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GENERAL STUDIES - 2

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POLITY AND GOVERNANCE

Comparison with the indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries comparison of the indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries 1. Comparison 2. British constitution 3. Constitution of the united states of america 4. Chinese constitution 5. French constitution 6. Germany’s constitution 7. Constitution of japan 8. Constitution of canada 9. Constitution of australia 10. Constitution of switzerland Feature-wise constitutional comparison scheme

1. The preamble 2. Written constitution 3. Nominal head 4. Cabinet system 5. Bicameral system of parliament 6. Concept of lower house being more powerful 7. Speaker in the lower house 8. Judiciary adaptations 9. Concept of supreme court 10. laws on which supreme court function 11. independence of judiciary and judicial review 12. Method of removal of supreme/high court judges 13. Fundamental rights 14. Suspension of fundamental rights during emergency 15. Fundamental duties 16. Scheme of federation 17. Freedom of trade and commerce 18. directive principles of state policy 19. election of members by the president

Government policies and interventions for Development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation

1. Public policy a. What is public policy? b. Nature of public policies c. Characteristics of public policy formulation d. Types of public policy

2. Public policy in india a. Public policy in india after independence

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b. Weaknesses in india’s public policy making c. Strengthening public policy in india d. Role of civil society in policy formulation and implementation e. Policy monitoring and evaluation

3. Major governmental interventions for development in various sectors a. Rural development b. Urban development c. Skill development d. Social security e. Analysis by niti aayog’s action agenda 2017-20

4. Democracy and development a. Procedural democracy and substantive democracy b. Role of democracy in development – appraisal and criticism

Development processes and the development Industry - the role of NGOS, SHGS, various groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders

1. Development processes a. What is development and development process?

2. Civil societies a. What are civil societies b. Civil society in india c. Types of civil societies in india d. National policy on voluntary sector

3. Non-governmental organizations (ngos) a. What are non-governmental organizations (ngos)? b. Types of ngos c. Role of ngos in development d. Role of ngos in protection of environment e. Challenges faced by ngos in india f. State v/s ngos g. Suggestions to improve the working of ngos

4. Self help groups (shgs) a. What are shgs b. How does shgs function? c. Evolution of shgs in india d. Benefits of shgs e. General issues related to shgs f. Socio-cultural hurdles in penetration of shgs in rural areas g. Measures taken by the government to promote the shgs h. Suggestions to improve the working of shgs

5. Aid and private funding in development a. Development aid in india b. Foreign aid to india c. Foreign funding and ngos d. Foreign aid from india

6. Microfinance institutions a. What are microfinance institutions? b. Role of microfinance institutions in development

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c. Issues related to microfinance institutions d. Suggestions to improve the working of microfinance institutions

7. Societies, trusts, donors, charities and other stakeholders a. Societies b. Trusts, religious endowments and waqfs

i. Trusts ii. Religious endowments

iii. Waqfs in india c. Trade unions

Important aspects of governance 1. Governance

a. What is governance? b. Stakeholders of governance c. Good governance d. Strategies for good governance e. The worldwide governance indicators project – world bank

2. Governance in india a. Dimensions of governance in india b. Governance issues in india c. Good governance initiatives in india d. Minimum government, maximum governance

3. Citizen charter a. What is citizen charter? b. Origin and the concept of citizen charter c. Significance of citizen charter d. Citizen charter in india e. Issues with citizen charters in india: f. Recommendations of 2nd arc report

4. Sevottam model a. What is sevottam model? b. Significance of the model c. Time bound delivery of services

5. Social audit a. What is social audit? b. Need of social audit c. Principles of social audit d. Significance of social audit e. Limitations of social audit f. Way forward

6. E-governance a. What is e-governance? b. Potential of e-governance c. Models of e-governance

i. Government to citizen (g2c) ii. Government to government (g2g)

iii. Government to businessmen (g2b) iv. Government to employees (g2e)

d. E-governance initiatives in india

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i. Government to citizen (g2c) initiatives: ii. Government to business (g2b) initiatives

iii. Government to government (g2g) initiatives e. Challenges

i. Environmental and social challenges ii. Economic challenges

iii. Technical challenges f. Recommendations of 2nd arc on e-governance g. Ease of governance

