note: every attempt has been made to maintain the …business. interpreters for the deaf and hearing...

NCBE Program Information Guide Series, Number 4, Summer 1990

Sandra H. Fradd; Diane K. Wilen

Note: Every attempt has been made to maintain the integrity of the printed text within the electronicenvironment. In some cases, figures and tables have been reconstructed or omitted.

INTRODUCTION

The value and importance of the services of persons who can communicate ideas and intents across languagesand cultures has long been recognized. Formally trained interpreters are widely used today by internationalbusiness. Interpreters for the deaf and hearing impaired have become commonplace. However, the trainingand use of interpreters and translators for working with limited English proficient (LEP) students and theirfamilies are still uncommon. The primary role of interpreters and translators in the school setting is to be aconduit for oral and written communications between LEP students and families and English-speakingpersonnel.

The need for the services of trained interpreters and translators is apparent, and the importance of training indeveloping interpretative proficiency is well documented. The purpose of this guide is (1) to highlight the typeof background and experience required of interpreters and translators working with special needs of LEPstudents and their families and (2) to emphasize the importance of training the interpreters and translators aswell as those who use their services.

By interpreter, we mean a person who translates orally; by translator, we mean a person who produces arendering from one language to another in written form. Many of the skills needed by a translator also areneeded by an interpreter; however, there are also some differences in the skills required. The interpreterrequires skills in producing a meaningful live performance, while translators produce more precise writtenproducts.

THE NEED FOR INTERPRETERS AND TRANSLATORS

Although language differences among students in U.S. schools have always presented communicationdifficulties, the problem has become more widespread with the rapid increase of LEP students during the lastdecade. What perhaps distinguishes many schools today is the diversity of languages found. With theenactment of P.L. 94-142 (Amendments of Part B of the Education of the Handicapped Act) in 1975, statesand local education agencies have been charged with the responsibility of assessing students in their nativelanguage or mode of communication. States are required to give assurances that the native language ofstudents suspected of having handicapping conditions is being used in the assessment process. Thisrequirement can be understood to mean that all LEP students suspected of having handicapping conditionsmust be tested by bilingual school psychologists and speech-language pathologists. Professional bilingualassessment services are not widely available, however. Further, few states have comprehensive trainingprograms for interpreters and translators in the area of bilingual special education, even in the most widelyspoken minority languages such as Spanish and Vietnamese (Salend & Fradd 1985, 1986). While professionalbilingual services are the most desirable option for assessing LEP students and communicating with their

USING INTERPRETERS AND TRANSLATORS...

1

families, the limited availability of such services often calls for alternative solutions. As the number of LEPstudents increases, the need for these services also will continue to grow. Because the need for bilingualcommunication services in the health service and education fields has not been recognized as being importantuntil recently, little effort has been given to their development (Putsch 1985). Some communities are workingto develop interpreter pools and to add bilingual personnel to school staff. Since bilingual services andresources generally are limited in scope, families often are required to bring their own interpreters in order tocommunicate with professionals, and at times may even use children in this role. When an interpreter fromwithin the family is not available, anyone who speaks the language may be pressed into service. Frequently,interpreters or translators are volunteers who are willing to help, but have little or no training. Using a personwho is not trained to deal with typically stressful and difficult situations can have negative outcomes for allengaged in efforts to communicate.

While bilingual assessment for special education services is required by federal law, specific funds have notbeen allocated for training personnel to collect and analyze the assessment data. The services of personnelworking on a voluntary basis usually are not viewed as having a monetary value. Without financial support orvalue, interpreter and translator services are not viewed as important contributions. In general, because theyare voluntary, such services are not regulated, nor are requirements made for their provision. Until programsare funded and available to train and employ personnel as interpreters and translators, volunteer services,even though they are well-intended, will continue to produce limited benefits for the students whom they areintended to serve.

DEVELOPMENT OF APPROPRIATE RECRUITMENT GUIDELINES

Conceptualizing Needs and Requirements

Interpretation and translation are acquired skills. Highly skilled translators and interpreters often requireseveral years of specialized training at the university level. In international business, trained translators andinterpreters are recognized as professionals with highly valued skills. In educational systems in the U.S.,translation and interpretation often are done on an emergency basis by untrained individuals whose only skillis knowledge of another language. If adequate services are to be provided to LEP students and their families,recruitment and training programs which develop both new positions and the personnel to fill them must bedeveloped.

Interpreters and translators often are needed by a variety of service providers. Holistic conceptualization ofthe needs of LEP students and their families is important, because many of these needs overlap acrossgovernmental and institutional boundaries. Because of the similarities in the ways in which the needs oflinguistically diverse groups are met, general training and performance requirements for translators andin-terpreters can be established. Identifying similarities among service providers allows for the developmentof entry level and advanced requirements.

