norton, p.r. - cicero musicus (jams vol. 1, no. 2, summer 1948)

8/3/2019 Norton, P.R. - Cicero Musicus (JAMS Vol. 1, No. 2, Summer 1948)

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Cicero MusicusAuthor(s): P. R. Coleman-NortonSource: Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Summer, 1948), pp. 3-22Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the American Musicological SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/830169 .

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Cicero MusicusBYP. R. COLEMAN-NORTON

SINCE rom the pre-Christian periodno Latin treatise on music sur-vives, 1 perhaps in the writings of noother Latin author of that era thanM. Tullius Cicero (Io6-43) can weexpect to find a richer mine of infor-mation on music among the Romans.Not only is Cicero now our mostvoluminous of ante-Christian writersin Latin, but also Cicero's literary ef-forts still extant cover the widestarea, in that he plowed in the fieldsof oratory, rhetoric, philosophy, epi-stolography, and poetry.2 At any rate,in the works of Cicero, whose mentalinterests were not canalized into fewliterary channels, but were both com-prehensive and indeed cyclopaedic inconcern, we have, if anywhere, thebest chance to find something of im-portance on almost any subject ofculture in which an educated personmay be interested. Among such sub-jects music should find a place. 3How

well and to what extent Cicero ' mayhelp us here is the purposeof the in-vestigation of which the results fol-low. 5I

Perhapsit is best to clear the groundby the traditional negative approachbefore proceeding to assaywhat posi-tive contribution Cicero made. First,it should be stated that there are musi-

1Aurelius Augustinus (354-430) and AniciusManlius Severinus Boethius (ca. 480-524)each composed treatises on music (De Musica)which are extant. Chapters on music (DeMusica) are embedded in the writings ofMartianus Minneus Felix Capella (ft. 420),De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii, IX, andof Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus (ca.49o-ca. 583), Institutiones Divinarum et Sae-cularium Litterarum, II. 5. Beside these muchincidental information on musical matters maybe gleaned from M. Vitruvius Pollio (ca. 65-ca. 5), De Architectura, V. 4-5, 8 and X. 8.2I do not forget M. Terentius Varro Reatinus(i 16-27), who is estimated to have written 74different works consisting of 620 volumes.But what of this prodigious production sur-vives is small: some nine books and poetic orsemi-poetic fragments totalling some 6oo lines.Of him it may be written: Eius modi hominesvix singuli singulis saeculis ttascuntur."In his Institutio Oratoria, I. Io0. 30, Quintili-anus testifies to the fact that from prehistorictimes to his own day music continued to bestudied by all who did not have a hatred forany regular course of study.

'It has been suggested by J. F. Mountford." Greek Music and its Relations to ModernTimes," Journal of Hellenic Studies, XL(192o) 22, that Cicero doubtless derived fromPoseidonius, whose lectures on philosophyCicero sems to have heard in 78 (Plutarchus,Cicero, 4. 2 al. 4; cf. Cicero, De NaturaDeorum, I. 3. 6), much of what musicalknowledge is found in his writings.To support his claim that Poseidonius was"no mean musician" Mountford cites Athe-naeus, Deipnosophistae, XIV. 635 CD; butI think Mountford reads too much into thislocus. Even if we give to the witness ofAthenaeus all the weight which Mountfordwishes, we still do not know how much inmusic Cicero learned from Poseidonius.That a knowledge of music was considereda necessity for an orator may be seen from thetestimony of Quintilianus (op. cit., I. io. 9-33),where he remarks (?29) that he would havediscussed the subject at more length, if therehad been anything novel in his insistence onthe study of music as part of an orator'straining."It is perhaps unnecessary to preface this in-quiry with the statement that I have not theintention to survey sounds produced by Natureand by animals, unless by trope those tonesmay be considered appropriatelymusical, whenthe same or a similar sound can be made byhuman or instrumental agency, despite theapocalyptic authority of Daniel iii, 6o-8i (Vul-gate), which appears in the canticle Benedicite,Omnia Opera, a part of "The Song of theThree Holy Children" (as the translators ofthe King James Version of the Holy Biblequaintly call it), and notwithstanding themusician's injunctions in Psalms xcvi, I1-12,xcviii, 7-8, cxlviii, 3-1o, and cl, 6, where" Nature with open volume stands/To spreadher Maker's praise abroad" (Watts) and isexhorted to "make a joyful noise unto theLord . . . make a loud noise, and rejoice, andsing praise " (Psalm xcviii, 4). Suo cuiqueiudicio utendum est.3


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4 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYcal terms appearing in Latin writingsof Cicero's predecessors and contem-poraries which seem not to exist inCicero's extant vocabulary. Obvi-ously, since Cicero was neither a pro-fessional musician nor an amateurwriter on musicology, it can not beanticipated by even the most preju-diced that Cicero would have hadoccasion to employ every musicalword found in Latin either before orduring his generation. Second, it mustbe observed, though it is well known,that there are in Latin words suscep-tible of more than one meaning.Cicero sometimes uses such a wordin a non-musical sense, while otherwriters, whether anterior to or con-temporary with or posterior to Ci-cero, employ the sameword in a musi-cal connotation. Fata sua habentverba. And that he happens to writesuch a word in its non-musical mean-ing must not be counted to Cicero'sdiscredit. Third, it ought not becharged as censure against Cicerothat in his works we vainly look forthat musical terminology either in-vented by Latin authors of the im-perial period or recorded as of nosuperior antiquity by such writers.