Role of civil services in a democracy 1. Civil services in india

a. Evolution of civil services in india b. Current status c. Provisions with respect to civil services in the constitution

2. Role of civil services in a democracy a. Substantive role of civil servants b. Bureaucracy and democracy c. Cadre based civil service

3. Issues with civil services in india a. Weberian model of bureaucracy and related issues b. Issues with all india services

i. Significance of all india services (ais) ii. Issues with all india services

iii. Sarkaria commission recommendations 4. Reforms required in civil services

a. Bringing accountability in public services b. Emphasize performance c. Competition and specialist knowledge for senior level appointments d. Effective disciplinary regime e. Transforming work culture f. Streamline rules and procedures g. Privatization and contracting out h. Adoption of it and e-governance i. Stability of tenure j. Depoliticization of civil services k. Lateral entry into civil services l. Other important recommendations of 2nd arc

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Social Justice Issues relating to development and management of social sector/services relating to health, education, human resources

1. Education a. Introduction b. Important measures related to education c. Pre-school education d. School education in india e. Right to free and compulsory education (rte) act, 2009 f. School education quality index (seqi) g. Higher education in india h. How can private sector play a bigger role? i. Budget 2018 and shift in approach to education j. Samagra shiksha abhiyan k. Draft national education policy l. Challenges in education sector m. Institutions related to education sector

i. Administrative framework ii. Regulatory bodies

iii. University grants commission iv. Draft higher education commission of india bill, 2018 v. Higher education finance agency (hefa)

vi. Revitalization infrastructure and systems in education (rise) n. Way forward

2. Health a. Introduction b. Sdg related to health c. Healthcare in india d. Challenges faced by indian healthcare sector e. National health policy 2017 f. Role of private healthcare system g. Comprehensive primary healthcare h. Rmnch+a approach i. Ayushman bharat

i. Health and wellness centre ii. Ayushman bharat- national health protection mission

j. National health mission k. Ayush l. Regulatory bodies

i. Medical council of india (mci) ii. National medical commission bill, 2017

m. Way forward n. Miscellaneous issues

i. Right to health ii. Hidden hunger

3. Human resources a. Introduction b. Rights based approach to development c. Mechanisms for human resource development

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i. National skill development mission ii. National skill development agency (nsda)

iii. National skill development corporation (nsdc) iv. National skills qualifications framework (nsqf) v. National skill development fund

vi. Sector skill councils vii. Sharda prasad committee

viii. Indian institute of skills ix. Pradhan mantri kaushal vikas yojana x. India skill development service

xi. National skill development and entrepreneurship policy, 2015 xii. Deen dayal upadhyaya – grameen kaushal yojana

xiii. Apprenticeship protsahan yojana xiv. Garib nawaz skill develoment center xv. Sustainable action for transforming human capital (sath)

d. Specific interventions needed for human resource in some sectors i. Creative and cultural sectors

ii. Gems and jewellery sector iii. Tourism iv. Leather industry

e. Way forward Welfare schemes for vulnerable sectionsof the population by the centre and states and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections

1. Vulnerable sections 2. Rationale of welfare schemes for vulnerable sections 3. Vulnerable sections of society

a. Children i. Schemes related to children

b. Women i. Schemes

c. Scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes i. Scheduled castes

ii. Scheduled tribes iii. Other backward classes iv. Schemes for scheduled castes/scheduled tribes/ other backward classes v. Specific schemes for scheduled castes

vi. Specific schemes for scheduled tribes vii. Specific schemes for other backward classes

d. Senior citizens/aged i. Schemes

e. Disabled persons i. Schemes

f. Minorities i. Schemes for welfare of minorities

g. Lgbt community i. Schemes

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ii. Initiatives by government/judiciary to promote interests of lgbt community in india

h. Poor persons i. Schemes for poor persons

4. Performance of various other schemes a. National rural health mission b. Pradhan mantri ujjwala yojana (pmuy) c. Recent initiatives for improving monitoring of various schemes d. Way forward