Entry level requirements for interpreters and translators fall into three categories: (a) general English languageliteracy and numeracy, skills which all employees in the mainstream economy must have, as well as anunderstanding of general U.S. culture; (b) proficiency in a second language and understanding of the cultureof the people that speak that language; and (c) a general knowledge and understanding of the institutions inwhich LEP students and families may need language assistance. This includes an understanding of the rules,expectations, and requirements of these institutions to be served, and an ability to communicate and workeffectively with others employed in these institutions. These general skills can be conceptualized by thedifficulties posed by their assessment.

These skills are illustrated in Figure 1.


2

Figure 1: Essential skills for interpreters and translators

(Note: Figure 1 has been reconstructed within the constraints of the electronic environment).

Understanding of U.S. cultureEnglish literacy and proficiencyProficiency in a second language and cultureWork expectations and undertanding of the institutional rules, requirements and ethics

Assessing General Skills

Basic English language proficiency and computational skills are usually the first skills to be observed, sincemany prospective interpreters and translators speak English as a second language. The oral Englishproficiency of a potential interpreter, for example, can be observed through interpersonal interactions.Written English proficiency can be assessed through already established state criteria such as the Tests ofGeneral Educational Development (GED) or state tests for high school graduation. English is written andspoken in a variety of styles. It should not be assumed that a high school graduate will necessarily understandtechnical or legal language. Consequently, the educational attainment of the potential interpreter/translator isalso an important variable.

An interpreter/translator serves as a bridge between two cultures. This requires familiarity with U.S. cultureon the part of the candidate who is not a native English speaker. There are various ways to demonstratefamiliarity with a given culture. One way is to have the potential interpreter/translator explain what might begoing on in a scene from an American movie. The scene should be carefully selected and it should depictsomething that an average American high school graduate would readily understand. Humor is often the mostdifficult thing to understand in another culture. Consequently, the ability to explain why a scene is supposedto be humorous will quickly reveal the depth of understanding a person might have of the culture. Knowledgeof the target language and culture is necessary. Judging the understanding of the language and culture can bedifficult when the observer is not familiar with them. Although native proficiency in another language is not arequirement for candidate interpreters/translators, as a practical step, persons who learned the language aschildren should be used in preference to candidates who learned the language as adults. As a general rule, ahigh level of proficiency can be expected in the case of individuals who have spoken it since childhood.However, sometimes an interpreter/translator who learned the language as an adult may be the only bilingualperson available. In such cases attention should be paid to the possibility of error in theinterpretation/translation process. The preference for native speakers does not mean that non-native speakersshould not be considered as potential interpreters/translators. Non-native speakers often are excellenttranslators and interpreters.

The ideal interpreter/translator has college-level written and oral proficiency in the non-English language.However, many of the language groups currently represented in the United States have had little access toformal instruction. For some groups, there is no traditionally written form of the language they speak (forexample, the Hmong). Some languages are not used as media in formal education (e.g., the languages ofnative Americans in the U.S., or some Chinese languages such as Hakka). In other cases, individuals mayspeak languages that are not used for written purposes in their communities, although such languages mayhave a highly developed literature in other communities (e.g., Spanish in Southern Colorado, French inLouisiana). One important consequence of the way a given language is traditionally used is that speakers ofsome of these languages may lack technical and other modern vocabulary items.

Many languages have highly standardized versions that are used in formal situations, especially in writing.Mastery of standard Spanish, French, Arabic, or Chinese, for example, generally requires at least a highschool education or equivalent using the standard language as medium of instruction. Proficiency in colloquial


3

forms of a language is especially important in working with LEP students and their families. LEP childrenmay not understand the standard form of their native language (since this requires formal education); manyparents of LEP children often have had little formal instruction in their native language so that the standardform of the language is not always totally intelligible. This is very likely to be the case with many Chinesespeakers who speak Cantonese at home but who would have learned Mandarin Chinese had they gone to highschool in a Chinese medium school.

There is a variety of ways to determine the non-English language proficiency of persons wishing to serve asinterpreters. The use of brief tape recorded interactions of both adults and children with different regionalaccents can assist in determining the potential candidate's proficiency. After listening to the recordings in thenon-English language, the person should be able to provide the equivalent message in English. The samerecordings can be used to determine whether the candidates can provide written transcriptions of languageswith established writing systems. Similar activities can be organized to determine the candidate's ability tomove from English to the target language. Here again, it is important to include a variety of regional accentsin these activities because interpreters, and possibly translators, will be expected to successfully interact witha variety of non-standard versions of the target language.

Knowledge of a culture is as important as knowledge of the language. Having learned the language as a childand having lived in communities where that language is spoken can be taken as evidence that the potentialinterpreter/translator is familiar with the culture of that society. However, experience alone may not justifygiving the responsibility for interpretation or translation to an individual. One way to assess understanding ofboth cultures is to have the candidate interpreter/translator discuss what would be involved in explaining aproblem to parents of a LEP student. For example, a Spanish-speaking LEP male youth is involved in a fightat school because an English-speaking student called him stupid. The potential interpreter/translator shouldpoint out that in Spanish calling someone "estpido" is a very serious insult (a fighting word) while callingsomeone "stupid" in English is usually not to be taken very seriously. In other words, the youth should notreact to the English word as if it were the Spanish equivalent.

