles of management including those suggested by Henri Fayol, the great French Writer on management, are briefly discussed as below -

1. PRINCIPLE OF OBJECTIVE = this principle requires that every member of the newspaper organization should be familiar with its basic goals and objectives, and every activity of the newspaper organization soul be directed and should result in the accomplishment of these objectives. The newspaper organization as a whole and very part of it must contribute to the attainment of newspaper objectives.

2. PRINCIPLE OF SPECIALISATION = This is also known as the Principle of Division of labour, the principle of specialization implies that the work of every person in the newspaper organization should be limited as far as possible to the performance of a single leading function. The application of this principle enables an editor or a correspondent or any other personnel working in the newspaper organization to concentrate his efforts on a single line of endeavour which permits him to have better acquaintance with the subject matter and a better utilization of time.

3. PRINCIPLE OF SPAN OF CONTROL = this principle states that no superior should have more than a specific and limited number of subordinates. The principle of span of control makes the newspaper executives aware of the fact that on account of the limitation of time and ability there is a limit on the number of subordinates that they can effectively supervise.

4. PRINCILE OF AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY = According to this principle, authority and responsibility should go side by side in the newspaper organization. It implies that a person working in the newspaper organization should be held responsible for carrying out an activity in so far as he has authority over that activity. Authority should not be conceived apart from responsibility.

5. PRINCIPLE OF UNITY OF COMMAND = the principle of unity of command is the most widely recognized principle of management. It states that each subordinate should have only one superior.Ernest dale states this principle follows: "Each person should receive orders from only one superior and be accountable to him". Fayol stated, "An employee should receive orders from one superior only". The principle of unity of command is based on the sound reason that if a person receives orders from more than one superior, it would lead to confusion and chaos.

6. PRINCIPLE OF UNITY OF DIRECTION OR ORDER GIVING = this principle states that orders concerning a particular operation should be received directly from one person only. It was stated by Fayol as "one head and one plan for a group of activities having the same objectives". The principle of unity of direction is largely meant to ensure co-ordination. It should not be confused with the

principle of unity of command. The former is meant for sound functioning of the organization while the later is related to the functioning of the personnel.

7. THE EXCEPTION PRINCIPLE = The exception principle means that every manager at every level should take all decisions within the scope of authority and only matters beyond the scope of his authority should be referred to his superior for decision. The premise of this principle is that decisions which recur frequently should be reduced to a routine and delegated to subordinates while the supervisors should concentrate their energy and time on unusual matters of exceptional character. This principle will enable the top executives to devote his time to policy matters and his energies will not be frittered away on matters of routine.

8. SCALAR PRINCIPLE = this principle means that authority and responsibility should flow in a clear unbroken line from the highest executive to the lowest operative. According to Fayol, "The scalar chain is the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest ranks." This principle envisages that in every undertaking some kind of hierarchy involving superior subordinate relationship should be established and that direct authority should flow from superior to subordinate throughout the entire organization.

9. PRINCIPLE OF BALANCE = this principle implies that the various parts of an organization should be in a balance and that none of the functions should be given undue emphasis at the cost of others. Urwick states this principle as "It is essential that the various units of an organization should be in balance".

10. PRINCIPLE OF DISCIPLINE = Fayol considered discipline as a general principle of management. He stresses discipline as "respect for agreements which are directed at achieving obedience, application, energy and outward marks of respect:. According to Terry, "Self imposed discipline is the most effective type of discipline; it is encouraged by proper managerial actuating efforts".

11. SUBORDIANTION OF INDIVIDUAL INTEREST TO GENERAL INTEREST = this principle states that in a business the interest of one employee or groups of employees should not prevail over that of the concern. To ensure this the Fayol suggested-

(i) Firmness and good example on the part of superiors,

(ii) Agreement as fair as possible, and

(iii) Constant supervision.

12. REMUNERATION OF PERSONNEL = this principle of Fayol states that remuneration should be fairwhich gives satisfaction both to personnel and firm (employee and employer)

13. CENTRALISATION = Like division of labour, Fayol considered that centralization belonged to the natural order. "In many organisms sensations converge towards the brain or directive part and from the brain or directive part orders are sent out which set all parts of the organism in movement. "The question of centralization or decentralization is a simple question of production. It is a matter of find the optimum degree for the particular concern".

14. ORDER = by order Fayol meant a place of every one and every one in his place, the right main in the right place. He believed that this order demanded precise knowledge of the human

requirements and resources of the concern and a constant balance between their requirements and resources.