5. Mechanisms, laws, institutions and bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections

a. Mechanisms existing in india for vulnerable sections b. Laws pertaining to betterment of vulnerable sections

i. Children ii. Women

iii. Scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes iv. Senior citizens/ aged v. Disabled persons

vi. Minorities vii. Laws related to lgbt

c. Institutions and bodies for the betterment of these vulnerable sections i. The ministry of social justice and empowerment

ii. Children iii. Women iv. Scs/sts/obcs v. Minorities

vi. Disabled persons vii. Senior citizens

GENERAL STUDIES - 2

SOCIAL JUSTICE WELFARE SCHEMES FOR VULNERABLE SECTIONS

Vulnerable Sections

The term vulnerability is defined as “proneness to harm or damage originating from external forces”. According to a widely quoted description, vulnerable groups are: “Groups that experience a higher risk of poverty and social exclusion than the general population. Ethnic minorities, migrants, disabled people, the homeless, those struggling with substance abuse, isolated elderly people and children all often face difficulties that can lead to further social exclusion, such as low levels of education and unemployment or underemployment".

In common understanding, vulnerable sections are those sections of population who are at higher risk of suffering due to imperfect or unjust system - social, political, cultural, economic, physical, family structure, environmental or any other factor that has a bearing on these groups.

Some common characteristics of vulnerability faced by these vulnerable sections are as follows:

• They, as a group, are vulnerable

• This vulnerability is due to many factors - socio-cultural, economic

• This vulnerability is systematic and structured

Various groups in India can be included under vulnerable sections viz.- children, women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes, minorities, senior citizens, disabled persons, LGBT communities, poor persons etc.

Vulnerable Sections of Society

CHILDREN

All children due to their age are considered to be at risk for exploitation, abuse, violence and neglect. However, children in especially difficult circumstances including orphans and street children, refugee or displaced children, child workers, children trapped in prostitution or sexual abuse, disabled children and delinquent children are particularly vulnerable.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 But vulnerability cannot be defined simply by age. While the term vulnerable children refer to an age group that is considered at risk, but vulnerability of children is further compounded by the following factors:

• Physical disabilities

• Mental disabilities

• Provocative behaviours: due to ignorance or misunderstanding of children's mental health or behavioural problems, some people can become irritated or frustrated and hence lash out against children or neglect them completely.

• Powerlessness: comes of the situations and people that surround the children. If a child is given the power by the state, family or community to participate and fulfil their own rights and responsibilities they are less vulnerable.

• Defencelessness: comes from the lack of protection provided by the state or parents or community. If there is no child abuse law than how is a child suppose to defend himself/herself against abuse.

• Passivity: due to situation or treatment of the child. For example, a child who is enslaved or oppressed does not have the ability to seek help or protection.

• Illness

• Invisible: Children who the system doesn't even recognise are highly vulnerable.

• Younger children, especially those below the age of six, are much more dependent on the protection system. Vulnerable children in India face further problems, such as the following:

• Some of them are exploited as child labourers

• Children facing poverty and discrimination are more vulnerable to malnutrition, bad health, poor educational facilities, poor resources, thus restricting their freedoms and opportunities

• Girl babies are at an even greater disadvantage due to prevailing social norms

that tend to value males much more than females, which leads to son ‘preference’

• A girl child faces different forms of violence like infanticide, neglect of nutrition needs, lack of education and healthcare facilities etc.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 Schemes Related to Children

Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme

This centrally sponsored scheme was launched on October 2, 1975 for early childhood care by providing for supplementary nutrition, immunization and pre-school education to the children.

Objectives

• To improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age-group 0-6 years;

• To lay the foundation for proper psychological, physical and social development of the child;

• To reduce the incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school dropout;

• To achieve effective co-ordination of policy and implementation amongst the various departments to promote child development; and

• To enhance the capability of the mother to look after the normal health and nutritional needs of the child through proper nutrition and health education.