With respect to the candidate's knowledge of the language and culture, care must be taken to recruit thosepeople who have had recent first-hand working experiences with the target population. People who arrived inthe United States many years ago may experience difficulties understanding the language and the customs ofthe newer arrivals, even though they are from the same country of origin. Differences in socioeconomiclevels, urban and rural groups, and other geographic or political origin can also influence the ways in whichthe interpreters and translators are perceived and understood by their intended audiences. For example, arecently arrived young person from Cuba has grown up in a very different world from that of his/hergrandparents. Cubans who arrived in the U.S. thirty years ago may have problems understanding both thecultural and linguistic usage of recently arrived youngsters.

General knowledge of institutional requirements, including an understanding of rules, regulations, and ethicscan be assessed after training through multiple-choice tests developed for that specific purpose. However,ability to demonstrate understanding and to put information into practice is not so easily assessed. Thisinformation may need to be role-played and observed before interpreters and translators in training areactually permitted to work with students and families. Determining that interpreters have a clearunderstanding of their responsibilities is essential before they have access to confidential information.

DEVELOPING GENERAL PROFESSIONAL SKILLS

Skill development is an important part of the professionalization of interpreters and translators. They shouldbe encouraged to consult dictionaries and to continually upgrade their knowledge of idiomatic expressions,dialects, accents, regionalisms and technical terms in both languages. Seeking out and accepting feedbackabout their performance in order to improve their effectiveness should be promoted. Second language serviceproviders also should be encouraged to attend training programs, to participate in discussions and exchanges


4

of information, and to consult with other interpreters, translators and professionals to further develop andenhance their skills. It goes without saying that in order for second language service providers to improvetheir skills, the resources and opportunities need to be available (Medina 1982). Since interpreters andtranslators are in the position of manipulating not only the information exchange, but also the actual situationitself, issues of ethics and practice must be made clear to all personnel prior to participation in cross-culturalcommunication. The following section provides a discussion of specific concepts needed by interpreters andtranslators and users of interpretation and translation services.

The concept of "professional behavior" implies adhering to certain ethical standards. It should not be assumedthat potential interpreters/translators will have a clear understanding of what it means to "act professionally."Ethical standards will have to be explainedcarefully. The candidates can be trained by means of criticalincidents. A vignette describing a situation involving an interpreter/translator is read to the trainees and thendiscussed in terms of what someone has actually done. The trainees discuss the appropriateness of the actionin relation to the ethical standards that have been explained. For example, a vignette could be presenteddescribing an interpreter who learns, while interpreting for the parents, that one of the parents has epilepsy.The interpreter tells other members of the minority language community that the parent has epilepsy. Thetrainees then discuss whether it was professional behavior for the interpreter to have broken confidentiality.In addition to confidentiality, the concepts of neutrality, punctuality, acceptance of assignmentscommensurate with capabilities, and the need to obtain informed consent are all important areas ofprofessional understanding which must be addressed in training.

Confidentiality

Interpreters and translators need to be schooled in the importance of confidentiality in educational settings(Esquivel 1985; Medina 1982; Wilen 1989; Wilen & Sweeting 1986). Information obtained about students,families or school personnel is not to be discussed outside the confines of the context in which theinformation was obtained. For example, the fact that the school psychologist reported to a parent through aninterpreter that a student has a specific learning disability should not be discussed by the interpreter in thecommunity or with anyone outside the scope and confines of the meeting in which the communicationtranspired. It is important to note that interpreters have a duty to disclose to the professional all informationobtained from the student and family during a meeting. The client also should be informed that theinformation provided will be disclosed to the monolingual professional.

Neutrality and Impartiality

Interpreters should remain neutral and impartial (Freed 1988; Medina 1982). Omissions, alterations oradditions to the communication should be avoided in meetings, conferences, and assessment situations (Wilen1989). The interpreter must make every effort not to state personal opinions or take sides. If specific terms orconcepts cannot be communicated meaningfully, the parties involved should be informed so that adjustmentscan be made and the communication reformulated (Woo & Torres 1988). With respect to assessment, theinterpreter must be specifically instructed to avoid verbal and nonverbal prompting, to state questions exactly,and to observe and record the student's verbal and nonverbal behaviors with precision and objectivity(American Speech-Language- Hearing Association 1985; Dade County Public Schools 1982; Wilen &Sweeting 1986).

Punctuality and Responsibility

Punctuality is essential. It is a means of showing respect for the school and the persons wishing tocommunicate. Personnel who may come from cultures with concepts of time and responsibility which differfrom that of the mainstream U.S. culture will experience difficulties being viewed as professionals, unless theydevelop a strong sense of punctuality. They should be trained in the importance of meeting specifieddeadlines and in the need to be punctual for conferences, meetings, and staffings (Medina 1982). When the


5

training of interpreters and translators is viewed as a professionalization process which includes monetarycompensation for appropriate performance, the concepts of the need for punctuality and responsibility can bemore effectively reinforced than when they are serving on a volunteer basis.

