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What is Earth Science?

Earth Science is the study of the Earth and its neighbors in space. It is anexciting science with many interesting and practical applications. SomeEarth scientists use their knowledge of the Earth to locate and developenergy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activityon Earth's environment and design methods to protect the planet. Someuse their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes,earthquakes and hurricanes to plan communities that will not exposepeople to these dangerous events.

The Four Earth Sciences

Geology: Science of the Earth

Geology is the primary Earth science. The word means "study of the Earth". Geology deals with the composition of Earth materials, Earthstructures, and Earth processes. It is also concerned with the organismsof the planet and how the planet has changed over time.

Meteorology: Science of the Atmosphere

Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and how processes inthe atmosphere determine Earth's weather and climate. Meteorology is avery practical science because everyone is concerned about the weather.How climate changes over time in response to the actions of people is atopic of urgent worldwide concern.



Oceanography: Science of the Oceans

Oceanography is the study of Earth's oceans - their composition,movement, organisms and processes. The oceans cover most of our planet and are important resources for food and other commodities.

Astronomy: Science of the Universe

Astronomy is the study of the universe. Knowledge of astronomyis essential to understanding the Earth. Astronomers can also useknowledge of Earth materials, processes and history to understand other planets - even those outside of our own solar system.

An Earth Scientist is:

CreativeCuriousObjectiveOpen-mindednessCritical thinker Logical outlookScientific hunchHonest

An Environmentalist is:

Good citizensCare for the future of the environmentThey are Green thumb



Blaise Pascal

French inventor, Blaise Pascal was one of the most reputedmathematician and physicist of his time. He is credited with inventing anearly calculator , amazingly advanced for its time, called the Pascaline.

A genius from a young age, Blaise Pascal composed a treatise on thecommunication of sounds at the age of twelve, and at the age of sixteenhe composed a treatise on conic sections.

Blaise Pascal's Inventions

The Pascaline

In 1642, at the age of eighteen Blaise Pascal invented his numerical wheelcalculator called thePascaline to help his father a French tax collector count taxes. The Pascaline had eight movable dials that added up to eightfigured long sums and used base ten. When the first dial (one's column)moved ten notches - the second dial moved one notch to represent theten's column reading of 10 - and when the ten dial moved ten notches thethird dial (hundred's column) moved one notch to represent one hundredand so on.

http://inventors.about.com/od/frenchinventors/Inventions_of_France_French_Inventors.htm

http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blmathmatics.htm

http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blcalculator.htm

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http://inventors.about.com/od/frenchinventors/Inventions_of_France_French_Inventors.htm

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http://inventors.about.com/od/frenchinventors/a/Biography-Of-Blaise-Pascal_2.htm



Roulette Machine

Blaise Pascal introduced a very primitive version of the roulette machine inthe 17th century. The roulette was a by-product of Blaise Pascal'sattempts to invent a perpetual motion machine.

Wrist Watch

The first reported person to actually wear a watch on the wrist was theFrench mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal. With a piece of string, he attached his pocket watch to his wrist.

Pascal (Pa)

Unit of atmospheric pressure named in honor of Blaise Pascal, whoseexperiments greatly increased knowledge of the atmosphere. A pascal isthe force of one newton acting on a surface area of one square meter. It isthe unit of pressure designated by the International System. l00,OOO Pa=1000mb 1 bar.

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Branches of Science

A

• Acoustics: It is a branch of science related to the study of transmission of sound waves. It usually refers to thecharacteristics of theaters, auditoriums and studios andincludes the behavior of sound in buildings and noise andnoise control.

• Aerodynamics: It is associated with the study of forces of air acting on objects in motion relative to air.

• Aeronautical Engineering: It is a branch of science that isrelated to the study of design and manufacture of flight-

capable machines as well as the techniques of operatingaircraft.

• Agriculture: It is the science of cultivating the ground,harvesting the crops and rearing and management of farming,husbandry and livestock. It is associated with the production of food, fiber, feed and other goods by systematic harvesting or growing the plants and rearing the animals.

• Agronomy: It is a branch of agriculture that deals with field

crop production and soil management. It involves the scientificstudy of crop production and its usage for food, feed, fiber andfuel.

• Algebra: It is a branch of mathematics that deals with thestudy of structure, quantity and relation. It includes the use of symbols, letters and/or characters to represent numbers andexpress mathematical relationships.

• Algology: see Phycology

•

Anatomy: It is a branch of biology, related to the study of structure and organization of living things. It involves humananatomy, plant anatomy (phytotomy) and animal anatomy(zootomy).

• Angiology: It is the science that includes the study of bloodand lymph vessels and their disorders.

• Anthropology: It involves the study of both past and presenthuman cultures. It is associated with physical and socialcharacteristics of humanity through the study of historical andpresent geographical distribution, acculturation, cultural historyand cultural relationships.



• Apiculture: It is the science and art of raising andmanagement of honeybees, Apis mellifera. It involves thecultivation of bees on commercial scale for the production of honey.

• Applied Mathematics: It is a branch of mathematics that

deals with the mathematical techniques, which are used in theapplication of mathematical knowledge to other domains.

• Archaeology: It is a subdiscipline of anthropology thatinvolves the study of physical evidence of past humansocieties, recovered through excavation

• Astronomy: It is the scientific study of celestial bodies suchas stars, comets, planets and galaxies and phenomena thatoriginate outside the Earth’s atmosphere such as the cosmic

background radiation.• Astrophysics: It is a branch of astronomy that is associated

with the physics of celestial bodies (galaxies, stars andinterstellar medium).

• Atomic Physics: It is a field of physics that is associated withthe study of internal structure of atomic nuclei as an isolatedsystem of electrons. It mainly involves the study of arrangement of electrons around the nucleus.

B

• Bacteriology: It is a branch of microbiology, which involvesthe scientific study of bacteria in relation to disease as well asagriculture.

• Biochemistry: It deals with the study of chemical substancesand vital processes that take place in living organisms. Itprimarily focuses on the structure, function and role of biomolecules. It includes the study of organic chemistry of compounds and processes occurring in organisms.

• Bioengineering: It is an application of systematic, integrativeand quantitative engineering principles to living structures,such as creating chemicals, drugs, tissues and artificialorgans.

• Biology: It is also known as biological science, which includesthe scientific study of life. It involves the study of structure,

origin, growth, evolution, function and distribution of livingthings.



• Biophysics: It is a branch of science that involves anapplication of methods and principles of physics to understandthe biological systems.

• Biotechnology: It is associated with the industrial applicationof living organisms and/or biological techniques developed

through basic research. Biotechnology is applied for producingthe pharmaceutical compounds and research materials. It ismainly applied in genetic engineering and recombinant DNAtechnology.

• Botany: It is also referred to as plant biology, plant science or phytology. It involves the scientific study of plant life.

C

• Cardiology: It deals with study, diagnosis and treatment of various disorders of heart and major blood vessels.

• Chemical Engineering: It is a branch of engineering thatdeals with design, construction and operation of machineryand plants for different products such as dyes, acids, plastics,drugs and rubber, applying the chemical reactions.

• Chemistry: It is a branch of natural science that is associated

with the composition of substances and their properties andreactions. It is the science of matter and its interactions withenergy and itself.

• Civil Engineering: This branch of engineering deals with theplanning, designing, construction and maintenance of structures (roads, bridges, etc) and altering the geography tosuit the human needs.

• Climatology: It involves the study of climatic data, analysis of climatic changes and investigations of its phenomena andcauses.

• Computer Science: It includes a systematic study of computation and computing system. It involves differenttheories for understanding the computing systems andmethods, algorithms, design methodology and tools, methodsof analysis and verification and methods for testing theconcepts.

• Cosmetology: It is the practice of beautifying the face, skin

and hair, using different cosmetics.



• Cosmology: It is a branch of physical science that isassociated with the nature of universe, its origin and overallstructure.

• Craniology: This branch of science is related to the study of physical characteristics of the skulls of different human races.

• Cryogenics: A scientific study that deals with the production,control, application and uses of very low temperature.

• Cryptography: It is the science of protecting the informationby transforming it into an unreadable, unintelligible,enciphered format with the use of a key and an algorithm.

• Cytology: It is a branch of biological science that isassociated with the study of structure, origin, function andpathology of cells.

D

• Dactylography: It is the science of using the fingerprints for the purpose of identification.

• Dermatology: It is a branch of medicine that deals with theskin disorders such as moles, skin cancers, contact dermatitis,psoriasis and other skin conditions, related to other diseases.

It also includes the disorders of hair, nails, mouth and externalgenitalia.• Dentistry: This branch of medicine deals with diagnosis,

treatment and prevention of the diseases associated withteeth, oral cavity and related structures.

• Dynamics: It is a branch of mechanics that includes the studyof various forces, their action on bodies and changes inmotion they produce.

E

• Ecology: It includes the study of interrelationships betweenliving organisms and their environment.

• Electronics: It is a branch of technology, which is associatedwith the development and application of circuits or systems,using electronic devices such as magnetic amplifiers,transistors, etc.



• Endocrinology: It is a branch of medical science that isassociated with the study of function and pathology of endocrine glands.

• Engineering: It is an application of scientific, mechanical,physical and mathematical principles to design process,

structures and products that are meant for improving thequality of life.

• Entomology: It is a branch of science that includes the studyof insects in their relations to forests and forest products.