Beneficiaries

• Children in the age group of 0-6 years

• Pregnant women and Lactating mothers

The ICDS Scheme offers a package of six services, viz. supplementary nutrition; pre-school non-formal education; nutrition & health education; immunization; health check-up; and referral services. Performance Evaluation of ICDS

The services under the ICDS scheme are provided at the platform of Anganwadi Centre (AWC). As per a report by Programme Evaluation Organization(PEO) of NITI Aayog submitted in June 2015, ICDS covers 8.4 crore out of the total 16.45 crore children of age below 6 years in the country and 1.91 crore pregnant and lactating mothers through 7,066 projects and 13.42 lakh AWCs. Major highlights of report are following-

• It was found that 75.7% of AWCs are maintaining records properly, however, problems were noticed in records maintained by the remaining 24.3% of AWCs.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 • It was noticed that 99% of AWCs are providing mothers counselling on the child healthcare and 68.6% of AWCs are intervening on children’s malnutrition.

• Further, 22.5% of AWCs do not have the required medicines for the children.

• Scrutiny of health records maintained by AWCs for the month of December, 2013 revealed 74.6 %, 19.7 % and 5.7 % of children had Normal (N), moderately malnourished (MM) and severely malnourished (SM) health respectively.

• The on the spot weight measurement carried out by the evaluation teams during April, 2014 revealed that 77.4%, 17.6% and 5 % of the sample children had N, MM and SM health status.

• Physical verification of the infrastructure and supports provided to AWCs revealed that 59% of them have adequate space, and thus the remaining 41% have either shortage of space or unsuitable accommodation. It was also found that 40% of AWCs have their own accommodation and the remaining 60% are located in rented accommodations.

• Study found that 86.3% of AWCs have drinking water facilities and the remaining 13.7% do not have safe drinking water facilities. Further, the hygiene conditions at AWCs require improvement as only 48.2% of them are maintaining good hygiene condition.

Suggestions

• Adequate space should be provided to accommodate the enrolled children and the Centers should be located at a convenient and hygiene friendly area of the locality.

• AWC accommodation should be equipped with proper facilities viz. sanitation facilities, safe drinking water, toilets, sufficient medicines, electricity/power supply, playing instruments/toys, etc. The centers should be protected with boundary walls or barbed wires.

• Adequate number of workers should be engaged in each AWC. The monthly honorarium fixed for AWC workers/helpers seems to need enhancement. Further, the AWC workers should not be deployed for other works.

• Regular training should be provided to AWC workers and their supervisors. Further they should get refresher training to handle registers and other records independently.

• Doctors should visit AWCs regularly.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 • AWCs should keep complete health records of all the children enrolled with them. At present, AWCs are required to maintain around 30 registers which appears to be too many. Review should be carried out to reduce/minimize their number.

• The mothers of the malnourished children should be provided regular counselling.

• On the spot monitoring and supervision of centers should be done by the Block and District level Officers regularly.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2

ISSUES RELATING TO DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF SOCIAL SECTOR/SERVICES RELATING TO HEALTH,

EDUCATION, HUMAN RESOURCES

Role of Education

• Education is fundamental to development and growth.

• It is a great leveller, and provides the only sustainable route to reduce poverty and inequalities.

• Improving education scenario is equally essential to enhance India’s competitiveness in the global economy.

• Therefore, ensuring access to quality education for all is central to the economic and social development of India.

At the time of independence, India's literacy rate was just 12%. Subsequent developments in education sector have to be seen in the context of centuries of apathy and neglect.

The overall literacy rate in India in 2011 increased to 74%, with a male literacy rate of 82.1% and a female literacy rate of 65.5%. However, the level is well below the world average literacy rate of 84% and India currently has the largest illiterate population in the world. Kerala is the most literate state in India, with 93.91% literacy, while Bihar is the least literate state with a literacy rate of 63.82%.

Important Measures Related to Education

• Education as a subject comes in Entry 25 under List III i.e. Concurrent List, under Seventh Schedule of the Constitution.

• Article 21A of the Constitution of India ensures free and compulsory education to all children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right.

• The 1968 and 1986 National Education policies in India recognized education as a precondition for development and set out three critical issues in those policies – equity, accessibility and quality.

• Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 is the enforcing legislation to ensure free and compulsory education as envisaged in Article 21A.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 • Various schemes launched from time to time

In the last twenty years, the educational scenario has seen major changes with emergence of new concepts such as:

• Rights-based approach to elementary education and student entitlement

• Shift in emphasis from literacy and basic education to secondary, higher, technical and professional education

• The endeavour to extend universalization of primary education to secondary education

• Reshaping the higher education.