IIDismissing, therefore, the secondand the third points just made, it isfair, however, to register those words

of which we may suppose most eitherwere known or could have beenknown to Cicero, even though Ciceroseems not to have cared to mentionthese in what of his works are extant.6In treating these terms it is convenientto distribute them alphabetically andby the several parts of speech (noun,adjective, adverb, verb) among thesecategories: (i) performers (whethersingers or players), (2) instruments,(3) songs and sounds and scales, (4)miscellaneous. 7

(i) Performers: cantator (Varro),cantrix (Plautus), choragus (Plaut.),citharicen (Var.), citharistria (Te-rentius), crotalistria(Propertius), fi-dicina (Plaut.), modulator (Hora-tius), organicus (Lucretius),Phemius8(Ovidius), phonascus (Var.), pulsus(Ov.), pythaules (Var.), sambucina(Plaut.),sambucistria (Livius), siticen(Cato), subulo (Ennius), thymelicus(Vitruvius), tympanotriba (Plaut.);argutus (Hor.), hymnifer (Ov.), in-centivus (Var.), succentivus (Var);accanere (Var.), citharizare (Nepos),conspirare (Vergilius), emodulari(Ov.), incinere (Prop.), intercinere(Hor.), ludere (Ver.), obloqui (Ver.),occanere (Sallustius), percutere(Ov.), psallere (Sal.), queri (Hor.),recanere (Ver.), recinere (Hor.), suc-canere (Var.), sufflare (Plaut.), tem-perare (Hor.), tendere (Luc.).

61n listing Latin words of musical significanceaccording to the meanings given by the latestedition of Lewis and Short, (Harper's) A NewLatin Dictionary, it appears that preciceronianand conciceronian words are outnumbered bypostciceronian terms in the proportion of al-most one to four. The reason for this ratiois due doubtless in part to the phenomenonnoticed in note I and in the text ad loc.'When more than one author preserves theword, the oldest writer only is named.SPhemius was a celebrated Ithacan citharistmentioned by Homerus (Odyssea, I. 153-155,XVII. 261-263, XXII. 330-333) and by trans-

fer his name is used by Ovidius (Amores,III. 7. 61) to mean "a good player on thecithara." Cf. our extravagant encomium fora pianist who finds public favor: "He's aPaderewski."Atticus, who occasionally purchased slaveswith musical talents (musici eruditi) and whoapparently had expected Caesar's expeditionto Britain to procure some (Epistulae ad At-ticum, IV. x6. 7), had a slave named Phemius.While he may have known how to play acithara, this Phemius is mentioned as a per-former on the KipaC,or Cicero thrice writesto Atticus that he is searching during his pro-consulate of Cilicia for such a wind instrumentfor him (Att., V. 20. 9, 2x. 9, VI. I. x3). Seebelow, text at note 64.


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CICERO MUSICUS 5(2) Instruments:9aes (Enn.), avena(Ver.),barbitosHor.),buxus Ver.)or buxum (Prop.), calamus (Luc.),canna (Ov.), chelys (Ov.), cicuta(Luc.), cithara (Var.), classicum(Ver.), concha (Ver.), crepitacillum(Luc.), filum(Ov.), foramen(Hor.),harundo(Ver.), lotos or lotus (Ov.),merulus (Vit.), nablium(Ov.), ner-via (Var.), pecten (Ver.), sambuca(Plaut.), sistrum (Ver.), stamen(Ov.), stomis (Lucilius), syrinx(Ov.), tubus (Var.), tympanum

(Plaut.);acer (Hor.), argutus(Ver.),attenuatus(Ov.), biforis (Ver.), ca-norus (Ver.), consonus (Ov.), fidi-cinius (Plaut.), harundineus(Ov.),

hexachordos (Vit.), hydraulicus(Vit.), lyricus (Hor.), multiforus(Ov.), octachordos(Vit.), organicus(Cato), orthopsalticus Var.), recur-vus (Ver.), simplex (Hor.), surdus(Prop.), taureus (Ov.), testudineus(Tibullus), tetrachordos (Vit.), ti-binus (Var.); bucinare (Var.), in-crepere (Ver.), queri (Ov.), strepere(Ver.), temperare (Hor.), tendere(Luc.).

(3) Songsand soundsandscales:1'aelinos (Ov.), bombus(Luc.), canor(Ver.), cantatio (Var.), cantio