• Environmental Science: It is the study of interactions amongbiological, physical and chemical components of environmental system.

• Epidemiology: It includes the study of cause and distribution

of diseases in human population.• Ethnology: It involves the study of mental and physical

differences of mankind.• Etiology: It is the study of causes or origins of

disease/abnormal condition.• Etymology: It includes the study of history of words and their

meanings.• Eugenics: It deals with the study of hereditary improvement of

human race by controlled selective breeding.• Evolution: It is the sequence of changes involved in

evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms.

• Exbiology: It is a branch of science that deals with life or possibilities of life present beyond the earth.

F

• Forestry: It is the art and science of managing and usingforests and their associated resources to produce variousproducts such as timber for human benefits.

• Floriculture: It is a discipline of horticulture, related with thecultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for the gardensand floristry, including the floral industry.

• Forensic Science: It is a branch of medical science that dealswith establishing the evidence for legal proceeding.



G

• Genetics: It is a branch of biology that focuses on the heredity

and variation of organisms as well as the patterns of inheritance of specific traits.

• Gemology: It is the science and art of identifying, grading,evaluating and marketing the gemstones.

• Geography: It includes the study of the earth as well as itsfeatures phenomena and inhabitants. It also deals withclimate, topography, vegetation and soil.

• Geology: This branch of science involves the study of origin,

history, evolution and structure of the earth’s crust. It alsoinvolves the examination of soil and rocks.

• Geometry: It is a branch of mathematics that deals with thequestions of shape, size and relative positions of figures aswell as with the properties of space. It is associated withpolygons, vertices, triangles, meshes and associatedoperations to be done with them in 3D applications.

• Geophysics: It involves the study of physical and geological

properties and characteristics of the earth, minerals and rocks.• Gerontology: It deals with the scientific study of

psychological, biological and sociological phenomena relatedto aging and old age.

• Gynecology: It is a discipline of medicine that is concernedwith disorders of women, particularly reproductive and sexualfunction and diseases of reproductive organs.

H

• Heliology: It deals with the study of the Sun.• Hematology It is a branch of medical science that includes

the study of function and disease of blood as well as diagnosisand treatment of disorders of blood, lymph glands and spleen.

• Hepatology: This branch of medical science incorporates thestudy of functions and disorders of liver as well as biliary tree,gallbladder and pancreas.

• Histology: It includes the study of structure and behavior of cells and body tissues, using microscopic examination of tissue slices.



• Horticulture: It is an agricultural technology that is associatedwith growing ornamental plants, flowers, fruits and vegetables.

• Hydroponics: It is a branch of science that deals with growingthe plants, particularly vegetables, in water containingessential mineral nutrients, instead of in soil.

• Hydrotherapy: It is the science of treating a disease using hotor cold water, internally or externally to maintain and restorehealth. This treatment involves full body immersion, saunas,steam baths, colonic irrigation, sitz baths and hot or/and coldcompresses.

• Hydrology: It deals with distribution, occurrence, properties,chemistry and circulation of water on the earth. It includes thestudy of streams, rivers, lakes, etc.

• Hydrostatics: It involves the mathematical study of forces andpressures in liquids.

I

• Ichthyology: It is the study of fish.• Iconography: It is a system of using images, symbolic

pictures, or figures to represent a theme or structure.•

Immunology: It deals with the study of diseases and body’simmune system and its functions.

J

• Jurisprudence: It is a branch of philosophy associated withstudy and structure of law and legal system.

L

• Lexicography: It is the science of compiling, writing andediting the dictionaries. It is done on the basis of study of meaning, form and behavior of the words in a given language.

• Linguistics: It incorporates the study of structure, form,sound, function, variety and development of specificlanguages and human speech in general.



M

• Mammalogy: It is a branch of zoology that includes the studyof mammals.

• Mammography: It is a special examination breast using an X-

ray. It is one of the most effective methods for an earlydetection of breast cancer.

• Marine Biology: It is associated with the scientific study of living organisms in the ocean and other brackish or marinebodies of water.

• Mathematics: It is the body of knowledge that focuses ondifferent concepts such as structure, quantity, change andspace. It is also one of the academic disciplines.

• Mechanics: It is a branch of physics that is related to thebehavior of physical bodies after subjecting to forces or displacements and the subsequent effects of bodies on their environment.

• Mechanical Engineering: It is a branch of engineering thatincludes the study of design, construction and operation of machinery.

• Medicine: It is the science of maintaining and/or restoring

human health through the study, diagnosis and treatment withnon-surgical techniques.• Metallurgy: It is the science of extracting the metals from their

ores. It also involves purifying the metals and casting usefulitems from them.

• Meteorology: This branch of science involves the study of chemistry, physics and dynamics of atmosphere and its directeffects on the earth’s surface, oceans and life on the earth.

• Microbiology: It is a branch of biology that is concerned withthe study of structure and function of microorganisms,including bacteria, moulds and pathogenic protozoa.

• Mineralogy: It is a scientific discipline that includes the studyof chemical composition, physical properties, internal crystalstructure, origin, occurrence and distribution in nature of different minerals.



• Molecular Biology: It is a discipline of biology that includesthe study of structure, formation and function of essentialmacromolecules such as RNA, DNA and proteins. It alsodeals with the process of replication, transcription andtranslation of genetic information.

• Morphology: It is the science of structure and form of organisms, including animals, plants and other forms of life,with special emphasis on external features.

• Mycology: It is a branch of botany that includes the study of fungi and fungal infection. It involves the study of fungi, their taxonomy, their biochemical and genetic properties and their use to humans as a source for food, medicine and tinder.

• Myology: This science includes the study of structure and

function of muscles and muscle tissues.

N

• Nephrology: It is a discipline of medical science that focuseson diagnosis and treatment of various kidney disorders,including fluid and mineral balance.

• Neurology: It is related to the structure, functioning and

disorders of nervous system including the brain, spinal cord,as well as related muscles, nerves and blood supplies.• Nuclear Physics: It is a branch of physics, which includes the

study of atomic nuclei, their interaction with each other as wellas with constituent particles.

• Numismatics: This branch of science deals with the studyand collection of coins, paper money, medals, tokens andsimilar objects.

• Nutrition: It is the study of foods and nutrients and their effecton growth, development and health of an individual.

O

• Obstetrics: This branch of medicine deals with the health andcare of a woman and fetus during pregnancy, parturition andpuerperium.

• Oceanography: It is the study of chemistry, physics, geology

and biology of oceans in the world.



• Odontology: It is associated with the scientific study of anatomy, development and diseases of teeth.

• Oncology: It is associated with diagnosis and treatment of cancer and tumors.

• Oneirology: It is a scientific study of dreams and their

contents.• Ophthalmology: It is a branch of medical science that

includes the study of structure, function and diseases of theeyes, such as conjunctivitis, cataracts, glaucoma, etc.

• Optics: It is a branch of physics that focuses on the physicalproperties of light and interaction of light with matter.

• Organic Chemistry: This branch of chemistry is associatedwith the study of carbon-containing compounds, which

includes their structure and reactions.• Ornithology: It is a branch of zoology that includes the study

of birds.• Osteology: It is a branch of anatomy, which involves the

scientific study of structure, functions and pathology of bones.

P

•

Paleontology: It is a branch of biology that deals with thestudy of prehistoric life, based mainly in fossils of animals andplants.

• Pathology: It is a medical discipline that is related to causeand nature of disease. It mainly involves structural andfunctional changes in tissues and organs caused by thedisease.

• Particle Physics: It is a branch of physics that includes thestudy of particles and their fundamental reactions.

• Pedology: It is a branch of science that deals with the study of soil, including its formation, composition, structure andclassification.

• Petrology: This science incorporates the study of history,origin, structure, occurrence and chemical classification of rocks.

• Pharmacology: It involves the study of drugs/medications andtheir nature, origin, properties as well as their effects on living

organisms.



• Philately: It involves the study and collection of postagestamps.

• Philology: It is the science of language and linguistics.• Phonetics: It is the study and classification of sounds of

human speech.• Phycology: It is a branch of botany that includes the scientific

study of algae. It is also known as algology.• Physical Chemistry: It is a discipline of chemistry, which

includes the application of techniques and theories fromphysics to study the microscopic, macroscopic, atomic,subatomic and particulate phenomena in chemical systems.

• Physics: It is a branch of science that is concerned with thestudy of properties and interactions of time, space, energy and

matter.• Physiology: This branch of biology deals with the study of

physical, biochemical and mechanical functions and activitiesof living organisms.

• Physiography: It is the study of natural features of earth’ssurface and its natural phenomena such as climate, currents,land formation and distribution of flora and fauna.

• Plasma Physics: It is a branch of physics that deals with the

study of interaction of plasma with itself, radiation and particlebeams.

• Pollution: It involves the study of undesirable changes inbiological, chemical and physical characteristics of water, air,soil or food, which can cause a number of adverse effects onthe living beings.

• Pomology: It is a branch of science that includes the study of fruits and cultivation of fruits.

• Protozoology: It is a branch of zoology that deals with thestudy of protozoans.

• Psychology: It is the scientific study of mental and behavioralprocesses.

R

• Radiology: It is a medical discipline that focuses on usingradiation and other radioactive substances to diagnose and

treat various diseases.