Pre-school Education

Pre-primary education, which is also known as Kindergarten, is very important for the development of young children before they enter formal school. The main purpose of preprimary education is to prepare children physically, emotionally, socially and mentally for formal schooling and to prevent poor performance and early drop out. It also helps older children, particularly girls, to attend their schools making them free from responsibility of sibling care.

In 2013, the government of India approved the National Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Policy which also includes the National Curriculum Framework and Quality Standards for ECCE.

The Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) is responsible for the policy on ECCE. MWCD is in charge of a flagship programme introduced by Government in India for Early Childhood Education which is Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme. ICDS offers six basic services to its beneficiaries which include supplementary nutrition, nutrition and health education, health check-up, pre-school non-formal education, immunization, and referral services. By 2014, 349.82 lakh 3-6 years children were benefitting from the pre-school component of the ICDS. In addition, there are some ECCE centres running under SSA and some preschools are attached to government as well as private schools.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2

GOVERNANCE

ROLE OF CIVIL SERVICES IN A DEMOCRACY

Evolution of Civil Services in India

The Indian civil service system is one of the oldest administrative systems in the world. In India, it had its origin in the Mauryan period. Kautilya's Arthashastra lays down the principles of selection and promotion of the civil servants, the conditions of loyalty for appointment to the civil service, the methods of their performance evaluation and the code of conduct to be followed by them.

The genesis of modern civil services can be traced back to the British Raj.

• During the period of Warren Hastings, the institution of collector was created in 1772. The main duty of district collector was collection and management of revenue.

• Lord Cornwallis is known as the father of civil services in India. He reformed and organized civil services. He separated revenue administration from judicial administration. The collector was made head of revenue administration of the district.

• Prior to Lord Macaulay’s Report of the Select Committee of British Parliament, civil servants were directly nominated by directors of the East India Company.

• The Charter Act of 1853 provided for open competition to civil services. But the Indian Civil Service was divided into covenant and non-covenant with Indians being restricted to non covenant posts of lower bureaucracy only.

• In 1854, on the recommendations Macaulay’s report, Civil Services Commission was set up to recruit civil servants. Initially examination was conducted only in London with minimum and maximum age being 18 and 23 years respectively.

• Despite syllabus being heavily favored towards European Studies, Satyendranath Tagore became first Indian to become a civil servant in 1864.

• Aitchinson Commission (1886) recommended the re-organization of the services on a new pattern and divided the services into three groups - Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 The recruiting and controlling authority of Imperial services was the ‘Secretary of State’ and for provincial services, it was states.

• The british government setup Indian Civil Service in 1911, primarily with the objective of strengthening british administration.

• Though Indians petitioned for reforms for years, it was only after first world war and Montagu Chelmsford reforms that changes were brought in the selection process.

• From 1922 onwards, examination was conducted in India as well. First in Allahabad and then in Delhi with setting up of Federal Public Service Commission.

• The Government of India Act 1919 divided the Imperial Services into All India Services and Central Services. The central services were concerned with matters under the direct control of the Central Government.

• This Act also provided for the establishment of Public Services Commission in India. But the establishment was delayed till 1926 when Lee Commission strongly recommended to establish the commission.

• Further, the Government of India Act, 1935 envisaged a Public Service Commission for the Federation and a Provincial Public Service Commission for each Province or group of Provinces. Thus this act made Public Service Commission, Federal Public Service Commission.

Substantive Role of Civil Servants

Civil services perform the following important functions:

• Basis of government: No government can exist without administrative machinery. All nations, irrespective of their system of government, require some sort of administrative machinery for implementing policies.

• An instrument for implementing Laws and Policies: Civil services are responsible for implementing the laws and policies of government. By carrying out laws, it regulates the behaviour of the people in society. By implementing public policies and programmes, it delivers the promised goods and services to the intended beneficiaries. An efficient civil service can avoid waste, correct errors; limit the consequences of incompetence or irresponsibility while implementing laws and public policies.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 • Participation in policy formulation: Civil servants participate in policy making by giving advice to ministers and providing them the necessary information. The administrative tasks of public bureaucracy include formulation of policies and plans, executing and monitoring programmes, laying down laws, rules and regulations, which affect human actions in almost all walks of life.