'This category would be enlarged excessivelyif I should include in it all the technical termsfound in a description of the hydraulus orwater-organ, which Cicero merely mentions(Tusculanae Disputationes, III. 18. 43). Thismachine, invented by Ctesibus of Alexandria,who flourished in the reign of Ptolemaeus VIIEuergetes II Physcon (I45-II6), accordingto Athenaeus (op. cit., IV. 174 B-D), is de-scribed fully by Cicero's younger contemporaryVitruvius (op. cit., X. 8), who discovered thetask of description to be difficult and not easyto the general comprehension except of thosewith experience in such matters (op. cit., X.8. 6). None of these terms appears in a musi-cal connotation amid Cicero's writings.xOTakingas a precedent the procedure of thepreceding note, I omit Vitruvius's translitera-tion of the eighteen names for sound, of thefive types of tetrachords, and of the six kindsof concords (op. cit., V. 4. 5-7). The notesof the scales are illustrated in Plate F at theend of the first volume of F. Granger's editionand translation of Vitruvius's book in the LoebClassical Library (London & New York, 193i).None of these nouns appears in Cicero's works.The following adjectives applied to vox byCicero, while these can carry a musical or arhythmical connotation, yet do not indicatea singer's tones in these loci: abiectus: DeOratore, III. 58. 218. absonus: De Or., I. 25.115, III. 1i. 41. absurdus: De Or., III. 11. 41.acerbus: Philippicae, II. 26. 64; In Senatu,10. 26. acutus: N. D., II. 58. 146; Orator,17. 57, 18. 58, 51. 173; De Or., III. 57. 216,58. 217, cf. I. 59. 251. asper: De Or., III. 12.45, 57. 216; N. D., II. 58. 146; Or., 44. 150.attenuatus: De Or., III. 57. 216. candidus:N. D., II. 58. 146. canorus: Brutus, 66. 234,70. 247, 77. 268, 88. 303; Cato Maior, 9. 28;De Oficiis, I. 37. 133; N. D., II. 58. 146.citus: De Or., III. 57. 216. clarus: Or., 18.57; Pro Caecina, 8. 22; Pro Cluentio, 8. 23,48. 134; Pro Sulla, I2. 34; T. D., V. 7. I9, Io.30, 26. 75; Off., I. 37. 133, III. 33. 121.contentus: Or., 17. 56; De Or., III. 58. 219;cf. Or., 25. 85; T. D., II. 24. 56 et 57; Off.,

I. 37. 133, 38. 136, 41. 146; Brut., 66. 233, 91.316; De Or., I. 61. 261, III. 60. 224 et 225,61. 227. continens: De Or., III. 57. 216. con-tractus: De Or., III. 57. 216. demissus: DeOr.,III. 58.218. diffusus:De Or.,III. 57.216. dulcis: Or., 18. 57. durus: Pro Plancio,13. 31; N. D., II. 58. 146; Phil., VIII. 5. 16.effusus: De Or., III. 58. 219. flebilis: DeOr., III. 58. 217. flexibilis: De Or., III. 58.217;N. D., II. 58. 146. ractus:De Or.,III.57. 216. fuscus: N. D., II. 58. 146. grandis:Brut., 84. 289. gravis: Sull., 28. 78; N. D.,II. 58. 146; Or., 17. 57, 51. 173; T. D., II.24. 57; De Or., III. 57. 216, 58. 217 et 219;cf. Or., 54. 182; De Or., I. 59. 251; DeDivinatione, I. 36. 80; Epistulae ad Familiares,I. 14. 5. haesitans: De Or., III. 58. 218, cf.I. 25. 115. hilaratus: De Or., III. 58. 219.imminens: De Or., III. 58. 219. incitatus:De Or., III. 58. 217. inclinatus: Or., 8. 27, 17.56; cf. Brut., 43. 158. inflatus: De Or., III.57. 216. inflexus: De Or., II. 46. 193;Or., 17.56 et 57, cf. I8. 57. intentus: De Or., III. 57.216; cf. Or., 18. 59. intermissus: De Or., III.57. 216. interruptus: De Or., III. 58. 217;Pro Caelio, 24. 59. languens: Off., I. 37. 133.lenis: De Or., III. 57. 216, 58. 219, cf. II. 43.182, III. Ii. 43. levis: N. D., II. 58. 146.magnus: De Or., III. 8. 31, 56. 213, 57. 216;Brut., 55. 203, 66. 233, 68. 241 ; C. M., 5. 14;Caec., 32. 92; Sull., ii. 33; Pro Flacco, 15.34; De Re Publica, I. 35. 55; T. D., III. 17.38; cf. Brut., 66. 235. mollis: De Or., III.ii. 41. obductus: De Or., III. 58. 219. ob-duratus: De Or., III. 58. 219. parvus: De Or.,III. 57. 216. peracutus: Brut., 68. 241.permanens: Brut., 38. 141. plenus: De Or.,I. 29. 132, III. 8. 31, 58. 217; Pro Archia,6. 14; Brut., 84. 289. remissus: De Or., III.58. 219; cf. Or., 18. 59; De Or., I. 61. 261,III. 61. 227. scissus: De Or., III. 57. 216.splendidus: Brut., 55. 203, cf. 68. 239, 71.250. suavis: Off., I. 37. 133; De Or., I. 29.132, III. 56. 213; Brut., 55. 203, 66. 234, 88.303; cf. Or., 18. 58, 54. 182; Brut., 66. 235,74. 259. summissus: Flacc., 28. 66; Or., 17.56 ; cf. Off., I. 41. 146. summus: De Or., I. 61.261; cf. Brut., 91. 313. suppressus: Or., 25.85; Sull., 10. 30. surraucus: Brut., 38. 141.tardus: De Or., III. 57. 216. tener: De Or.,III. 58. 219. vehemens: De Or., III. 58. 219.