S

• Seismology: It is a scientific investigation of earthquakes aswell as structure of the earth, based on the study of seismicwaves.

• Sericulture: It is also referred to as silk farming. It is rearing of silkworms for producing the raw silk.

• Serpentology: It is a branch of zoology, which deals with thestudy of snakes.

• Sociology: It is the scientific study of society, human social

interaction and social relationships.• Speech Therapy: It includes the evaluation and treatment of

speech, language and voice disorders. It is the rehabilitationtreatment for the patients with difficulties in swallowing or communication.

• Statics: It is the study of forces that act on the bodies at rest.• Statistics: It is a branch of applied mathematics, associated

with the collection, analysis, explanation or interpretation andpresentation of data. It can be applied to a variety of academicdisciplines, from social and natural sciences to humanities andto business and government.

T

• Taxonomy: It is the science of classifying all the living thingsby arranging them in groups according to their relationships

with each other.• Therapeutics: It is the science of healing or medical treatment

of disease.• Thermodynamics: It is a branch of physics which deals with

general properties of energy and matter. It includes the studyof amount of work, heat and other energy related to chemicalreactions.

V



• Virology: It is a discipline of microbiology or pathology, whichincludes the study of evolution, structure, classification andpathogenesis of viruses.

Z

• Zoology: It is a branch of biology that is related to the study of animal kingdom, including evolution, classification, distribution,structure, habits and embryology of animals.



7 Environmental Principles

The key to understanding the environmental problems that we

encounter today is to learn about our ecosystem. This section

highlights the basic environmental principles, varied

types of ecosystem, current environmental issues, anthropogenic

activities that threat the environment and the role ofyouth in

protecting our environment.

1. Nature knows best.

This principle is the most basic and in fact encompasses all the others.

Humans have to understand nature and have to abide by the

rules nature dictates. In essence, one must not go against the natural

processes if one would like to ensure a continuous and steady

supply ofresources.

One natural process that needs serious attention is nutrient cycling.

In nature, nutrients pass from the environment to the organisms and

back to the environment. Any disruption in the cycle can bring about

imbalance.

For example, burning of farm wastes instead of allowing them to

decompose naturally disrupts the cycle. In burning, most of the organic

compounds are lost. The combustion products bring greater havoc as

in the case of carbon dioxide build-up, which results in the warming-

up of the earth, or the so-called "greenhouse" effect.

Nature has also its built-in mechanisms to maintain

balance of homeostasis - the availability ofnutrients,



conduciveness of the environment for growth and reproduction, and

the feeding relationships that exist between and among organisms

which serve as population controls. For example, the rat population is

controlled by the presence and number of its predators, e.g., snakes.

The use of chemical pesticides and fertilizer disrupts check and

balance in the ecosystem. Pesticides can either kill vital organisms

directly or induce genetic changes that result in resistant pests or

organisms. Chemical fertilizers increase the acidity of the soil through

time making a number of nutrients unavailable and thus, unfit for the

survival of plants and other organisms.

History and our experiences are full of examples to prove the

validity of this principle. In fact, this principle only surfaced when

many of the detrimental effects of technology were recognized and

coined thereon as "ecological backlash."

2. All forms of life are important.

Each organism plays a fundamental role in nature. Since such

occupational or functional position, otherwise known as niche, cannot

be simultaneously occupied by more than one specie, it is apparent

that all living things must be considered as invaluable in the

maintenance ofhomeostasis in the ecosystem.

It is easy to appreciate the beautiful butterflies, especially knowing

their important role in pollination. The giant beasts – the elephants, the

whales, the alligators – are objects of awe and the products they yield

– ivory, oil, leather, respectively – are highly prized. But when it comes

to unlovely, wriggly, and troublesome creatures, this principle is

unusually overlooked.



For instance, it has been customary for many to step on any wriggling

creature (e.g. earthworms) without even considering why God made

them in the first place. People also react adversely to the

presence of snakes. At home, spiders are looked at with disdain.

Awareness of the snakes' role in limiting the rat population and of the

spiders' role in checking the population of mosquitoes and flies may,

however, change this attitude.

3. Everything is connected to everything else.

This principle is best exemplified by the concept of the ecosystem. Inan ecosystem, all biotic and amniotic components interact with each

other to ensure that the system is perpetuated. Any outside

interference may result in an imbalance and the deterioration of the

system.

In a lake ecosystem, the organisms are linked to one another through

their feeding habit/level and are also dependent on other physico-

chemical factors in the lake (e.g. amount of nutrients, amounts and

types of gases, temperature, PH, etc.). At the same time, the physico-

chemical factors in the lake are influenced by the terrestrial

environment that surrounds it. The fertilizers that reach the lake cause

a faster growth of phytoplankton, which may lead to algae bloom, red

tide, or other such phenomena.

This principle may be discussed in local, regional, or global

perspective. Deforestation in the mountains may affect the lowlands

through floods, drought, and erosion. Whatever happens to one

country may affect other countries. An example of this is the Chernobyl

accident, which affected a lotof countries through the

transfer of radioactive substances by natural agents such as wind and



water, as well as human activities like the export of contaminated

food.

4. Everything changes.

It is said that the only permanent thing is change. As a general

classification, change may be linear, cyclical or random. As

example of linear change is evolution of species, which has brought

about higher and more complex types of organisms. Cyclical change

may be exemplified by seasons and the rhythms in floral and faunal

life stages that go with the seasons. An example ofrandom change isthe eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, which brought about great upheaval in

many partsof Luzon and changes in the topography of the land.

The environment is constantly changing. Organisms also evolve

through time. However, man’s technology has affected these natural

changes often to a problematic extent. Although mutation is a natural

change, pesticides have induced insect mutations, which are not

matched by natural checks and balances.

Humans should rethink their relationship with the environment.

Changes that they think may be beneficial to the environment often

turn out to be disastrous. Environmental technologies should be given

priority if man would want more positive changes in the environment.

5. Everything must go somewhere.

When a piece of paper is thrown away, it disappears from sight but it

does not cease to exist. It ends up elsewhere. Gases released in

smokestacks may disperse but it will end up a componentof the

atmosphere or brought down by rains. What a particular type of waste



does to the earth's repository should be of concern to us. It may be a

pollutant or a resource depending on certain factors.

Since wastes are not lost to oblivion, and even goes back to one's own backyard in

some other forms, it is important that one becomes aware of the different

types of wastes – whether they are hazardous or not. Classification of wastes

facilitates their proper disposal and minimizes, if not prevents, the entry of toxic

wastes in vital ecosystems and ensures reconversion into useful forms.

6. Ours is a finite earth.

The earth’s resources can be classified as either renewable or non-

renewable. Renewable resources are those that can easily be

replenished by natural cycles (e.g. water, air, plants, and animals)

while non-renewable resources are those that cannot be replenished

through natural cycles (e.g. ores of various metals, oil, coal).

Although renewable resources can be replenished, it is important to

note that these are renewable only as long as they are not overused

nor destroyed from such factors such as pollution. To ensure that these

resources will be continually replenished, it is essential to know how

much of a resource can be consumed at a given time to balance the

rate of exploitation with the rate ofreplenishment.

Just how long would the earth be able to sustain demands on its

resources? This is a question that needs serious reflection. Unless the

factors of population growth, lifestyles, and polluting technologies are

checked, the collapse of the earth might be inevitable.

Awareness of the earth's limited resources leads to a conscious effortto change one's consumerist attitude as well as to develop processes



and technology that would bring about effective recycling of a great

number of resources.

.

Environmental educationEnvironmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to

teach about how natural environments function and, particularly,

how human beings can manage their behavior

and ecosystems in order to live sustainably. The term is often

used to imply education within the school system, from primary

to post-secondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly

to include all efforts to educate the public and other audiences,

including print materials, websites, media campaigns, etc.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_living

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_living



Related disciplines include outdoor education and experiental

education.

Focus of EE

EE focuses on:

Awareness and sensitivity about the environment

and environmental challenges

Knowledge and understanding about the

environment and environmental challenges

Attitude concern for the environment and help to

maintain environmental quality Skills to mitigate the environmental problems

Participation for exercising existing knowledge and

environmental related programs.



Curriculum of EnvironmentalEducation

= Sum total of all experiences that a learners undertakes to helpthen become environmentally literate.

Core Messages

1. Nature knows best “ Balance of Nature “

2. All forms of life are beautiful “ Diversity and Stability “

3. Everything Changes “Changes”

4. Everthing is connected to everything else. “Interdependenceor Interconnectedness”

5. Everything must go somewhere. “Motional Cycle”

6. Ours is a finite Earth “Finiteness of Resources“

7. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of god’s creation. “Stewardship “

DimensionsEnvironmental education is one of the important and effective

approaches to solve environmental problems and to protect

biodiversity. It is significant to discuss the theory of

Environmental Education for Biodiversity Conservation (EEFBC),

and to build a multi-dimensional system for implementing EEFBC

towards sustainable development in the special Chinese context

for the whole society. Four dimensions, from the perspective of

education delivery, should be respected. They are (1) temporal

dimension: a lifelong education penetrating from the beginning

to the end of life; (2) spatial dimension: education for all and at

three levels, namely school, family and society; (3) modality

dimension: whole process of education, covering formal and

informal education system; (4) institution dimension: translatecompliance into self-awareness.