Acceptance of Assignments

Those engaged in using interpreters and translators need to be aware of their limitations and to consideralternatives if the interpreter or translator appears to be reluctant to accept an assignment. Interpreters andtranslators should be encouraged not to accept assignments from school personnel which surpass theircapabilities or training (Fradd 1990). Being candid and revealing when they feel unable to adequatelycomplete a task should be accepted. For example, a Vietnamese interpreter may speak both Vietnamese andEnglish fluently, but may not have the reading and written language skills to translate Exceptional StudentEducation English language documents into Vietnamese. Or, for instance, since Chinese is not a singlelanguage, a Chinese interpreter may do fine in Mandarin, but be unable to interpret Toisanese (Woo & Torres1988). An interpreter may feel comfortable working in small group settings but not before large groups.Likewise, interpreters should not be expected to assist with administration of tests without previous trainingor experience; otherwise, results will be jeopardized. Disclosure of personal and professional limitationsshould be viewed and treated positively. To encourage a person to perform beyond his or her limitations is toencourage poor performance.

Obtaining Informed Consent

When interpreters work with evaluation specialists in formal individual assessment, written consent to use aninterpreter should be obtained from a parent or guardian. This permission can be made part of the parentconsent for individual evaluation form completed prior to referral. Additionally, written evaluation reportsshould contain the name of the interpreter, the dates when the interpreter was used, a description of theactivities for which the interpreter was used, and a reminder that test results could be affected (AmericanSpeech-Language-Hearing Association 1985).

Developing Specific Skills

In addition to the general skills which all personnel who work in a bilingual, bicultural capacity must have,there are specific skills which must be developed depending on the tasks and functions which the personnelwill perform. These specific skills can be grouped into two categories; however, in many cases skills andfunctions are overlapping as well as discrete. These categories include: (a) work involving written forms ofthe language, or translation; (b) work involving oral forms of the language, or interpretation. These skills aredepicted in Figure 2 on the following page.

USING INTERPRETERS AND TRANSLATORS

Identification of specific tasks and specialized skills leads toward role definition. Role definition oftranslators, interpreters and other support positions and the designation of specific responsibilities for entryand advanced level bilingual personnel can provide a career ladder by which language minority personnel canbegin to successfully participate and contribute within the mainstream. In order for this to happen, theemployees' roles and responsibilities must be clearly defined-not only to translators and interpreters, but alsoto all other staff members. The amount of time to be devoted to working with families and to otherresponsibilities must be clearly understood by all involved. The kinds of services to be provided throughtranslation and interpretation must be established.

Figure 2 : Specific skills needed by interpreters and translators in school settings

(Note: Figure 2 has been reconstructed within the constraints of the electronic environment).


6

INTERPRETATION TRANSLATION

Meetings Pyschological Services Letters

Obsevations Health Services Documents

Instruction Social Services Tests

Testing Support Services Information

The primary role of interpreters and translators in the school setting is to be a conduit for oral and writtencommunication between limited English proficient students and families and English-speaking schoolpersonnel. Interpreters and translators also can be valuable sources of cultural information. They may provideinsight into child-rearing practices and nonverbal communication of the target language and culture. Forexample, they may indicate that failure to maintain eye contact is not viewed as a sign of disinterest orinattention by all cultures, but can also be a sign of respect for authority (Fradd & Weismantel 1989). Theymay explain that some students may be hesitant to speak up when they do not understand classwork for fearof embarrassing their teacher or that in some families the custom of saying "yes" may be used to avoidconfrontation (Wei 1984). School personnel have a duty to monitor, guide, direct, and supervise interpretersand translators. Interpreters and translators should not act in isolation, as they are not professionalpsychologists, educators, speech-language pathologists, or counselors. Activities involving interpretationshould be done in the presence of those professionals needing the services. An interpreter, for example,should not be given the responsibility of administering a test, but should work as a team member with thepsychologist conducting that assessment.

Interpreter and translator responsibilities in the educational setting require varying levels of skills, rangingfrom basic to complex. Some interpreters and translators may be suitable for certain tasks and unsuitable forothers. Though most interpreters and translators may have the expertise to perform basic communicationswith students and parents in the school office, only a select few will be proficient enough to perform complexactivities such as psychological assessment.

Viewing the services of interpreters and translators on a developmental continuum can be helpful in preparingpersonnel for specific roles and responsibilities and for matching requirements with the skills demonstrated bythe personnel available. A suggested list of services is provided in Tables 1A and 1B. Tasks are listed in orderof difficulty and need for training. Table 1A provides suggested activities using oral communication. Table 1Blists activities requiring written communication skills.

Because the use of interpreters and translators in school settings is a relatively new practice, little researchhas been conducted on this topic. While recommended professional practices have been suggested, fewstandards relative to the use of interpreters in testing language minorities have been developed (Figueroa1989). Even professional documents designed to assist in the assessment process fail to provide informationon the topic (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & NationalCouncil on Measurement in Education 1985) while others provide minimal guidelines (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association 1985). It is important that school districts and educational institutions developtheir own guidelines, and that all personnel who use interpreters or translators are well informed about theseestablished policies.