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6 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY(Plaut.), chroma (Vit.), chromatice(Vit.), clangor (Ver.), classicum(Caesar),diagrammaVit.), diatonon(Vit.), diesis (Vit.), harmonice(Vit.), hemitonium(Vit.), melodina(Var.), modulatio (Vit.), mortualia(Plaut.), murmur (Hor.), pecten(Ov.), phthongus (Vit.), qualitas11(Vit.), querela(Luc.), sibila (Luc.),sonor (Luc.), strepitus(Hor.), tara-tantara(Enn.), tetrachordonor tet-rachordum (Vit.), tonus (Vit.);chromaticus(Vit.), discors (Hor.),imus (Hor.), liquidus (Luc.), meli-cus (Luc.), modulatus Hor.), queru-lus (Hor.), raucisonus Luc.), raucus(Ver.), sonabilis (Ov.), sonorus(Tib.), suavis (Plaut.), suavisonus(Naevius), tener (Ov.), tinnulus(Catullus), vocalis (Ov.); consonan-ter (Vit.), musice (Plaut.); circum-sonare (Liv.), concordare (Ov.),consonare(Plaut.), dissonare(Vit.),insonare(Ov.), mugire (Ver.), prae-sonare (Ov.), reboare(Luc.), recre-pare(Cat.), remugire Cat.), resultare(Ver.), stridere Cat.), tonare(Luc.),

(4) Miscellaneous:amusia(Var.),amusos (Vit.), choragium (Plaut.),odeum (Vit.), tubulustrium(Var.)or tubilustrium Ov.).

This list totals about 200 musicalterms not used by Cicero,'2thoughthese by his time were in the Latinlanguage. On the other hand, wehave in Cicero's works some I25words which can be considered de-scriptive of the several departmentsof music.

IIIBefore drawingconclusions aboutCicero'sknowledge of music it will

be best to eliminate by collectionthose termswhich carryonly a casualsignificance or thesubject,thus mak-ing room for the more importantas-pects. These words will be arrangedas in the precedinglist.( i) Performers: artifex (Acad., II.7. 22 [bis]; De Finibus BonorumetMalorum, V. 3. 7),13 cantor (Pro Ses-

tio, 55. i18 [bis]; T. D., III. 19. 45;De Or., I. 55. 236),'4 chorus (Phil. V.6. 15),15 citharista (Phil., V. 6. 15; InVerrem, II. I. 20. 53),6" cornicen(Rep., II. 22. 40),7 liticen (Rep., II.

nAlthough Cicero coined qualitas to represent7rot6vgo"CAcademia, I. 7. 25), which itself hadbeen invented by Plato (Theaetetus, 182 A),and used it six times (Acad., I. 6. 24 - 7. 28;N. D., II. 37. 94), yet its first use in amusical sense seems to have been made byVitruvius (op. cit., V. 4. 4).2"Including the exceptions mentioned in notes9 and io ad init.'SThe context in each locus shows that artifex,which signifies the master of an ars, whethertheoretical or practical, includes the musician.Additional corroboration comes from ProMurena, 13. 29, a passage reserved for laterdiscussion, and from Cicero's use of artificium,which will be noted.1'In the first place it seems that chanters of aclaque, not bona fide singers, are intended.The second passage refers to the celebratedphrase cantores Euphorianis and apparentlymeans "writers of jingles in Euphorion's

style." On this phrase see V. Brugnola," Cicerone ed i poetae novi," Bollettino diFilologia Classica, V (1898-1899) i6-18; A.Gandiglio, same title in same periodical, VII(1900-1901) 205-208; C. Marchesi, "I Can-tores Euphorionis," Atene e Roima, IV (1901)183-191; W. S. Messer, "Ad Cic. Tusc. Disp.3. 19. 45," Mnemosyne, XLV (1917) 78-92;T. Frank, " Cicero and the Poetae Novi,"American Journal of Philology, XL (1919)396-415. In the last locus Cicero describes aiurisconsultus as a cantor formularum."1This is the only Ciceronian passage in whichthis word includes musicians, among whom arementioned the citharistae. His five other usesof chorus are metaphorical and of these two,as here, have a disparaging connotation; thesepassages will be mentioned later."'Allusion to the first passage is made in thepreceding note.The second passage describes the famousstatue of the Citharist of Aspendus in Pamphy-lia. Apparently the sculpture was so lifelikethat the performer seemed to be enjoying hisown music. At any rate the figure occasioneda proverb (the only one on music, so far asI can discover, in Cicero's works), which theGreeks applied to one who does things forone's own pleasure. Cicero quotes the saying


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CICERO MUSICUS 722. 40),17 musicus (Rep., II. IO. 18;Div., II. 3. 9; Fin., III. I. 4, V. 3- 7; T.D., I. 2. 4; De Or., I. 10o. 4, 49. 212,III.44. 174,49. 19o), psaltria T. D.,III. 19. 46; Sest., 54. i i6; Frag. Orat.A, XIII. 22),18 tibicen (Or., 55. i84;De Or., I. 60. 254; Att., VI. i. 23; T.D., V. 36. 104; Verr., I. 3. 34-78, 5.12. 31, 5. 31. 81); symphoniacus(Divinatio in Caecilium, 17. 55; Verr.,II. 5. 25. 64, 5. 28. 73; In Pisonem, 34.83;ProMilone,21. 55); canere(Div.,II. 59. 122; T. D., I. 35. 85), cantare(Off., I. 40. 145;19In Catilinam,II. io.23), concinere(T. D.,I. 44. io6), de-cantare (T. D., III. 22. 53), discrepare(De Or., III. 50. 196), inflare (Acad.,II. 27. 86), meditari (De Or., II. 80.325),occentare (Rep., IV. 10. 12),20pellere (Div., II. 14. 33), temperare

(T. D., I. 25. 62), uti (A cad., II. 7.272;T. D., V. 36. Io4).(2) Instruments: bucina (Verr., II.4.-44 96),21cornu (N. D., II. 57. I44),crepundia (Brut., 91. 313),22 crotalum(Pis., 9. 20),23 cymbalum (Pis., 9.