Find the objectives of these laws:

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003(ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000)

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR AN ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT PROGRAM, CREATING THE NECESSARYINSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS AND INCENTIVES, DECLARINGCERTAIN ACTS PROHIBITED AND PROVIDING PENALTIES,APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 8749

Subject: AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A COMPREHENSIVE AIR

POLLUTION CONTROL POLICY AND FOR OTHER

PURPOSES

Earth Day

Earth Day is a day that is intended to inspire awareness and

appreciation for the Earth's natural environment.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ecology_symbol.svg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment



Earth Hour

Earth Hour is a global event organized by WWF(World Wide

Fund for Nature, also known as World Wildlife Fund) and is held

on the last Saturday of March annually, asking households and

businesses to turn off their non-essential lights and

other electrical appliances for one hour to raise awareness

towards the need to take action on climate change.

Unifying Themes in Environmental Education

1. Adaptation,2. Behavior,3. Diversity,4. Emergent properties,5. Energy flow,6. Growth and development,

7. Limits,8. Regulation.

Table 1.Descriptions of the Eight Ecological Principles and

Associated Concepts

Principle Description AssociatedConcepts

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_light

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_appliance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Earth-Hour-Logo.jpg



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_light

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_appliance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change



Adaptation The way a life systemlooks or behaves isnot random oraccidental; rather itis the result of changing to survivein a dynamicenvironment.

Evolution, Life HistoryPatterns, NaturalSelection, Survival,Predator-PreyInteractions

Behavior Living systemsevolve behavioralresponses to stressand disturbances toenhance survival.

Reproduction,Predator-Preyinteractions, Dispersal,Survival (humans andother animal species),Pest Control (exotics,nuisance animals)

Harvesting

Diversity Changes inenvironmentalconditions over timehave led to varietywithin each level of organization.

Competition, Land-UsePractices, Genetics,Survival,Fragmentation

EmergentProperties

When different levelsof organization arefunctioning together,new properties arecreated that were notoperational at lowerlevels

Complexity, Synthesis, Teamwork,Government

Energy Flow Energy cannot becreated nordestroyed but it canchange form. Energy

quality is alwaysdegraded throughtransformation.

Thermodynamics, FoodChains, Tropic Levels,Heat Exchange

Growth andDevelopment

As organisms andsystems increase insize, changes occurthat allow survival.Growth rate slows asmaximum capacity is

met.

Succession,Reproduction,Population Dynamics,Competition

Limits There are limits to Sustainability,



how much stress canbe tolerated by livingsystems.

Conservation, Disease,Natural Disaster,Agriculture, Pollution

Regulation Energy is spent if asignal is sent to

increase or decreasesome function tomaintain balance.

Feedback Loops,Organismal Systems,

Cybernetics

Barry Commoner

Is an American biologist, college professor, and eco-socialist. Heran for president of the United States in the 1980 US presidential election on the Citizens Party ticket. He was also editorof Science Illustrated magazine.

Four Laws of Ecology

One of Commoner's lasting legacies is his four laws of ecology,

as written in The Closing Circle in 1971. The four laws are:

1. Everything is connected to Everything Else. There is one

ecosphere for all living organisms and what affects one, affects

all.

2. Everything Must Go Somewhere. There is no "waste" in nature

and there is no “away” to which things can be thrown.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-socialism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_1980


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_Party_(United_States)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Illustrated


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-socialism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_Party_(United_States)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Illustrated



3. Nature Knows Best. Humankind has fashioned technology to

improve upon nature, but such change in a natural system is,

says Commoner, “likely to be detrimental to that system.”

4. There Is No Such Thing as a Free Lunch. Exploitation of nature

will inevitably involve the conversion of resources from useful to

useless forms.



Garrett Hardin

Garrett James Hardin (April 21, 1915 – September 14, 2003)

was an America ecologist who warned of the dangers of

overpopulation and whose concept of the tragedy of the

commons brought attention to "the damage that innocentactions by individuals can inflict on the environment".[1] He was

most well known for his elaboration of this theme in his 1968

paper, The Tragedy of the Commons.[2] He is also known for

Hardin's First Law of Ecology, which states "You cannot do only

one thing", and used the familiar phrase "Nice guys finish last" to

sum up the "selfish gene" concept of life and evolution.[3]

Igneous rocks

• Igneous rocks (Granites). Igneous rocks are formed bythe crystallisation of a magma. The difference between

granites and basalts is in silica content and their rates of


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Hardin#cite_note-0

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Hardin#cite_note-tragedy-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Durocher#Managing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologist


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Hardin#cite_note-tragedy-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Durocher#Managing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution




cooling. A basalt is about 53% SiO2, whereas granite is73%.

Intrusive, slowly cooled inside the crust. (Plutonic rock =formed in the earth). Large crystals.

o Granite. (Continental crust) Density 2.7-2.8. High silica

content (acidic). = quartz + mica + K-feldspar in solidsolution. 60% orthoclase and plagioclase fledspars +25% quartz + 5% darker minerals (biotite, hornblende).Color from flesh to black. Crystals intermingled. Hard,rigid, tough. Granitic rock is much less common on the

other terrestrial planets, a fact having to do with thefractionation (where early crystallizing mineralsseparate fromt he rest of a magma), a process thattakes place uniquely on earth, due to the prevalence of plate tectonics

o Granodiorite. An intermediate form between granite

and diorite.o Diorite. High silica content (acidic)

o Gabbro. Density? Medium silica content.(intermediate). Similar to granite = quartz + feldspar +pyroxene + amphibole + mica + olivene. A layer of gabbro is found in the ocean crust, unerneath thebasalt layer (0.5-2.5km), from 2.5 to 6.3 km deep. Thelunar highlands have many gabbros (made largely of potassium feldspar - also known as plagioclase)

Extrusive. cooled rapidly at the surface. Small crystals.

o Rhyolite. Medium silica content (intermediate). A fine-grained volcanic rock of granitic composition.



o Dacite.

o Andesite. (Volcanic arcs) Density >2.8. Low silica

content (basic) = sodium feldspar + amphibole. Dark,dense.

o Basalt. (Ocean crust) Density 2.9. Low silica content.(basic). Dark, dense. = olivene + pyroxene + Ca-Feldspar in solid solution. Basaltic rocks (gabbro &basalt) are made up of feldspars and other mineralscommon in planetary crusts. They have been identifiedas major surface rocks on the dark lunar planes andmuch of Mars, Venus and the asteroid Vesta.

Pyroclastic rocks: debris ejected by volcanoes

o Tuff is made of compacted debris from old volcanic

ash showers.o Volcanic breccia is composed of angular mineral

fragments embedded in a matrix, the product of explosive eruptions.

o Ignimbrites are sheets of coalesced fine particles

which once flowed at high speed, extremely hot, fluidavalanches.

Sedimentary rocks



Sedimentary Rocks form from small weathered particlesof other rocks or the weathered shells of sea animals. Wind andrain beating on the faces of exposed rock tend to wear off particles that are blown or washed to a new location. When sea

creatures die, the shells settle on the bottom of the ocean. Asthe sediments pile up, they press together to form Sedimentaryrock.

Clastic sedimentary rocks consist of rock and mineralgrains derived from the chemical and mechanical breakdown(weathering) of pre-existing rock. They contain rockfragments and more commonly, particles of quartz and

feldspar. Clastic rocks are further classified on the basis of grain size. Underneath each rock type, the Wentworth Scaleof particle sizes is shown.

o Conglomerates (> 2mm) consolidated gravel Boulder (>256mm) Cobble (65-256 mm) Pebble (4-64 mm)

Granule (2-4 mm)o Sandstones (0.062-2 mm) consolidated sand

Very coarse (1.0 - 2.0 mm) Coarse (0.5 - 1 mm) Medium (0.25 - 0.5 mm) Fine (0.125 - 0.25 mm) Very fine (0.0625 - 0.125 mm)

o Shales (<0.0062 mm) consolidated mud, rich in

organic matter. Silt (0.0039 - 0.0625 mm) Clay (0.0002 - 0.0039 mm)

Argillite. A sedimentary rock,composed of clay particles which havebeen hardened and cemented.



Illite (muscovite).K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4. is asedimentary fine-grained rock,equivalent to ordinari mica (muscovite).

Colloid (<0.0002 mm)

• Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed either fromminerals that precipitate directly from aqeous (water)solutions or from the accumulation of fossilised remains of organisms which become limestone.

o Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)o Anhydrite (CaSO4)

o Halite (NaCl) salto Limestone (CaCO3)

Metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rocks have been chemically altered by heat,pressure and deformation, while buried deep in the earth's



crust. These rocks show changes in mineral composition or texture or both. This area of rock classification is highlyspecialised and complex.

• Slates are foliated rocks representing low-grademetamorphic alteration of shales (laminated clay).

o Argillite is a mudstone, much hardened bypressure.

• Schists are foliated medium-grade metamorphic rockwith parallel layers, vertical to the direction of compaction..

• Gneiss are banded rocks consisting of alternating layers

of quartz and feldspar, of high metamorphic grade.• Quartzites represent metamorphosed sandstone.

o Greywacke is a severely hardened sandstone withmica and feldspar, sometimes containing fossils.

o Chert is a siliceous rock deposited chemically, oftencommon among greywacke.

• Marble is metamorphosed limestone, just recrystallised.