WORKING WITH INTERPRETERS AND TRANSLATORS IN EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS

Educational personnel who work with second language service providers need to develop skills for managingcross-cultural encounters as well. Often the needs of the personnel who use second language services are


7

overlooked in the training process. While the training they require is not as extensive as the preparation ofinterpreters and translators, the skills of professionals involved in the process of cross-cultural communicationare critical. A great deal of time and resources can be wasted unless all the personnel involved in working incross-cultural settings are trained both in using and providing language services.

The Interpretation Process

There are specific activities that should take place prior to, during, and after the process of interpreting ortranslating from one language to another. The act of selecting appropriate terminology and providingmeaningful communication in two languages is complex. The process of producing correct and meaningfullanguage through interpretation is discussed first. Next, the process of translation is reviewed.

Successful interpretive sessions require that the interpreter have a clear understanding of the intent of thecommunication and desired outcomes. In order to assist the interpreter, the professional directing theinterpretation needs to understand the steps which the interpreter must go through in order to produce anaccurate version of the communication. These steps are listed in Table 2.

In order to ensure effective communication through interpretation, there are a series of activities which needto be carried out while preparing for, carrying out, and following up the interpretation session. These activitiesare referred to as the briefing, interaction, and debriefing processes.

Table 1A: Some activities requiring interpretation services*

* These activities should be initiated by a member of the school faculty or support personnel and carried outunder the direct supervision of a person responsible for the success of the activity.

Communication with the Family

Telephone calls to obtain or provide specific informationInformal meetings between the family and school personnel to obtain or provide specific informationFormal meetings between the family and the teacher or members of the multidisciplinary team toexplain specific procedures and policies or student difficulties or to obtain family support in modifyingstudent performanceFormal meetings to explain to the family specific difficulties which the student is having and to obtainpermission for assessment and for consideration of special education placementFormal meetings with members of the multidisciplinary team to explain evaluation results andrecommendations to the familyFormal meetings to communicate between the family and members of the multidisciplinary team tomake change of placement and future evaluation decisions

Communication with Students

Informal oral communication to convey school policy information and provide orientation informationInformal assistance with instructional activitiesInformal communication in providing guidance and support informationInformal assessment activitiesFormal communication in assisting with assessment procedures

Communication with School Staff

Informal communication about family or student concernsInformal communication about cultural or linguistic differences between target students and school


8

expectations or requirementsFormal in-service training to provide staff with information about the culture and language of targetgroups of studentsFormal communication at school and community meetingsFormal communication at hearings and other legal proceedings

Table 1B: Activities requiring translation services*

* These activities should be initiated by a member of the school faculty or support personnel and carried outunder the direct supervision of a person responsible for the success of the activity.

Written communications with the family on behalf of the teacher or school to provide information onschool activities, meetings, and specific events such as field trips or immunizationsWritten statements of school policy, requirements, and expectationsDocuments such as permission for assessment, legal agreements, and individual educational plansEvaluation results and recommendationsMinutes of meetings between the family and school and public meetingsTests and formal assessment procedures

Table 2: The interpretation process

During the process of interpreting a message from one language to another, the interpreter:

hears or reads the message;comprehends the meaning or intent of the message;determines how to express the message in both languages (Consideration is given to the sender's andreceiver's educational level and sophistication of language skills as well as the intent of thecommunication.);provides appropriate verbal and nonverbal information;monitors the recipients' responses to determine the effects of the communication;questions and revises the communication if the desired effect is not the intended outcome.

Briefing

The professional using interpreter services should brief the interpreter before the interpretation sessions sothat the purpose, plans and expectations for the session can be communicated, and both parties can prepare towork as a team (Langdon 1983, 1988; Fradd 1990). For example, in an assessment situation, the psychologistneeds to explain the protocol of assessment along with issues such as standard administration, rapport-building, confidentiality, impartiality, and avoidance of prompting, commenting on responses or adding ordeleting information. Additionally, the psychologist should familiarize the interpreter with the evaluationinstruments, explain the role of all participants (i.e., psychologist, interpreter, student), and make sure theinterpreter understands the types of recordings to be made (Wilen 1989; Wilen & Sweeting 1986). If possible,the interpreter should be made aware of any unusual circumstances with the child which may surprise ordistract him or her, such as reported hyperactivity or self-stimulating behaviors. Best practice indicates thatinterpreters would go through the process of taking the test in order to comprehend the requirements. Ifinterpreters are not given sufficient training and briefing, they may feel they are failing in their roles asinterpreters if a student does not respond correctly during assessment. As a result of participating in the


9

assessment process, interpreters should be able to inform the professional of any cultural and language factorswhich may impact on the interpretation session. They should be able to discuss information on cultural orlinguistic difficulties after the student has left the assessment setting. Similar briefing requirements are neededfor interpreters working with teachers and other school personnel during a meeting with a student's familymembers. Prior to the meeting, the interpreter meets with the person directing the meeting. An agenda isestablished and the key points are discussed. The technical terms which will be used are reviewed. Potentialdifficulties in providing meaning for these terms are considered. Cultural aspects of the meeting are alsodiscussed. Seating arrangements are established. Points at which the interpreter will summarize the interactionare agreed upon. Copies of the agenda can be made for all persons attending the meeting. If the professionalfeels comfortable with the arrangement, the interpreter can make appropriate introductions, inform the familyof the purpose of the meeting, and provide them with the information contained in the agenda. In order forthe professional to remain involved in the meeting, there must be agreed upon times at which thecommunications are summarized in English. Questions or concerns which the family may raise must beconveyed to the professional. The manner in which communications are to be carried out must be agreedupon prior to the meeting.