20),24 fides (Acad., II. 7. 22; N. D.,II. 57. 144;Div., II. 14. 33, 59. i22; T.D., V. 36. 104; Frag. Philos. F, V. 91),fidicula (N. D., II. 8. 22),25 fistula(Att., I. 16. II ),26 hydraulus (T. D.,III. i8. 43),27 nervus (Div., II. 14. 33;N. D., II. 58. 146, 60. 150), psalterium(De Haruspicum Responsis, 21. 44),28scabellum (Cael., 27. 65),28 testudo(N. D., II. 57. 144), tibia (Frag.Philos. F, V. 91; N. D., II. 8. 22, 58.146, 60. I50; T. D., I. 44. I07); modu-late (N. D., II. 8. 22),29 numerose (N.D., II. 8. 22); canere (N. D., II. 8. 22;Div., II. 59. 122), meditari (De Or.,II. 80. 325), pellere (Div., II. 14. 33),n a Latin dress (intus canere) here and inDe Lege Agraria, II. 26. 68, where he trans-

fers it from instrumental to vocal music(carmen) and applies it to P. Servilius Rullus.Asconius explains the expression to meanthat a citharist holds the plectrum in his righthand (foris canere) and has his left hand onthe strings (intus canere). And so in thatway the statue must have been made. Thisinformation Asconius gives in his Commenta-tiones in aliquot M. Tullii Ciceronis Orationes,where he comments on the Verrine locus.This explanation may be true, but it hardlyelucidates the proverb. Probably we shouldfollow Zumpt's suggestion that the statue wassculptured with such skill that the citharistseemed to be "feeling" his music withinhimself, but that no other person could hear it.As he had all his playing to himself, so Verresplayed for himself alone and so Rullus workedin his father-in-law's interest. Zumpt insertsthis interpretation in his M. Tullii CiceronisOrationes Tres de Lege Agraria (Berlin,1861), where he comments on the Rullanpassage."TOnly occurrence in Cicero's works."'The last locus is cited from C. F. W. Mueller'sM. Tulli Ciceronis Scripta Quae ManseruntOmnia, Pt. IV, Vol. III (Leipzig, 190o4). Thisvolume of Mueller's stereotyped edition willbe used for following fragments, no matterfrom what class of Cicero's writing these come.'"Here Cicero castigates one qui in foro cantetas guilty of multa ab humanitate discrepantia.Nay more, in foro cantare is only one phase ofalia magna perversitas, of which other ex-pressions are in faro saltare (Off., III. 19. 75)and in foro alea ludere (Phil., II. 23. 56)."Only occurrence in Cicero's writings.

"1This is the only place in Cicero's works wherethis noun can not be interpreted as used formilitary purposes."'Although this was one of the typical meansof identification or of recognition in the NewComedy, there is no reason to reject its in-sertion here on the ground that it cannot pro-duce what some connoisseurs may consider amusical tone. Certainly our modern orchestras-at least those which cater to dancers - useit, albeit with hideous effect, and to some earsit provides a discordant note in the mostsolemn section of the Mass (whether Romanor Anglican). It occurs only here in Cicero'swritings.23Most editors bracket this word, which inCicero's works occurs only here."4From the context perhaps I should recordthis word later, when I reserve for anothercategory a recurrence of it.2"Only occurrence in Cicero's works.26Here with the adjective pastoricia. In anotherpassage for additional discussion (see below,text at note 74) Cicero applies to the in-strument the adjective eburneola, evidently amore expensive example. The latter adjectiveappears to be &ira E)y'6,uevovn Latin."See above, note 9.80Onlyoccurrence in Cicero's writings.

2"Apparently i~rra? tey64evov in the sense inwhich it is used here.


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8 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYresonare (N. D., II. 57. 144; Div., II.14- 33), sonare (N. D., II. 8. 22), uti(T. D., V. 36. 104; Acad., II. 7. 22).

(3) Songs and sounds and scales:canticum (Or., 18. 57; Fam., IX. 22.i), cantilena (De Or., I. 23. 105;Fam.,XI. 20. 2;30 Att., I. 19. 8), cantus(Or.,17. 57, i8. 57, 55. I83 [bis]; De Or.,I. 60. 254, II. 8. 34, III. 25. 98, 44. 174,51. 197; Fin., V. i8. 49; N. D., II. 35.;89, 58. 146, III. 11. 27; Div., II. 55.I13; T. D., IV. 33. 71, V. 36. 104, 40.16; Verr.,II. 5. I3. 31, 5. 35.92; Mil.,29. 8o), carmen (Acad., II. 27. 86; T.D., IV. 2. 4; Rep.,IV. 10. I2; De Or.,II. 86. 352 [bis]),31 concentio (Sest.,

55. I18),"2 concentus (De Or., III. 50o.I96),33 distinctio (N. D., II. 58.146),4 embolium (Sest., 54. I16),"flexio (De Or., III. 25. 98), gradus(De Or., III. 6i. 227),36 harmonia(Rep., I. io. 16), hymnus (De Or., I.59 251),3 m ntervallum (N. D., II. 58.I46),3 modus (Div., II. 3.9; Or., 58.