Metamorphic rock may be of sedimentary origin or stem fromigneous rocks. Rocks formed under high temperatures (basalt,gabbro) are less sensitive to metamorphosis than thosesolidified at low temperatures (quartz & felspar minerals). Thefollowing are causes of metamorphism:

• Pressure from sinking deeper while overlaid by other sediments.

• Pressure from continental collision and consequentfolding and overthrusting of the crust(dynamometamorphism).

• Temperature from sinking deeper, into warmer layers of the crust (metamorphism).

• Temperature from igneous hot lava running nearby, either overhead or from intrusions (contact or thermalmetamorphism).

• Temperature from steam escaping from hot vents.• Repetitive metamorphism (polymetamorphism).



The Rock Cycle

The Earth Recycles

The Rock Cycle chart shows each type of rock connected by arrows.The arrows point from one rock form to a new form that it can



become over time and exposure. Click on the picture if you want to

learn more about that type of rock. For details on how rocks change

from one form to another, click on the arrow. You’ll read about how

rocks can change from one form to another.

The Rock Cycle describes the process the earth uses to recycle rocks.

Yes, even rocks are recycled.

There are three basic types of rocks:igneous, metamorphic,

and sedimentary. The interesting part of knowing these names is that

any one of the three types of rock can be changed into one of the

other types.

The names of the rock types refer to the way the rocks are formed.

Igneous rocks are formed from fiery molten magma. Metamorphic

rocks form under intense heat and pressure. Sedimentary rocks form

by weathering.

http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/igneous_rock_cycle.html

http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/metamorphic_rocks.html

http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/sedimentary_rocks.html

http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/igneous_rock_cycle.html

http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/metamorphic_rocks.html

http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/sedimentary_rocks.html



Let’s take a closer look at each type.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed of magma, the molten form of the earth’smantle layer. Igneous rocks can form above ground as lava spewing

from volcanoes. But igneous rocks can also form below the surface.

Pockets of magma get stuck in layers of the earth. As they get closer

and closer to the surface, the magma slowly cools. Granite is an

igneous rock that formed from a slow-cooling pocket of magma.

Sedimentary RocksSedimentary rocks form from small weathered particles of other

rocks or the weathered shells of sea animals. Wind and rain beating on



the faces of exposed rock tend to wear off particles that are blown

or washed to a new location. When sea creatures die, the shells settle

on the bottom of the ocean. As the sediments pile up, they press

together to form Sedimentary rock.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks form under intense heat and pressure.

Metamorphic rocks start out as igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks or

other types of metamorphic rocks, but through heat or pressure,

change characteristics such as sheen, tightness of grain and hardness.

Rocks continually change form. What started out as sedimentary rock

may change to metamorphic and, with time and weathering, changeback to sedimentary.



What is a mineral?

What is a mineral? These are the characteristics of minerals followed by abrief explanation of each characteristic.

A mineral:

• Is naturally occurring• Is a solid• Is inorganic (mostly)• Has a fixed chemical formula• Has an orderly crystalline structure

Let’s look at these one at a time.

Naturally OccurringTo be considered a mineral it must have been formed by natural geologicprocesses. Laboratory created gems (synthetic diamonds, rubies, etc.)don’t count.

A SolidBy definition, minerals are solid within the normal temperature ranges of the earth’s surface.

InorganicGenerally, a mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a crystallinestructure.

This is where it gets a little tricky.

Halite or table salt is a mineral. Sugar is a crystalline solid but comesfrom plants, sugar cane or sugar beets. This classifies it as an organiccompound and so is not a mineral. Coal on the other hand also comesfrom plants (organic) and is generally considered a mineral.

There are also marine animals that make their shells from calcite (calciumcarbonate). Calcite is a mineral but since it is secreted by animals to formshells it is inorganic. Geologists generally consider this inorganic calcite amineral.

What is a mineral? It has a fixed chemical formulaEach mineral has a particular chemical make up. While most minerals arecompounds of two or more elements, some minerals are made up of a



single element. Gold, silver and copper are called native elements andoccur in nature in relatively pure form.

The vast majority of minerals are compounds or mixtures of elements.These mixtures are consistent. For halite, the chemical formula is NaCl or

sodium chloride. Each sodium atom is combined with one chlorine atom.The formula for Quartz is SiO2, silicon oxide. For every atom of silicone,there are two atoms of oxygen.

There are about 4000 known minerals on earth. Each one is a uniquesubstance with its own chemical formula. Most of these are very rare.

That narrows down the field quite a bit.

There are only eight groups of minerals that are common. They arecalled rock-forming minerals. They are:

• Native elements• Sulfides• Oxides• nitrates• phosphates• sulfates

• Halides• Silicates

What is a mineral? It Has an orderly crystalline structureMinerals have an orderly crystalline structure. This means that theatoms or ions that make up a mineral are arranged in an orderlyand repetitive

Mineral Classification

Minerals are broadly classified in to two categories: Silicate and non-

Silicate minerals.

Silicate Minerals

The most commonly found group of mineral in the Earth's crust is the

silicate group. Almost all silicate minerals have silicon and oxygen as their

primary components. Most silicate minerals are formed by the cooling of



molten rocks. As the molten rocks come closer to the surface inside the

Earth's crust, they start cooling very fast and combine with the most

abundant element in the Earth's crust, silicon. Silicate minerals constitute

approximately 90% of the Earth's crust. Fayalite (Fe2SiO4)Zircon (ZrSiO4),

Enstatite (MgSiO3), Ferrosilite (FeSiO3) are some examples of sulphate

minerals.

Non-Silicate Minerals

There is a complete range of non-silicate minerals. Some of these

minerals are formed when there is cooling of magma, while some others

are formed when water in them evaporates, or due to minerals

decomposition. The non-silicates can be further classified in to different

groups which are: elements, oxides, carbonates, sulphates, and many

more which are not commonly found naturally. Most of these groups have

their own sub-categories. But, let us discuss these groups first:

• Elements: Many pure elements are found in the form of minerals in

ores or mines. For example, uncombined carbon is often found in

its pure state in the form of graphite or more rarely as diamond.

Gold, silver and sulfur are other elements which are also found in

its pure state. Even though these are pure elements they qualify to

be known as minerals, but no chemical process is required on them

further.

• Oxides: When an ore is found in which one or more elements are

combined with oxygen, it is an oxide mineral. These may have

chemical formulas of type XO (MgO, ZnO, CuO, etc.), X2O (Cu2O),

X2O3 (Al2O3, Fe2O3), XO2 (MnO2, SnO2) and XY2O4 (MgAl2O4,

FeCr 2O4). The oxide minerals, are mostly of metallic elements.

Example: hematite, magnetite, cuprite. Silicates and oxides are the

most common types of minerals in volcanoes, especially after an

eruption.

• Carbonates: The carbonate type of minerals are formed when a

single carbonate ion (CO32-) reacts with a metal ion of

complementing polarity. Example: siderite (FeCO3), smithsonite

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/volcanoes/

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/volcanoes/



(ZnCO3), calcite (CaCO3). Carbonate minerals are used in making

cement and other bonding material.

• Sulphates: The mineral class which includes the sulfate ion (SO42-)

within its molecular structure, is categorized as sulphate mineral.

Minerals like Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) and Barite (BaSO4) are

examples of sulphate minerals.

• Organic Minerals: This class of minerals include biogenic

substances, genesis or origin of which can be attributed to a

geological processes. Organic minerals include all types of

oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates,

hydrocarbons, etc. Example of organic mineral includes whewellite,

moolooite, mellite, fichtelite, carpathite, evenkite and abelsonite.

Apart from these these are many more non-silicate minerals like nitrates,sulphides, halides, phosphates, etc. but most of the 4,000 odd listedminerals are grouped in the above categories. Make sure you do notconfuse between types of minerals and rocks. A rock is a combination of anumber of minerals which may also include organic remains andmineraloids i.e. non-crystalline minerals.

Properties of Minerals

The Physical properties of minerals are used by Mineralogists to helpdetermine the identity of a specimen. Some of the tests can be performedeasily in the field, while others require laboratory equipment. For thebeginning student of geology, there are a number of simple tests that canbe used with a good degree of accuracy. The list of tests is in a suggestedorder, progressing from simple experimentation and observation to morecomplicated either in procedure or concept.

Properties of MineralsThe following physical properties of minerals can be easily used to identifya mineral:

1. Color 2. Streak3. Hardness4. Cleavage or Fracture5. Crystalline Structure



6. Diaphaneity or Amount of Transparency7. Tenacity8. Magnetism9. Luster 10.Odor

11.Taste12.Specific Gravity

Below is a detailed description of each of these properties of minerals.

Properties of Minerals- A Detailed Description

Color

Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for identification. Inopaque minerals, the color tends to be more consistent, so learning thecolors associated with these minerals can be very helpful in identification.Translucent to transparent minerals have a much more varied degree of color due to the presence of trace minerals. Therefore, color alone is notreliable as a single identifying characteristic.

Streak

Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. Streak shows the truecolor of the mineral. In large solid form, trace minerals can change thecolor appearance of a mineral by reflecting the light in a certain way.Trace minerals have little influence on the reflection of the small powderyparticles of the streak.

The streak of metallic minerals tends to appear dark because the smallparticles of the streak absorb the light hitting them. Non-metallic particlestend to reflect most of the light so they appear lighter in color or almost

white.