15. EQUITY = this principle of Fayol states that managers must treat employees with 'kindness'. Desire for equity and equality of treatment are aspirations to be taken into account in dealing with employees. A manager should strive to install a 'sense of equity' throughout all levels of the scalar chain.

16. STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL = Fayol pointed out that instability of tenure is at one and the same time cause and effect bad running. He asserted that generally the managerial personnel of prosperous concerns is stable, that of unsuccessful ones is unstable.

17. INITIATIVE = this principle of Fayol enjoins managers to sacrifice some 'personal vanity' in order to permit the subordinates to keep up their zeal and initiative.

18. ESPRIT-DE-CORPS = this principle states that "union is strength". Fayol exhorts manger to encourage cohesiveness and Esprit-de-Corps among his subordinates.

What is a report?

A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information and

evidence are presented, analysed and applied to a particular problem or issue. The information is

presented in a clearly structured format making use of sections and headings so that the information

is easy to locate and follow.

When you are asked to write a report you will usually be given a report brief which provides you

with instructions and guidelines. The report brief may outline the purpose, audience and problem or

issue that your report must address, together with any specific requirements for format or structure.

This guide offers a general introduction to report writing; be sure also to take account of specific

instructions provided by your department.

What makes a good report?

Two of the reasons why reports are used as forms of written assessment are:

to find out what you have learned from your reading, research or experience;

to give you experience of an important skill that is widely used in the work place

An effective report presents and analyses facts and evidence that are relevant to the specific

problem or issue of the report brief. All sources used should be acknowledged and referenced

throughout, in accordance with the preferred method of your department.

The style of writing in a report is usually less discursive than in an essay, with a more direct and

economic use of language. A well written report will demonstrate your ability to:

* understand the purpose of the report brief and adhere to its specifications;

* gather, evaluate and analyse relevant information;

* Structure material in a logical and coherent order;

* present your report in a consistent manner according to the instructions of the report brief;

* make appropriate conclusions that are supported by the evidence and analysis of the report;

* make thoughtful and practical recommendations where required.

The structure of a report

The main features of a report are described below to provide a general guide. These should be used

in conjunction with the instructions or guidelines provided by your department.

Title Page - This should briefly but explicitly describe the purpose of the report (if this is not obvious

from the title of the work). Other details you may include could be your name, the date and for

whom the report is written.

Terms of Reference - Under this heading you could include a brief explanation of who will read the

report (audience) why it was written (purpose) and how it was written (methods). It may be in the

form of a subtitle or a single paragraph.

Example of terms of reference -

Summary (Abstract) - The summary should briefly describe the content of the report. It should cover

the aims of the report, what was found and what, if any, action is called for. Aim for about 1/2 a

page in length and avoid detail or discussion; just outline the main points. Remember that the

summary is the first thing that is read. It should provide the reader with a clear, helpful overview of

the content of the report.

Contents (Table of Contents) - The contents page should list the different chapters and/or headings

together with the page numbers. Your contents page should be presented in such a way that the

reader can quickly scan the list of headings and locate a particular part of the report. You may want

to number chapter headings and subheadings in addition to providing page references Whatever

numbering system you use, be sure that it is clear and consistent throughout.

Introduction- The introduction sets the scene for the main body of the report. The aims and

objectives of the report should be explained in detail. Any problems or limitations in the scope of the

report should be identified, and a description of research methods, the parameters of the research

and any necessary background history should be included.

Methods - Information under this heading may include: a list of equipment used; explanations of

procedures followed; relevant information on materials used, including sources of materials and

details of any necessary preparation; reference to any problems encountered and subsequent

changes in procedure.

Results - This section should include a summary of the results of the investigation or experiment

together with any necessary diagrams, graphs or tables of gathered data that support your results.

Present your results in a logical order without comment. Discussion of your results should take place

in the main body of the report.

Discussion -The main body of the report is where you discuss your material. The facts and evidence

you have gathered should be analysed and discussed with specific reference to the problem or issue.

If your discussion section is lengthy you might divide it into section headings. Your points should be

grouped and arranged in an order that is logical and easy to follow. Use headings and subheadings to

create a clear structure for your material. Use bullet points to present a series of points in an easy-

to-follow list. As with the whole report, all sources used should be acknowledged and correctly

referenced.

Conclusion - In the conclusion you should show the overall significance of what has been covered.

You may want to remind the reader of the most important points that have been made in the report

or highlight what you considerto be the most central issues or findings. However, no new material

should be introduced in the conclusion.