30This is in a letter from D. Iunius BrutusAlbinus to Cicero.31While carmen is in general an air or a noteor a song or a sound or a strain or a tune, itespecially means a composition in verse or apoem, in restricted sense either epic or lyricpoetry, though it is extended to dramaticpoetry; moreover it is used for an oracularresponse, for a prophecy, for an incantation,for an inscription, for a religious or a legalformula. That cantus refers chiefly to thetune and carmen principally alludes to thewords is seen from De Or., II. 8. 34: Quienim cantus . . . aptius? Also carmen isfound more frequently in poetry in the senseof a song, whereas in prose is substituted forit cantus. Consequently the exact significanceof carmen must be determined from the con-text - and even then there is doubt. In thetext, therefore, only what I consider incon-trovertibly musical meanings are indicated.But that others may judge, if they care tosearch the references, here are Cicero's otheruses of carmen:Legal Formula: Mur., 12. 26; Pro RabirioPerduellionis Reo, 4. 13; De Or., I. 57. 245;De Legibus, II. 23. 59 (the locus classicus forthe statement that in Cicero's boyhood school-boys committed to memory the Twelve Tablesas a carmen necessarium).Inscription : C. M., 17. 61; Arch., 11. 27.Prophecy: Laelius, 7. 24; Div., II. 54. 111et 112.Poem: N. D., I. 38. 107, II. 41. 104 (didac-tic); De Or., II. 8. 34, III. 51. 197; Mil.,29. 80; Pro Rabirio Postumo, 16. 43; Cael.,8. 18 (dramatic) ; C. M., 6. 16 (epic), 7. 22(dramatic) ; Fin. V. i. 3 (dramatic) : Rep.,I. 36. 56 (didactic), IV. 10. 12; Leg., II. 3. 7(didactic); T. D., I. 16. 37 (dramatic), 26.64, III. 19. 46 (dramatic), 25. 59 (dramatic),IV. 2. 3 (didactic), 2. 4 (bis: of which thesecond probably was didactic), 33. 71 (perhapslyric, at any rate autobiographical).32This appears to be the abusive chanting ofclaqueurs (cf. above, note 14 ad init.).

a3This reference may refer to speaking and notto singing; but the juxtaposition of catervaeand concentus, if not accidental, may be setwith the union of caterva and concentio inSest., 55. 118 for what it is worth.34Distinctio with intervallum (below, note 38)and varietas (below, note 43) merely mayconstitute a periphrasis for d6ta"rya here."8Aristoteles in his Ars Poetica, 1456 A ad fin.,describes an ip/6lOqtov as an intercalary song(intermezzo). In this passage Cicero uses thecognate form embolium in the same sense andin his Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem, III. i.24, its Greek original kypdiXtov o mean anaddendum to a poem.36Sonorum gradus (the phrase here) is appliedto the range of an orator's voice in Or., i8. 59.E37ymnum, an emendation conjectured byRitschl, contests the field chiefly with nomio-

neri, a lection attributed to Talon, for themeaningless manuscriptal munionem (or somekindred corruption). Hymnus is as old asLucilius, though Cicero seems not to haveused it, unless it be the real reading here.Nomio apparently is a critical chip fromTalon's atelier; but, since munionem is pre-ceded by paeanem aut and since a paean couldbe addressed to 'Air623;(vIat6uv, perhaps anomio could be chanted to 'A7r6?rdwvN6oFtoc.Other proposals include nomum (Orelli),munychiam (Reid), neniam (Owen).3"Cicero uses intervallum seven times inTimaeus, 7. 23-25, in his description of howthe demiurge constructs the world-soul fromthe three elements of sameness, otherness,essence. But in my opinion the interpretationof intervallum there is mathematical ratherthan musical, despite the close connection be-tween music and mathematics. While theTimaeus may be one of the most significant ofPlato's dialogues, it is one of the most difficultto understand, even in English. We can claimwith confidence that Cicero knew Greek betterthan any modern scholar and, while he knewwhat Plato wrote, yet Cicero failed to givethe readers of his version a clear idea of whatPlato meant. Cicero himself may have con-sidered his translation a failure, because intelling us that obscurity may be due to abstruse-ness of subject and not of style he proffers asevidence Plato's Timaeus (Fin., II. 5. I5).This judgment is justified by St. Jerome(Sophronius Eusebius Hieronymus), who callsthe Timaeus an obscurissimus . . . liber . . .qui ne Ciceranis quidem aureo are fit planior(Commentarii in Amos, II. 5. 283). Cf. above,note 34.


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CICERO MUSICUS 9198; De Or., I. 42. 187, 60. 254, III.26. 102, 44. 174), numerus (ParadoxaStoicorum, 3. 26; Acad., II. 7. 22; DeOr., I. 42. 187; T. D., V. 36. I04 39),40paean (De Or., I. 59. 251), signum(Verr., II. 4. 44. 96), sonus (De Par-titioneOratoria, 3. 80; Brut., 51. 192;T. D., I. 25. 62; Or., 17. 57;41 De Or.,III. 61. 227;41 N. D., II. 58. 146, 60.150), spondallum (De Or., II. 46.i93),42 symphonia ( Verr.,II. 5. I3- 31,5- 35- 92), varietas (N. D., II. 58.I46;43 T. D., I. 25. 62; Or., 17. 57),vocula (De Or., III. 25. 98), vox (Div.,II. 59. 122; N. D., II. 58. 146 [bis]; T.D., III. 18. 43, V. 40. i 6; Or., 17. 57;De Or., I. 42. 187; III. 44. 174); acu-tus (Or., 17. 57), cycneus (De Or.,III. 2. 6),"44 ravis (Or., 17. 57), in-flexus (Or., 17. 57), numerosus (DeOr., III. 48. 185); audire (T. D., III.i8. 43, V. 40. i i6; N. D., II. 35. 89),augere (De Or., III. 26. I02), dis-crepare (De Or., III. 50. 196),46 dis-tinguere (De Or., III. 26. I02), ex-tenuare (De Or., III. 26. I02), inflare(De Or., III. 26. I02), summittere (DeOr., III. 26. 102), variare (De Or., III.26. 102).