Because streak is a more accurate illustration of the mineral’s color, streakis a more reliable property of minerals than color for identification.

Hardness

Hardness is one of the better properties of minerals to use for identifying amineral. Hardness is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching.

The Mohs scale is a set of 10 minerals whose hardness is known. Thesoftest mineral, talc, has a Mohs scale rating of one. Diamond is thehardest mineral and has a rating of ten. Softer minerals can be scratched



by harder minerals because the forces that hold the crystals together areweaker and can be broken by the harder mineral.

The following is a listing of the minerals of the Mohs scale and their rating:

1. Talc2. Gypsum3. Calcite4. Fluorite5. Apatite6. Orthoclase Feldspar 7. Quartz8. Topaz9. Corundum

10.Diamond

Cleavage & Fracture

Minerals tend to break along lines or smooth surfaces when hit sharply.Different minerals break in different ways showing different types of cleavage.

Cleavage is defined using two sets of criteria. The first set of criteria

describes how easily the cleavage is obtained. Cleavage is consideredperfect if it is easily obtained and the cleavage planes are easilydistinguished. It is considered good if the cleavage is produced with somedifficulty but has obvious cleavage planes. Finally it is consideredimperfect if cleavage is obtained with difficulty and some of the planes aredifficult to distinguish.

The second set of criteria is the direction of the cleavage surfaces. Thenames correspond to the shape formed by the cleavage surfaces: Cubic,

rhombohedral, octahedral, dodecahedral, basal or prismatic. Thesecriteria are defined specifically by the angles of the cleavage lines asindicated in the chart below:

Cleavage Type Angles

Cubic Cleaves in three directions @ 90o to one anotherRhombohedralCleaves in three directions but not @ 90o to one anotherOctahedralCleaves in four directionsDodecahedral Cleaves in six directionsBasal

Cleaves in one directionPrismatic Cleaves in two directions



Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface. Most mineralsdisplay either uneven or grainy fracture, conchoidal (curved, shell-likelines) fracture, or hackly (rough, jagged) fracture.

Crystalline Structure

Mineral crystals occur in various shapes and sizes. The particular shape isdetermined by the arrangement of the atoms, molecules or ions that makeup the crystal and how they are joined. This is called the crystal lattice.There are degrees of crystalline structure, in which the fibers of the crystalbecome increasingly difficult or impossible to see with the naked eye or the use of a hand lens. Microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline structurescan only be viewed using high magnification. If there is no crystallinestructure, it is called amorphous. However, there are very few amorphous

crystals and these are only observed under extremely high magnification.

Transparency or Diaphaneity

Diaphaneity is a mineral’s degree of transparency or ability to allow light topass through it. The degree of transparency may also depend on thethickness of the mineral.

Tenacity

Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineralhold together or resist separation. The chart below gives the list of termsused to describe tenacity and a description of each term.

Magnetism

Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repelother magnetic materials. It can be difficult to determine the differences

between the various types of magnetism, but it is worth knowing that thereare distinctions made.

Luster

Luster is the property of minerals that indicates how much the surface of amineral reflects light. The luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the light used to observe the mineral surface. Luster of a mineral isdescribed in the following terms:



Metallic The mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metalwould.Submettalic The mineral is opaque and dull. The mineral is darkcolored.Nonmettalic The mineral does not reflect light like a metal.

Nonmetallic minerals are described using modifiers that refer to commonly

known qualities.

Waxy The mineral looks like paraffin or wax.Vitreous The mineral lookslike broken glass.Pearly The mineral appears iridescent, like a pearl.SilkyThe mineral looks fibrous, like silk.Greasy The mineral looks like oil onwater.Resinous The mineral looks like hardened tree sap(resin).Adamantine The mineral looks brilliant, like a diamond.

Odor

Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in one of thefollowing ways: moistened, heated, breathed upon, or rubbed.

Taste

Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is very important that mineralsnot be placed in the mouth or on the tongue. You should not test for thisproperty in the classroom.

Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the weight of themineral to the weight of an equal amount of water. The weight of the equalamount of water is found by finding the difference between the weight of the mineral in air and the weight of the mineral in water.

Knowing the properties of minerals will help you to identify minerals in thefield.



Mineral Identification

And The Properties of Minerals

Mineral identification is done by checking for certain mineral propertiesor characteristics. Minerals are inorganic compounds that occur naturallyin the earth. Elements such as silicon, magnesium, aluminum, calciumand iron form special combinations that have particular characteristics thatidentify them, just as organs and tissues combine from cells in specialways to form different plants and animals.

The various minerals can be classified according to similar characteristics.Scientists called mineralogists consider the following characteristics for mineral identification:

• Streak• Luster •

Sheen• Hardness• Cleavage• Crystal system/habit• Color (although by itself, this is not a reliable characteristic)• Specific Gravity• Clarity or Transparency

Minerals can be tested according to each characteristic and reasonable

identification can be made. With practice, many minerals can be identifiedsolely by visual characteristics. The only absolute test, however, is todetermine the chemical composition and the manner in which thechemicals came together to form the mineral.

.



IntroductionWeathering is the breakdown and alterationof rocks and minerals at or near the Earth's surface into

products that are more in equilibrium with the conditions foundin this environment. Most rocks and minerals are formed deepwithin the Earth's crust wheretemperatures and pressures differ greatly from the surface. Thephysical and chemical nature of materials formed in the Earth'sinterior are characteristically in disequilibrium with conditionsoccurring on the surface. Because of this disequilibrium, thesematerials are easily attacked, decomposed, and eroded by

various chemical and physical surface processes.

Products of WeatheringThe process of weathering can result in the following threeoutcomes on rocks and minerals:

1. The complete loss of particular atoms or compounds fromthe weathered surface.

2. The addition of specific atoms or compounds to theweathered surface.3. A breakdown of one mass into two or more masses, with

no chemical change in the mineral or rock.

Physical Weathering

Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering, isthe process by which rocks break down through natural,

physical means. You can further define physical weathering bybreaking it into subgroups based on cause.

Freezing Water

When water fills cracks in rocks it often freezes, making the crackslarger. When the ice thaws, the water seeps deeper into the rock,later freezing again and cracking the rock more deeply. Eventually

this continuous process destroys the rocks.

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Composition_of_rocks

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Temperature

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Pressure


http://www.eoearth.org/article/Atom


http://www.eoearth.org/article/Temperature

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Pressure


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Salt Wedging

When rainwater that fills cracks in rocks evaporates rather thanfreezes, it leaves behind salt. Crystals begin to grow and create

wedges that break the rock apart.

Plants

As a plant's root system develops, it cracks the earth around it.These cracks enlarge over time, destroying rocks.

Temperature Fluctuation

Rocks expand in hot air and contract in cold air. In time, thismovement crumbles rock.

Chemical weathering is erosion by the weather viachemical processes. Meaning, the process changes existing rockmolecules into different molecules. The general reason this couldlead to erosion is that harder rock becomes softer or insoluble rockbecomes soluble.

Processes

More specifically, the processes involved in chemicalweathering perform one of the following: expand the rock,increasing stresses; reduce particle size, which increases

the surface area on which chemical erosion can occur; createrock that is more mobile; or create more stable (andmore compliant) minerals.

Dissolution

A specific example of chemical weathering is dissolution,or carbonic acid action. Its acidic action on limestone causes

sinkholes and, as acid rain, the dissolving of statues.

Hydrolysis



Water turns some minerals into clay. Although morestable, it is also more malleable and conducive to erosion thanthe original minerals.

Oxidation

Oxidation is the combination of oxygen with elements inrock, producing new rock that is usually softer and easier tobreak. Rust is an example of oxidation.

Chelation

Chelation is a fundamental process in soil formation. Itinvolves the absorption of metals by hydrocarbons.Sometimes, this is classified as biological weathering instead of chemical weathering.

Geological Changes

These are changes that are happening in the Earth’s crust.



Layers of the Earth's AtmospherePlanet Earth is enveloped by an atmosphere composed of five basiclayers. Let us look at these layers in detail and understand the significanceof the atmosphere.

Atmosphere is composed of a layer of gases that surround the planetEarth. It is composed of 78.08% nitrogen, 29.95% oxygen, 0.38% carbondioxide and 0.93% argon. The atmosphere also contains very smallamounts of other gases as also about 1% of water vapor. Atmosphere is

thicker at the innermost radius around Earth and it goes becoming thinner towards the outer space. The Earth's atmosphere is composed of layers,each of which is characterized by a particular kind of constituents. Theproportion of the various gases and their temperatures vary across thedifferent layers of the Earth's atmosphere.

Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is divided into five layers, namely, the

troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, thermosphere and theionosphere. Troposphere is the very first layer above the surface of theEarth and contains around half of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratosphere,the stable layer comes next and is followed by the mesosphere housingmeteors and rock fragments. The fourth layer is the thermosphere, abovewhich lies the last layer of the atmosphere known as ionosphere. It is avery thin layer that abounds the outer space through the exosphere. Letus look at each of the atmosphere layers in detail.

Troposphere: It begins from the Earth's surface and extends to between7 km at the poles and 17 km at the equator. The heating caused by thesolar energy reduces the density of air causing the air to rise. In the



process of opposing the surrounding air, the air in this layer expendsenergy, resulting in a decrease in its temperature. The decreasingtemperature causes the vapor content of the air to condense, resulting inan increase in the air mass. The concept of weather occurs in this layer and the air we breathe is from this very layer. Thus this layer of the Earth's

atmosphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere.