• Provides continuity: Civil services carry on the governance when governments change due to elections etc. Ramsay Muir has remarked that while governments may come and go, ministers may rise and fall, the administration of a country goes on forever. It is needless to say that civil services form the backbone of administration.

• Role in socio- economic development: The developing nations are struggling to achieve modernisation of society and economic development and realize welfare goals. These objectives have placed challenging tasks on public administration such as formulation of economic plans and their successful implementation to economic growth and social change. Civil servants play an important role in socio-economic development in the following ways:

o To develop agriculture, civil servants have to properly manage community resources such as land, water resources, forests, wetlands and wasteland development.

o To facilitate industrial development, infrastructural facilities such as roads, electricity, communications, market centres etc. have to be provided. In these countries, the civil service manages government owned business, industrial enterprises and public utility services

o Setting right developmental goals and priorities for agriculture, industry, education, health, communications etc.

o Formulation and implementation of strategies and programmes for the development and modernisation of the nation.

o Mobilisation of natural, human and financial resources

GENERAL STUDIES - 2

IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF GOVERNANCE Governance

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 1997, defined governance as “the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises the mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences.”

In 1993, the World Bank defined governance as the method through which power is exercised in the management of a country’s political, economic and social resources for development.

In simple words, Governance is the process and institutions through which decisions are made and authority in a country is exercised. Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national governance and local governance.

Thus governance focuses on the formal and informal actors and institutions involved in decision-making and implementing those decisions.

Good Governance

Governance’ by itself is a neutral term while `Good Governance’ implies positive attributes and values associated with the quality of governance. Good governance is a dynamic concept and there is much subjectivity involved in defining the aspects of good governance.

1. Participatory

2. Consensus oriented

3. Transparent

4. Accountable

5. Responsive

6. Effective and Efficient

7. Equitable and Inclusive

8. Follows the Rule of Law

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 Strategies for good governance

• Reorienting priorities of the state through appropriate investment in human needs

• Provision of social safety nets for the poor and marginalized

• Strengthening state institutions

• Introducing appropriate reforms in the functioning of Parliament and increasing its effectiveness

• Enhancing Civil Services capacity through appropriate reform measures that matches performance and accountability

• Forging new alliances with civil society

• Evolving a new framework for government-business cooperation

The Worldwide Governance Indicators project – World Bank

As mention above, World Bank defines Governance as the process and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised. Specifically, governance is:

• the process by which governments are selected, held accountable, monitored, and

replaced;

• the capacity of governments to manage resources efficiently, and to formulate, implement, and enforce sound policies and regulations; and

• the respect of citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them

GENERAL STUDIES - 2

THE ROLE OF NGOS, SHGS, VARIOUS GROUPS Civil Societies

According to the World Bank, Civil Society refers to refers to a wide array of organizations, community groups, non-governmental organizations [NGOs], labour unions, indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faith-based organizations, professional associations and foundations.

• Globally, the term ‘Civil Society’ became popular in 1980s, when it started to be identified with non-state movements defying authoritarian regime, especially in Eastern Europe and Latin America.

• When mobilized, civil society - sometimes called the “third sector” (after government and commerce) - has the power to influence the actions of elected policy-makers and businesses.

• Examples of well-known civil society organizations include Amnesty International, the International Trade Union Confederation, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Greenpeace and the Danish Refugee Council (DRC).

Civil Society in India

• Civil society derives its strength from the Gandhian tradition of volunteerism, but today, it expresses itself in many different forms of activism. In independent India, the initial role played by the voluntary organizations started by Gandhi and his disciples was to fill in the gaps left by the government in the development process.

• The volunteers organized handloom weavers in villages to form cooperatives through which they could market their product directly and get better price. AMUL is the product of such cooperative movement.

• Civil Society plays a crucial role in the good governance. As India is not a participative democracy but a representative democracy, government takes all major decisions by itself. Civil Society act as interface of interaction between the government and the governed.