Appendices - Under this heading you should include all the supporting information you have used

that is not published. This might include tables, graphs, questionnaires, surveys or transcripts. Refer

to the appendices in the body of your report.

Acknowledgements - Where appropriate you may wish to acknowledge the assistance of particular

organisations or individuals who provided information, advice or help.

Glossary of Technical Terms - It is useful to provide an alphabetical list of technical terms with a

brief, clear description of each term. You can also include in this section explanations of the

acronyms, abbreviations or standard units used in your report.

You will not necessarily be required to use all of the headings described above, nor will they

necessarily be in the order given here. Check your departmental guidelines or instructions.

Writing the report: the essential stages All reports need to be clear, concise and well structured.

The key to writing an effective report is to allocate time for planning and preparation. With careful

planning, the writing of a report will be made much easier. The essential stages of successful report

writing are described below. Consider how long each stage is likely to take and divide the time

before the deadline between the different stages. Be sure to leave time for final proof reading and

checking.

Stage One: Understanding the report brief. This first stage is the most important. You need

to be confident that you understand the purpose of your report as described in your report

brief or instructions. Consider who the report is for and why it is being written. Check that

you understand all the instructions or requirements, and ask your tutor if anything is

unclear.

Stage Two: Gathering and selecting information. Once you are clear about the purpose of

your report, you need to begin to gather relevant information. Your information may come

from a variety of sources, but how much information you will need will depend on how

much detail is required in the report. You may want to begin by reading relevant literature

to widen your understanding of the topic or issue before you go on to look at other forms of

information such as questionnaires, surveys etc. As you read and gather information you

need to assess its relevance to your report and select accordingly. Keep referring to your

report brief to help you decide what relevant information is.

Stage Three: Organising your material. Once you have gathered information you need to

decide what will be included and in what sequence it should be presented. Begin by

grouping together points that are related. These may form sections or chapters. Remember

to keep referring to the report brief and be prepared to cut any information that is not

directly relevant to the report. Choose an order for your material that is logical and easy to

follow.

Stage Four: Analysing your material. Before you begin to write your first draft of the report,

take time to consider and make notes on the points you will make using the facts and

evidence you have gathered. What conclusions can be drawn from the material? What are

the limitations or flaws in the evidence? Do certain pieces of evidence conflict with one

another? It is not enough to simply present the information you have gathered; you must

relate it to the problem or issue described in the report brief.

Stage Five: Writing the report. Having organised your material into appropriate sections and

headings you can begin to write the first draft of your report. You may find it easier to write

the summary and contents page at the end when you know exactly what will be included.

Aim for a writing style that is direct and precise. Avoid waffle and make your points clearly

and concisely. Chapters, sections and even individual paragraphs should be written with a

clear structure. The structure described below can be adapted and applied to chapters,

sections and even paragraphs.

*Introduce* the main idea of the chapter/section/paragraph

*Explain* and expand the idea, defining any key terms.

*Present* relevant evidence to support your point(s).

*Comment* on each piece of evidence showing how it relates to your point(s).

*Conclude* your chapter/section/paragraph by either showing its significance to the report as a

whole or making a link to the next chapter/section/paragraph.

Stage Six: Reviewing and redrafting ideally, you should leave time to take a break before you

review your first draft. Be prepared to rearrange or rewrite sections in the light of your

review. Try to read the draft from the perspective of the reader. Is it easy to follow with a

clear structure that makes sense? Are the points concisely but clearly explained and

supported by relevant evidence? Writing on a word processor makes it easier to rewrite and

rearrange sections or paragraphs in your first draft. If you write your first draft by hand, try

writing each section on a separate piece of paper to make redrafting easier.

Stage Seven: Presentation. Once you are satisfied with the content and structure of your

redrafted report, you can turn your attention to the presentation. Check that the wording of

each chapter/section/subheading is clear and accurate. Check that you have adhered to the

instructions in your report brief regarding format and presentation. Check for consistency in

numbering of chapters, sections and appendices. Make sure that all your sources are

acknowledged and correctly referenced. You will need to proof read your report for errors of

spelling or grammar. If time allows, proof read more than once. Errors in presentation or

expression create a poor impression and can make the report difficult to read.

Feedback: Any feedback from tutors on returned work can be used to create a checklist of key

points to consider for your next report. Identify priority areas for attention and seek out further

information and advice. Speak to your tutor or an adviser from the Learning Development. Used in

this way, feedback from tutors can provide a useful tool for developing and improving your writing

skills.

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