Stratosphere: The Latin word, 'stratus' meaning 'spreading out' has givenbirth to the word, 'stratosphere'. It extends up to around 50 km. It is thislayer of atmosphere that contains the ozone layer. The ozone layer islocated between 15 to 35 km above the surface of the Earth. The ozonelayer contains high amounts of ozone gas. This layer absorbs theultraviolet radiation of the sun, which would have otherwise provedharmful to the life on Earth. Also, most of the jet aircrafts fly through the

stratosphere.

Mesosphere: It stretches from 50 km to around 80 to 85 km. Thetemperature of the air contained in this layer of Earth decreases with anincrease in the height. Most of the meteors and rock fragments burn up inthis layer before they can enter the Earth's atmosphere.

Thermosphere: Extending from about 85 km to more than 640 km, thetemperature of air in this layer increases with height. It is relatively thin

and this is where space shuttles orbit. A small change in energy cancause a large change in the air temperature of this layer. The temperaturein this layer can rise up to 1,500 degrees Celsius or higher.

Ionosphere: That part of the Earth's atmosphere, which is ionized by thesolar radiation, is known as the ionosphere. As some scientists callionosphere an extension of thermosphere, ionosphere may not beregarded as a separate atmospheric layer. The ionosphere constitutesabout 0.1% of the atmospheric mass. It forms the inner layer of the

magnetosphere, or simply, the sphere of influence of Earth'smagnetic/gravitational force. It contributes to the propagation of radiosignals to distant places on Earth. It reflects radio waves back to theEarth, thus facilitating radio communication.

Exosphere: It is where the Earth's atmosphere meets the outer space. Ithouses free-moving particles that may migrate from the magnetosphere. Itranges from about 500-1000 km up to 10,000 km. Exosphere is the upper limit of the atmosphere. This layer is where atoms and molecules escape

into space. The Earth's atmosphere becomes very thin in this layer.

The Earth is surrounded by the atmosphere that is composed of various



layers. Each layer has a marked significance owing to its constituents. It isthe Earth's atmosphere that is home for the very important envelope of theozone layer. It is the atmosphere that enables communication across andbeyond this world. Atmosphere is a protective covering that Earth is giftedwith. It is a shield that safeguards our planet Earth and us, the earthlings.



The Layer of Earth

What is the use of locating seismic discontinuities? Locating these

disturbances enable scientists to map the inner regions of the Earth. Thisscience, known as tomography originates from the knowledge gained fromdiscontinuities.

Tomographists have found that this planet is divided into six regions: theinner core, the outer core, the lower mantle, the upper mantle, thetransition region, and the crust (oceanic and continental).

Here is a brief synopsis of the depths of each layer (in kilometers):

1. 0- 40 Crust2. 40- 400 Upper mantle3. 400- 650 Transition region4. 650-2700 Lower mantle5. 2700-2890 D'' layer 6. 2890-5150 Outer core

7. 5150-6378 Inner core

The inner core is a solid section of the Earth and is unattached to themantle, being suspended by the molten outer core. This solidified state isthe result of a very intense pressure-freezing process that occurs in mostliquids when temperature decreases or pressure increases. The outer core of Earth is a scorching hot, electrically conductive liquid in whichconvection takes place. This inner layer in mutual combination with the

rotational motion of the Earth creates a dynamo effect where a force ieldof electrical currents is generated. This field is also known as Earth'smagnetic field, which is responsible for the functioning of mechanical andbiological compasses. This field also causes a subtle jerking motion in theEarth's daily rotation. In terms of the physical aspects of the outer core,the layer is dense, but not as dense as pure molten iron, evidencing thepresence of multiple impurities having a lighter chemical makeup.According to scientists, about 10% of this layer is composed of sulfur and/or oxygen due to the fact that these two elements are abundant in the

cosmos and dissolve readily in molten iron.



nature. However, studies on seismic discontinuities suggest that this

"D" layer might differ chemically room the lower mantle lying above it.

lower mantle, its chemical omposition includes silicon, magnesium,and oxygen. Most likely, it probably also contains some iron, calcium,and aluminum. This layer is comprised of 72.9% of the antle-crustmass, making the Earth abundant in the chemical elements of silicon,magnesium and oxygen, the layer's primary components.

upper mantle. Through excavations in volcanoes, scientists have

found that this part of the crust composes of 15.3% of the total mantle-crust mass and is made of crystalline forms of Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4and pyroxene (Mg,Fe)SiO3. The upper mantle makes up 10.3% of theEarth's mass, extending a depth of 6-250 miles (10-400 kilometers). Arelatively large portion when compared to the other interior layers. Thislayer is not completely made of solid minerals for scientists speculatethat the asthenosphere could be partly liquid molten.

D: The D" layer of Earth is about 3% of Earth's mass, is 125 to 188

miles (200 to 300 kilometers) thick and covers about 4% of the mantle-crust mass. This layer, in terms of whether it is part of the lower mantleor an independent layer is still somewhat unclear. Based on evidencecollected from seismic discontinuities, the D" layer might differ inchemical composition from the lower mantle above it.

The next layer, the Transition region comprises 7.5% of Earth'smass with a depth of 250-406 miles (400-650 kilometers). This layer isalso known as the mesosphere and is 11.1% of the mantle-crust. It ismade of mainly basaltic magmas with amounts of calcium, aluminumand garnet (an aluminum-bearing silicate mineral). The layer becomesdense when the garnet mineral cools but is buoyant and light whensubject to heat due to the low melting points.

1. The outer most layer, the crust, is categorized into two parts, theOceanic crust and the continental crust. The Oceanic crust is thesmallest part of Earth, only 0.099% of its mass and reaching asmall depth of 0-6 miles (0-10 kilometers). In the beginning of time,it was possible that this area did not exist for through frequentvolcanic activity does only the crust form. Evidence of this is



marked by the oceanic ridge system, which is a 25,000 mile(40,000-kilometer) array of many volcanoes which creates layer after layer of new crust at the rate of 17 km3 per year. The oceanfloor is covered in basalt originating from volcanic activity and as amatter of fact, Iceland and Hawaii are two island systems that

emerged from the accumulated basalt.

2. Continental crust: The second smallest area of the Earth is theContinental crust, making up only 0.374% of the Earth's mass andextending a short depth of 0 - 31 miles (0-50 kilometers). Looking atthe percent by composition, the continental crust makes up only0.554% of the mantle-crust mass. The layer is composed primarily

of crystalline rocks made of low-density buoyant mineralsdominated mostly by quartz (SiO2) and feldspars (metal-poor silicates). This is the outer part of the Earth composed essentially of crystalline rocks. The continental crust and the oceanic crust arealso referred to as the lithosphere because of the cool and rockyconditions that exist in its chemical composition.



Observation in Earth Science Reference

Environmental IssuesComprehensive guide on current environmental issues with lists of environmental problems and information on human-environmentinteraction, overpopulation, pollution, ecological footprint, ecology issues,climate change, global warming, health issues, environmentalconservation, ethics and ways to help protect and save our environment.

1. Global Warming

What is global warming?

Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rises). It

happens when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous

oxide, and methane) trap heat and light from the sun in the earth’s

atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts many people,

animals, and plants. Many cannot take the change, so they die.

Global warming is affecting many parts of the world. Global warming

makes the sea rise, and when the sea rises, the water covers many low

land islands. This is a big problem for many of the plants, animals, and

people on islands. The water covers the plants and causes some of them

to die. When they die, the animals lose a source of food, along with their

habitat. Although animals have a better ability to adapt to what happensthan plants do, they may die also. When the plants and animals die,

people lose two sources of food, plant food and animal food. They may

also lose their homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area

or die. This would be called a break in the food chain, or a chain reaction,

one thing happening that leads to another and so on.

The oceans are affected by global warming in other ways, as well. Manythings that are happening to the ocean are linked to global warming. One



thing that is happening is warm water, caused from global warming, is

harming and killing algae in the ocean.

Algae is a producer that you can see floating on the top of the water. (A

producer is something that makes food for other animals through

photosynthesis, like grass.) This floating green algae is food to many

consumers in the ocean. (A consumer is something that eats the

producers.) One kind of a consumer is small fish. There are many others

like crabs, some whales, and many other animals. Fewer algae is a

problem because there is less food for us and many animals in the sea.

Global warming is doing many things to people as well as animals and

plants. It is killing algae, but it is also destroying many huge forests. The

pollution that causes global warming is linked to acid rain. Acid rain

gradually destroys almost everything it touches. Global warming is also

causing many more fires that wipe out whole forests. This happens

because global warming can make the earth very hot. In forests, some

plants and trees leaves can be so dry that they catch on fire.

What causes global warming?

Many things cause global warming. One thing that causes global warming

is electrical pollution. Electricity causes pollution in many ways, some

worse than others. In most cases, fossil fuels are burned to create

electricity. Fossil fuels are made of dead plants and animals. Someexamples of fossil fuels are oil and petroleum. Many pollutants (chemicals

that pollute the air, water, and land) are sent into the air when fossil fuels

are burned. Some of these chemicals are called greenhouse gasses.