(4) Miscellaneous: admotio (N. D.,II. 60. I50),46 artificium (T. D., I. 25.62; Acad., II. 27. 86), audientia (DeOr., II. 80. 235), auditus (N. D., II.35. 89), auris (T. D., I. 25. 62; Rep.,VI. i8. 18 et 19 [bis]; Acad., II. 7. 20;N. D., II. 35- 89, 58. 146; De Or., III.44. 174), ludus (Off., I. 42. 150),47musica (Fin., III. 2. 5; N. D., II. 8.22; Acad., II. 28. 91; De Or., I. 3. 10o,42. 187, III. 21. 79; Att., IV. i6. 7),48percussio (Or., 58. 198), tibicinium(Or., 58. 198; N. D., II. 8. 22); musi-cus (De Or., II. 15. 66; Leg., II. I5.39).49

IVA few of the musical terms in Ci-

cero's writings are embedded in quo-tations from either Greek or Latinauthors. In the former case it is Ci-cero's practice to turn these intoLatin.5?

In commenting on the Homericaccount (Od., XII. 39-54, 158-200) ofthe Sirens' songs (cantus) Ciceroclaims (Fin., V. 18. 49) that thesesingers seemed to restrain those whopassed, not by the sweetness of theirvoices (vocum suavitas) or by a cer-tain novelty and variety of singing(varietas cantandi), but that it was be-3Cantus numerosque I construe as hendiadys."Cicero's translation for kviyi6d: Or., 20. 67,51. 170.41Cf. above, note 36.'The most popular emendation for this word,which is written as spondalli in the codices, isspondaulia, by which in its singular form DeSaumaise corrected spondalium, described byDiomedes in his De Arte Grammatica, III.ad init. (p. 472 fin. P), where it is airafXley6dzevov.A spondaulium seems to have beena sacrificial hymn sung to the accompani-ment of a flute. Other suggested readings in-clude: e sponde illa (Hermann), ut sua spontealiena (Jeep), sponte aliena illa (Madvig),splendida illa (Ribbeck and Sandys), e suoaliena (Harnecker).a3Cf. above, note 34."Although swan-songs are mentioned byHomerus (Ilias, II. 459-463), yet the earliestassociation of the swan's song with death ap-parently is made by Aeschylus (Agamemnon,I444-1446).'Cf. above, note 33.

4"Taking after it digitorum, it is applied to thelyre and to the flute: what we may term" fingering," especially when we compare whatCicero wrote in Brut., 54. 200 : animis iudicumadmovere orationem tamquam fidibus manum.Not until the fifth century does admatio makeits final reappearance in ancient Latin, whenit then is used as a medical term.7TWith alarius here. The ludus talarius " wasa kind of play in which loose songs were sungand dances exhibited to the accompaniment ofcymbals and castanets " (Holden, ad lac., inhis 8th ed. [Cambridge, 1899] of this treatise).Plautus mentions (Rudens, 43) a ludus fidi-cinius, which may mean a school for flutists.

'The first two passages present musica asfeminine singular; the remaining referencesgive musica as neuter plural."Adjective."The notable exception is a Sophocleancouplet, which will be discussed presently.


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IO JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYcause they professed to know manythings that men through desire forlearning clung to their rocks. Ciceroillustrates this interpretation by trans-lating the Sirens' invitation to Odys-seus (184-191), in which appear themusical phrases auribus agnoscerecantus and vocum dulcedine captariand wherein they assert that whoeverstayed his course to hearthem reachedhis native shores a wiser man. Ciceroconcludes that Homerus saw that thestory could not be made credible ifsuch a hero as Odysseus were heldensnared by alluring strains (canti-unculae).51 Cicero introduces theepisode as an example of the passion-ate desire for knowledge implantedin the minds of eminent men. Hisinterpretation seems to be original.Cicero criticizes Cn. PompeiusMagnus in an untranslated Sopho-clean couplet 52 (Att., II. I6. 2),which contains these words of musicalmeaning:~0axo;, op t,,d, uwav.An allusion to Euripides' Antiope(De Inventione, I. 50. 94), in whichappears Amphion, gives us the wordfor music (musica).Two Epicurean dicta on the pleas-ures which songs (cantus) 53 affordare quoted by Cicero (T. D., III. i8.41, 20. 46).54Cicero preserves parts of the samepassage from the Annales of Ennius 55in four places (Div., I. 50. 114; Or.,51. 1i7; Brut., 18. 71, 9. 76), but onlythe last locus lacks the musical termof canere, which only in the first

reference carries the connotation ofprophesying in verse.56 The objectof Ennius seems to be to pour scornon primitive songs sung by Fauns andbards.To the Antiope of Pacuvius is as-signed Amphion's description of thetortoise (testudo), which gave itsname to any stringed instrument ofmusic with an arched shape and cap-able of producing sound (sonus)when played. Cicero offers the ex-cerpt as an example of obscurity,which overpowers the Athenians, un-til Amphion, whom Cicero character-izes somewhat contemptuously as acitharista, replies that he refers to atortoise (Div., II. 64. 133)-The fourth of six verses (440-445)from the Eunuchus of Terentius sup-plies Cicero with the verb cantare(Fam., I. 9. 19). The context showsthat Cicero signifies that he is counter-poising politically Publius (Vatinius)against Publius (Clodius), just asGnatho advises Thraso to play offPamphilaagainstPhaedriain the gameof love.A long passage from the Medea ofAccius describes (N. D., II. 35. 89)the amazement of a shepherd at see-ing the Argo and shows how thesinging of the sailors brings to hisears and hearing a song (cantus) simi-lar to the tune (melos) played bySilvanus.To illustrate types of jests Ciceroquotes part of a couplet of Novius 57