Types of Civil societies in India

Based on the law under which the CSOs operate and the kind of activities they take up, civil society groups in our country can be classified into following broad categories

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 • Registered Societies formed for specific purposes

• Charitable organisations and Trusts

• Local Stakeholders Groups, Microcredit and Thrift Enterprises, SHGs

• Professional Self-Regulatory Bodies

• Cooperatives

• Bodies without having any formal organisational structure

• Government promoted Third Sector organisations

However, a broader classification including all non-government and not-for-profit organizations can be:

• Civil rights advocacy organizations: to promote human rights of specific social groups e.g. women, migrants, disabled, HIV, sex workers, Dalit people, tribal people, and the likes.

• Civil liberties advocacy organizations: to promote individual civil liberties and human rights of all citizens, rather than focusing on particular social group.

• Community based organizations, citizen’s groups, farmers’ cooperatives: to increase citizen’s participation on public policy issues so as to improve the quality of life in a particular community.

• Business and industry chambers of commerce: to promotion policies and practices on business.

• Labour unions: to promote the rights of employees and workers.

• International peace and human rights organizations: to promote peace and human rights.

• Media, communication organization: to produce, disseminate, or provide production facilities in one or more media forms; it includes television, printing and radio.

• National resources conservation and protection organizations: to promote conservation of natural resources, including land, water, energy, wildlife and plant resources, for public use.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 • Private and public foundations: to promote development through grant- making and partnership.

• Also the Civil society includes: Political Parties; Religious Organizations; Housing cooperatives, slum dwellers and resident welfare associations.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2

GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND INTERVENTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT IN VARIOUS SECTORS AND ISSUES

ARISING OUT OF THEIR DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION Public Policy

Public Policy is a proposed course of action of a government within a given environment providing opportunities and obstacles which the policy aims to utilize and overcome to realize a given role.

Nature of Public Policies

• Goal Oriented: They are goal oriented. Public policies are formulated and implemented in order to attain the objectives which the government has in view for the ultimate benefit of the masses in general.

• Collective actions: It is the result of government’s collective actions. It is course of activity or' the governmental officials and actors in a collective sense than being termed as their discrete and segregated decisions.

• Decision: Public policy is what the government actually decides or chooses to do. It can take a variety of forms like law, ordinances, court decisions, executive orders and decisions.

• Positive/Negative: Public policy is positive in the sense that it depicts the concern of the government and involves its action to a particular problem on which the policy is made. It has the sanction of law and authority behind it. Negatively, it involves decisions by the governmental officials regarding not taking any action on a particular issue.

Characteristics of Public Policy Formulation

• Complex: Policy making involves many components which are interconnected by communication and feedback loops.

• Dynamic: It is a continuous process that requires regular input of resources and motivation. It also changes with time.

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 • Comprises of various components: Public policy formulation involves a great variety of substructures. The identity of these substructures and the degree of their involvement in

policy making, vary because of different issues, circumstances and societal values.

• Lays down guidelines: Public policy, in most cases, lays down general directive on the main lines of action to be followed.

• Results in action: The public policy creates apparatus and environment for action.

• Best use of possible means: Public policy making aims at achieving the maximum net benefit. Benefits and costs take in part the form of realized values and impaired values.

• Futuristic: Policy making is directed at the future. This is one of its most important characteristics since it introduces the ever-present elements of uncertainty and doubtful prediction.

• Public Interest: A larger public interest guides the policy making strategy.

• Wide consultation: Industrial workers, voters, intellectuals, legislators, bureaucrats, political parties, political executives, judiciary are the various organs that participate in public policy making and can influence the policy process to a great extent.

Types of Public Policy

• Substantive: These are policies related to general welfare and development of the society, the programmes like provision of education and employment opportunities, economic stabilization, law and order enforcement, anti-pollution legislation.

• Regulatory: These are concerned with concerned with regulation of trade, business, safety measures, public utilities. Organizations like LIC, RBI make these regulations on behalf of the government.

• Distributive: These are meant for specific segments of society and are related to area of grant of goods, public welfare or health services. Examples include adult education programme, food relief, social insurance, vaccination camp etc.

• Redistributive: The Redistributive policies are concerned with the rearrangement of policies which are concerned with bringing about basic social and economic

GENERAL STUDIES - 2 changes. Certain good and services that are divided disproportionally are streamlined.

• Capitalization: Under this policy, financial subsidies are given to state and local governments by Union governments.