Greenhouse gasses are sent into the air because creating the electricity

you use to do these things causes pollution. If you think of how many

times a day you do these things, it’s a lot. You even have to add in how

many other people do these things! That turns out to be a lot of pollutants



going into the air a day because of people like us using electricity. The

least amount of electricity you use, the better.

When we throw our garbage away, the garbage goes to landfills. Landfills

are those big hills that you go by on an expressway that stink. They are

full of garbage. The garbage is then sometimes burned. This sends an

enormous amount of greenhouse gasses into the air and makes global

warming worse.

Another thing that makes global warming worse is when people cut down

trees. Trees and other plants collect carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a

greenhouse gas.

Solutions

What are people doing to stop global warming?

People are doing many things to try to stop global warming. One thing

people are doing is carpooling. Carpooling is driving with someone to a

place that you are both going to. This minimizes the amount of

greenhouse gases put into the air by a car.

Another thing that people are doing is being more careful about leaving

things turned on like the television, computer, and the lights. A lot of

people are taking time away from the television, and instead, they are

spending more time outdoors. This helps our planet out a lot. Now, more

people are even riding busses, walking to school, and riding their bikes to

lower the amount of greenhouse gases in the air. Planting trees and

recycling also helps. If you recycle, less trash goes to the dump, and less

trash gets burned. As a result, there are fewer greenhouse gasses in our

atmosphere.



Watch what you buy. Many things, such as hairspray and deodorant, now

are made to have less of an impact on the atmosphere. Less greenhouse

gasses will rise into the air, and global warming will slow down.

2. Climate Change

Climate change refers to a long-term change in the average weather

patterns over a specific region, over a significant period of time. The

abnormal variations cause subsequent effects on the Earth's

atmosphere and significant regions like the polar ice caps and the natural

habitat of different life forms. Causes

Causes of Climate Change

The effect of climate change on the planet and various life forms that

inhabit it manifests over an extended period of time. The internal variability

is recognized in the form of hysteresis. In this measure, the climate

change recorded does not correlate or correspond to planned input.However, climate change is not only the cause of rapid deterioration of our

environment, but is also irreversible. Some of the major causes of climate

change are:

Solar variation

Orbital variation

Plate tectonics

Volcanic action

Thermohaline circulation

Human influences

Effects

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/climate-change/

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/layers-of-the-earths-atmosphere.html


http://www.buzzle.com/articles/climate-change/





Hot days and hot nights have become more frequent. Extreme weather

events have also occurred more frequently since 1980. These include

deadly and damaging typhoons, floods, landslides, severe El Niño and La

Niña events, drought, and forest fires. Adversely affected sectors include

agriculture, fresh water, coastal and marine resources and health.

Solutions

The twelve step climate change program

1. We admitted we were powerless over fossil fuels—that our lives hadbecome unmanageable.

2. Came to believe that a Power greater than ourselves could restore us

to sanity.3. Made a decision to turn our will and our lives over to the care of Gaia

as we understood her.4. Made a searching and fearless moral inventory of ourselves.5. Admitted to Gaia, to ourselves, and to other human beings the exact

nature of our wrongs.6. Were entirely ready to become a conscious part of Gaia, and make

sacrifices for the greater whole.7. Humbly asked her to remove our destructive behaviours.8. Made a list of all species we had harmed, and became willing to make

amends to them all.9. Made direct changes in our lives, such as investing in energy

conservation, using renewable energy, buying local organic food, anddriving, flying and consuming less.

10.Continued to take personal inventory and when we were wrongpromptly admitted it.

11.Sought through time spent quietly in nature to improve our consciouscontact with Gaia as we understood her, seeking for understanding of our place in nature.

12.Having had a spiritual awakening as the result of these steps, we triedto carry this message to fossil fuel addicts, and to practice theseprinciples in all our affairs, including voting.



Natural Disaster

The earth's wrath destroys everything in its stride. Usually it is atpeace but once it unleashes its fury, its destructive, leading to anatural disaster. It is the impact of a natural hazard, like a flood,

hurricane, volcano, earthquake. It also leads to a major effect onthe environment. Read on to find out more.

Prevention/Solution

• Not all natural disasters can be prevented. Each natural disaster has its own factors and complications. Understanding the basic

principles of ecology can provide keys to lessening their effects.Nature evolved with natural disasters and disturbance. The bestprevention is looking at the strategies found in nature.

Effects of Natural Disasters

Physical DestructionEmotional TollEconomic ConcernsIndirect Effects

EnvironmentCauses

1. Cyclical changes

2. The effect of Man on Nature

3. The response of Nature



Contamination of SoilThe soil is an important natural resources on earth. It is themedium used for growing crops which provide us with thenecessary foods. The contamination which alters natural

composition of soil affects the food chain and thereby, the entire

ecosystem. Use of chemical fertilizers is a major cause of contamination of soil. Making use of organic fertilizers not only

protects the soil from getting damaged, but also leads to theproduction of crops with less amount of toxic chemicals. Using

organic fertilizers also provides wholesome nutrition to theplants/crops which, in turn, benefits the consumers.

Contamination of soil is one of the important environmentalproblems and issues which need to be dealt with a lot of care and

responsibility.

Hazardous Waste DisposalThe disposal of hazardous waste materials have a long-term effect on the

environment. Plants, animals and human beings are all affected by thiswaste disposal. Different types of hazardous waste materials include

pesticides, carcinogens, paints, solvents, teratogenic compounds, etc.Proper treatment of these wastes before disposal is the solution to this

problem.

Introduction - What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem consists of the biological community thatoccurs in some locale, and the physical and chemicalfactors that make up its non-living or abioticenvironment. There are many examples of ecosystems-- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. Theboundaries are not fixed in any objective way,although sometimes they seem obvious, as with the

shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons havingto do with the goals of the particular study.

Components of an Ecosystem

You are already familiar with the parts of an ecosystem. Youhave learned about climate and soils from past lectures. Fromthis course and from general knowledge, you have a basicunderstanding of the diversity of plants and animals, and howplants and animals and microbes obtain water, nutrients, and



food. We can clarify the parts of an ecosystem by listing themunder the headings "abiotic" and "biotic".

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Sunlight Primary producers

Temperature Herbivores

Precipitation Carnivores

Water or moisture Omnivores

Soil or water chemistry (e.g., P, NH4+) Detritivores

etc. etc.

All of these vary over space/time

By and large, this set of environmental factors is importantalmost everywhere, in all ecosystems.

Usually, biological communities include the "functionalgroupings" shown above. A functional group is a biologicalcategory composed of organisms that perform mostly the samekind of function in the system; for example, all the

photosynthetic plants or primary producers form a functionalgroup. Membership in the functional group does not depend verymuch on who the actual players (species) happen to be, only onwhat function they perform in the ecosystem.

What is Soil?

Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earth's surface in which plants havetheir roots. It is made up of many things, such as weathered rock anddecayed plant and animal matter. Soil is formed over a long period of time.



Soil Formation takes place when many things interact, such as air, water,plant life, animal life, rocks, and chemicals.

How is Soil Formed?

The formation of soil happens over a very long period of time. It can take1000 years or more. Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks andminerals. The surface rocks break down into smaller pieces through aprocess of weathering and is then mixed with moss and organic matter.Over time this creates a thin layer of soil. Plants help the development of the soil. How? The plants attract animals, and when the animals die, their bodies decay. Decaying matter makes the soil thick and rich. Thiscontinues until the soil is fully formed. The soil then supports manydifferent plants.

Weathering:Weathering is the process of the breaking down rocks. There are twodifferent types of weathering. Physical weathering and chemicalweathering.In physical weathering it breaks down the rocks, but what it's made of stays the same. In chemical weathering it still breaks down the rocks, butit may change what it's made of. For instance, a hard material may changeto a soft material after chemical weathering.

Soil Composition

Soils are a mixture of different things; rocks, minerals, and dead, decayingplants and animals. Soil can be very different from one location to another,but generally consists of organic and inorganic materials, water and air.The inorganic materials are the rocks that have been broken down intosmaller pieces. The size of the pieces varies. It may appear as pebbles,gravel, or as small as particles of sand or clay. The organic material isdecaying living matter. This could be plants or animals that have died anddecay until they become part of the soil. The amount of water in the soil isclosely linked with the climate and other characteristics of the region. Theamount of water in the soil is one thing that can affect the amount of air.Very wet soil like you would find in a wetland probably has very little air.The composition of the soil affects the plants and therefore the animalsthat can live there.

What are the types of Soil?



Sand, silt, and clay are the basic types of soil. Most soils are made up of acombination of the three. The texture of the soil, how it looks and feels,depends upon the amount of each one in that particular soil. The type of soil varies from place to place on our planet and can even vary from oneplace to another in your own backyard.

Soil Conservation

Soil erosion, caused by wind and rain, can change land by wearing downmountains, creating valleys, making rivers appear and disappear. It is aslow and gradual process that takes thousands, even millions of years.But erosion may be speeded up greatly by human activities such asfarming and mining. Soil develops very slowly over a long period of time

but can be lost too quickly. The clearing of land for farming, residential,and commercial use can quickly destroy soil. It speeds up the process of erosion by leaving soil exposed and also prevents development of newsoil by removing the plants and animals that help build humus.

Today's farmers try to farm in a way that reduces the amount of erosionand soil loss. They may plant cover crops or use a no-till method of farming. Soil is an important resource that we all must protect. Without soilthere is no life.

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