Different arrangements may be made depending upon the type of meeting held and the participants involved.

Interaction

During the meeting, the agenda can be used as a guide for carrying out the interactions. The professionalusing the interpreter services should be closely attuned to the verbal and nonverbal interactions of all partiesinvolved and should intervene as necessary. The agenda also serves as a framework for making notes aboutnonverbal behaviors which the professional may want to discuss with the interpreter after the session. Thesession should be temporarily halted if the parent or student begins to show signs of possible distress ormisunderstanding. For example, through an interpreter, a parent might understand a recommendation forfull-time placement for emotionally handicapped students as a residential placement, rather than placementduring the school day, and the recommendation may need to be explained again. The parent might beencouraged to visit the instructional setting in order to gain a clearer understanding of what actually occursthere.

Debriefing

After the interpretation session, a debriefing period is recommended, during which behavior and outcomes arediscussed along with any questions, problems or concerns about the meaning of the communication.Debriefing involves an exchange of information between the interpreter and professional for purposes ofclarifying and understanding what transpired during the interpretation session. For instance, if a Haitian-Creole speaking examinee had difficulty with singular and plural nouns on the English part of an assessmentfor which the interpreter only translated the directions, the interpreter can inform the evaluation specialistthat these differentiations are not made in Haitian-Creole (Savain 1989). The interpreter can also provideinformation about the level of the student's language skills in his or her native language, whether the student isfrom the country or city and whether the student has any seemingly unusual speech patterns orcommunication difficulties. In addition, the interpreter can also provide further information about culturalinfluences on behavior, attitudes, values, and performance. For example, the interpreter may explain life on akibbutz in Israel to a professional working with a Hebrew-speaking family from that background. If a studentgives a response that may not have appeared on a test protocol as correct, but which is regionally acceptable,this can be communicated during debriefing as well. Sometimes the communication can become quiteanimated. From observing nonverbal interactions, the educational professional can gain an understanding ofwhat transpired which is very different from what actually occurred. Explanations of both verbal andnonverbal communication help to assist the educator in understanding cultural differences and in remainingan effective part of the communication process (Garrido 1989). The briefing, interaction, and debriefingactivities in which interpreters engage in providing interpretative services for assessment are summarized in


10

Table 3A.

Similar briefing, interaction, and debriefing activities are carried out during meetings with families. These aredisplayed in Table 3B.

The Translation Process

Like the interpretation process, the translation process should involve the steps of briefing before, anddebriefing after the translation. The translator and professional requesting the services should have an openand ongoing communication and the translation process should basically follow the steps outlined forinterpretation in Table 2. In the school setting, the use of prepared, rather than sight or instantaneous,translations is recommended whenever possible (Fradd 1990). Prepared translations give the translator time touse a dictionary, to consult with other speakers of the language, to consult with the user of the service, to seekfeedback and to revise the translations before formal dissemination. It is recommended that translations bereviewed by more than one native speaker as a check on accuracy (Dade County Public Schools 1982). As afurther check, translations can be translated back from the non-English language into English or vice-versa.The activities which are included in the briefing, translation, and debriefing process for translators areincluded in Table 4.

Because many of the English terms and concepts used by educators, speech-language pathologists, socialworkers, psychologists, and other professionals cannot be directly and meaningfully translated into otherlanguages, brief descriptions may have to be given in the second language. For example, in many languages,there appear to be no direct or standard translations for many of the English exceptionalities such as "specificlearning disabilities" or "educable mentally handicapped" or for many terms common to the school settingsuch as "monitor, written excuse, report card," etc. Once specific terms and concepts or descriptions of suchterms and concepts are translated into a second language, a list of such terms can be prepared fordissemination or publication. In this way the same translation of terms can be consistently used within aparticular school system or discipline.

Table 3A: Effective procedures for using interpreters in assessing LEP students

Briefing to Plan Assessment

Discuss purpose of the session.Review specific aspects of the tests to be used including procedures for administering them.Discuss format for administration.Discuss any concerns which the interpreter may have.

Interaction during Assessment

Observe student and interpreter interacting.Note any difficulties in the test items or events involved.

Debriefing after Assessment

Discuss specifics of student performance.Discuss cultural or linguistic concerns.Obtain overall impressions of interpreter's view of student's motivation and participation in theassessment process.


11

Table 3B: Effective procedures for using interpreters during meetings

Briefing to Plan Meeting

Review overall agenda of the meeting.Discuss key concepts, words, and phrases.Establish the essential points to be covered.Determine the outcomes to be achieved.

Interaction during Meeting

Make sure that everyone is kept informed.Monitor nonverbal language to be certain that everyone is being understood.Follow established plan.Note areas of specific difficulty or concern.

Debriefing after Meeting

Discuss overall outcomes and specific areas of achievement or concern.Compare observations in light of cultural insights.Plan for follow-up.

Table 4: Using translators in preparing tests and other assessment procedures

Briefing

What are the critical features of the test?Has the translator taken the test?What cultural or linguistic features did he or she observe?What are the anticipated difficulties?

Translation

The process of translation (This may take several weeks.)Are dictionaries and other materials available?Are other native speakers available for support?

Debriefing

What were the obstacles?Has the test been back-translated?Have other native speakers reviewed this version?Have specific linguistic variations been included to accommodate various dialects within the tarrgetlanguage?How should the assessment be pilot/field-tested?

Relative to testing, some translations of English tests are published and others are done on a more informalbasis. In both cases, users of these translated tests should recognize their limitations. Some test translationsmay contain culturally charged content such as the picture of the Statue of Liberty on the Spanish translationof the Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test (Diaz, Levine, Patterson, Sweeting, & Wilen 1983).


12

Some concepts that exist in English may not exist or may differ in the other language. For example, the word"parent," as opposed to "mother" or "father," may be misunderstood by many Haitian-Creole speakers(Savain 1989).

Some LEP students in U.S. schools speak a variety of a language that has many borrowings from English andthey may have difficulty with monolingual translations. Even within a particular language, there may beseveral different, but equally correct ways to say the same word depending on one's country of origin. Forexample, a "kite" could be "cometa" in Spain, and "papalote" in Cuba and Mexico (Wilen & Sweeting 1986).Translation often fails to take multiple acceptable responses into account. Additionally, words may havedifferent levels of difficulty across languages or dialects, and it cannot be assumed that the psychometricproperties of the original test and the translation are comparable (American Educational ResearchAssociation, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education 1985).

An alternative to using translations of English tests is to develop informal tests in the target language.Translators can be valuable assets in this regard. For example, translators can assist psychologists indeveloping informal measures of alphabet and number skills, knowledge of body parts, color concepts, andbasic reading and written language skillsin a target language for which formal tests may be unavailable. Suchinformation is helpful in gaining knowledge about the student's pre-academic and academic skill developmentin his or her native language and would be important in educational planning.

Translation services are also important in communicating information about the school to students' families.School events, field trips, meetings andother information which keep parents aware of school happenings caneasily be provided through translations. Some schools translate student policy documents and regulations.Others provide parents and students with written explanations of cultural events, such as proms and seniordays, in their non-English languages. Translations informing families about students' accomplishments canhave an especially powerful influence in promoting family interactions and participation within the school.For example, one principal routinely provides translations of all written communications in the six languagespresent in his school. He encourages positive messages about student achievement in a variety of differentformats (Davis 1989). However, it should be realized that some minority languages are not usually written orread by individuals with limited education. Consequently, a written message sent home to parents may not beunderstood. An alternate way of communicating with many parents is by means of recorded messages onaudiocassette. For example, the Hmong, whose language is not usually written, communicate with each otherby means of cassettes.

UNDERSTANDING KEY CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURE

Just as interpreters and translators in the field of law and medicine need specialized knowledge of legal andmedical terminology, interpreters and translators in the school setting need training in key concepts andprocedures related to their role and responsibilities. Though some broad concepts such as briefing anddebriefing generalize across roles, others are situation specific. Interpreters and translators in the schools needknowledge of the tools of the trade, forms, procedures, techniques, and tests, utilized by those with whomthey work. For example, interpreters working in a school office need training in office procedures such astelephone decorum and registration and withdrawal procedures. Those working with school social workersneed training in the protocol of home visitation, adaptive behavior assessment and clinical interviewing.Those interpreting for school psychologists need knowledge of the protocol of psychological assessment,consultation, counseling and conferencing. Those interpreting for exceptional student education staffings needtraining relative to the exceptionalities, eligibility, placement and planning documents, and proceduralsafeguards.

All interpreters and translators are not suitable for every assignment within an educational setting. Some rolesare more specialized, requiring much more expertise and sensitivity than others. The skills and experienceneeded to communicate a simple message to a non-English-speaking parent in a school office would be far


13

less complex than those required to interpret for school social workers, school psychologists, or due processhearings.

Service delivery could be greatly enhanced if standard forms and lists of key concepts, terms, and procedurescould be pre-translated for the various disciplines and roles and utilized by interpreters and translators on aconsistent basis. These translations could be distributed separately or as part of a procedures handbook tofacilitate quality service delivery. Additionally, it would be beneficial to develop a cadre of interpreters andtranslators skilled in working with specific disciplines and for the same interpreters and translators to workwith the same professionals on an ongoing basis. In this way, a relationship and team approach can beestablished.

It is important for those using interpreters and translators to realize that sessions where a second language isused will likely be more lengthy than those where such services are not needed. Extra time should be allottedand those involved should be prepared for the extra time commitment in advance.

REFERENCES

American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council onMeasurement in Education (1985). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (1985). Clinical management of communicativelyhandicapped minority language populations. ASHA, 27 (6), 29-32.

Dade County Public Schools, Division of Exceptional Student Education (1982). A resource manual for thedevelopment and evaluation of special programs for exceptional students: Vol. III-B. Evaluating thenon-English speaking handicapped. Miami, FL: Dade County Public Schools.

Davis, B. C. (1989). A successful parent involvement program. Educational Leadership, 47 (2), 21-23.

Diaz, V. T., Levine, D. V., Patterson, P., Sweeting, C., & Wilen, D. K. (1983). Bilingual exceptional studenteducation demonstration project handbook. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: School Board of Broward County, FL.

Esquivel, G. B. (1985). Best practices in the assessment of limited English proficient and bilingual children. InA. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology. Kent, OH: National Association ofSchool Psychologists.

Figueroa, R. A. (1989). Using interpreters in assessments. Communique, 17 (7), 19.

Fradd, S. H., & Weismantel, M. J. (Eds.). (1989). Meeting the needs of culturally and linguistically differentstudents: A handbook for educators. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Fradd, S. H. (1990). Transdisciplinary teaming, module 5. In V. I. Correa & S. H. Fradd (Eds.), Collaborationand reform series. Gainesville, FL: Department of Special Education, Collaboration and Reform Project.

Garrido, L. (1989). The culturally diverse student in the ED classroom. Perceptions, 25 (1), 14-15.

Langdon, H. W. (1983). Assessment and intervention strategies for the bilingual language-disordered student.Exceptional Children, 50 (1), 37-46.

Langdon, H. W. (1988). Interpreter/translator in the school setting module. Sacramento, CA: California StateDepartment of Education.


14

Medina, V. (1982). Issues regarding the use of interpreters and translators in a school setting. In A. M. Ochoaand J. Hurtado (Eds.), Special education and the bilingual child: Proceedings of a conference, Pasadena,California. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 239 454).

Putsch, R. W. (1985). Cross-cultural communication. Journal of the American Medical Association, 254 (23),3344-3348.

Salend, S. J., & Fradd, S. (1985). Certification and training program requirements for bilingual specialeducation. Teacher Education and Special Education, 8 (4), 198-203.

Salend, S. J., & Fradd, S. (1986). Nationwide availability of services for limited English proficienthandicapped students. Journal of Special Education, 20 (1), 127-135.

Savain, R. (1989). Creole linguistic issues and differences. In D. K. Wilen (Chair), Using interpreters andtranslators in the provision of educational, psychological, and social work services to limited Englishproficient students. Presented at the Department of Foreign Student Affairs, Broward County Public Schools,Ft. Lauderdale, FL.

Wei, T. T. D. (1984). Vietnamese refugee students: A handbook for school personnel. Cambridge, MA:EDAC, Lesley College.

Wilen, D. K. (1989). Working with language minority students. Communique, 17 (7), 20.

Wilen, D. K., & Sweeting, C. v. M. (1986). Assessment of limited English proficient Hispanic students.School Psychology Review, 15, 59-75.

Woo, J., & Torres, L. A. (1988). How best to use interpreters and translators in the evaluation of studentswith limited proficiency in English. In C. E. Brummett & P. A. Lancelot (Eds.), Integration: Appropriateservices for limited English proficient students with special needs; Conference proceedings. New York StateEducation Department Division of Bilingual Education and Office for Education of Children withHandicapping Conditions and Board of Cooperative Educational Services Second Supervisory District,Monroe and Orleans Counties Bilingual/ESL Technical Assistance Center.

About the Authors

Sandra H. Fradd received her Ph.D. in Bilingual Education from the University of Florida. She is anAssociate Research Scientist and Associate Director of the Institute for Advanced Studies in CommunicationProcesses at the University of Florida. She is also director of the Collaborative Team-Teaching andLeadership Project at the University. Her research interests include second language acquisition and bilingualspecial education.

Diane K. Wilen received her Ph.D. in School Psychology from the University of Illinois (Champaign-Urbana). She is a licensed psychologist and holds the position of School Psychologist in the MulticulturalEducation Department, Broward County Public Schools, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. Her research interestsinclude the assessment of limited English proficient children and the use of interpreters in school and healthservice settings.

The National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education (NCBE) is funded by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of BilingualEducation and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA) and is operated under contract No. T292008001 by The GeorgeWashington University, School of Education and Human Development, Center for Policy Studies. The contents of this publicationdo not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Education, nor does the mention of trade names, commercialproducts, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. This material is located in the public domain and is freely


15

reproducible. NCBE requests that proper credit be given in the event of reproduction.

go to HOME PAGEhttp://www.ncela.gwu.edu


16

http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/