"'Apparently airar Aey6ye-vov n Latin."Sophoclean fragment numbered 7o01 in A.Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta,znd ed. (Leipzig, 1889). Part of each line ispreserved also by Longinus or whoever wroteDe Sublimitate, 3. 2, where by it is castigatedCleitarchus, the contemporary historian ofAlexander the Great."The first locus has auditu et cantibus inhendiadys."The first passage is from his Ilept Tekov?,a work on the summum bonum and in 37 books.Cicero translates an oft-quoted sentence, for

it is used once by Diogenes Laertius (De Vitiset Dogmatibus et Apophthegmatibus ClarorumPhilosophorum, X. 6) and thrice by Athenaeus(op. cit., VII. 278 F, 280 A, XII. 546 E).Cicero's translation, which he summarizes inFin., II. 3. 7, preserves more of the contextthan either Diogenes or Athenaeus retains ofthe original."5Placed in the seventh book. Varro also quotespart of it in his De Lingua Latina, VII. 36."Cf. below, text at note 96."I suppose that it is superfluous to say thatNovius is not a misprint for Naevius. Theyare confused frequently in the manuscripts.


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CICERO MUSICUS II(De Or., II. 69. 279). The dramaticsituation is unknown, but the last lineyieldscantare.

VCicero mentions more than a scoreof musicians or students of music,58some mythological,but most histori-cal.Among the former are the Sirens(Fin., V. 18. 49), the Fauns (Div., I.

50. 114; Or., 51. 171; Brut., i8. 71),Amphion (Inv., I. 50. 94; Div., II. 64.133), Orpheus (N. D., I. 38. 107[bis]), Silvanus (N. D., II. 35. 89).The musical importance of all thesesave Orpheus has been discussed. Be-side naming Orpheus twice Ciceromentions a carmen Orphicum, which,of course, may have been merely apoem not necessarily set to music.Among the historical musicians arethe following personages, who arenoted for various accomplishmentsin music:The introduction of Antigenidas,who was contemporary with Alex-ander the Great, provides Cicero withthe words tibicen and canere, the lat-ter of which is used twice (Brut., 50o.187).Not neglected is Aristoxenus, thePeripatetic philosopher, whose workHnpi 'Apovcxi~v20tzoeaio seems tobe the oldest Greek treatise onmusic extant. With reference to himmusica appears in two forms: femi-nine singular (De Or., III. 33. 132)and neuter plural (Fin., V. 19. 50).

But Cicero's chief interest in Aristoxe-nus is philosophical, since Aristoxe-nus (musicus idemque philosophus)held that the soul is a sort of tension(intentio) of the body, like what insong (cantus) and instrument (fides)is called pppovia,9 and that, corre-sponding to the nature and the confor-mation of the whole body, variedvibrations are caused, just as sounds(soni) in song (cantus) are produced(T. D., I. 10. 19). While he thinksthat Aristoxenus has not departedfrom his profession (artificium) inproposing this principle (T. D., I. io.20), Cicero later cancels this thoughtby deciding to ignore his contribu-tion, by chiding Aristoxenus for be-ing so delighted with his own songs(cantus) that he tries to transfer theseinto philosophical speculation, andby suggesting that Aristoxenus leavephilosophy to his master Aristotelesand continue to teach singing (can-ere). While he admits that we canrecognize melody (harmonia) fromthe distances in pitch (intervalla) be-tween sounds (soni), of which thevaried arrangement also producesseveral melodies (harmoniae), yetCicero cannot see how the positionof the limbs and the attitude of thebody can make melody (harmonia)when the body lacks a soul (T. D.,I. 18. 4i). In any case Cicero claimsthat the harmony (harmonia) of Aris-toxenus is dissolved by death (T. D.,I. II. 24).Connus, who taught Socrates to

sOnly passages witnessing to their musicalability will be noted."The only other occurrence of this Greek wordin Cicero's vocabulary appears in Tim., 8. 27,where it has a mathematical meaning and isequivalent to concentio in Cicero's terminology.An inspection of a good Greek lexicon willprove that before its reference to music dpfpoviahad other applications. Although Aristoxenusapplied this word in its musical acceptanceto the soul, yet his use of it seems metaphori-cal only. Despite much discussion it never

has been established that by dp[Lovta (har-monia) the ancients understood what we call" harmony," which is the sounding of severaltones together, and that consequently theycould produce polyphony, on which is basedharmony. This may seem strange to some,but it was not until our own century that theidea of harmony became familiar to Africanand Asiatic peoples, for harmony always hascharacterized only European and its derivedAmerican music. The ancient evidence showsthat the classical peoples only played and sangone-part music. So dppovia to them meantmerely " melody."


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12 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYplay the lyre (fides),60 was a veryfamous lyrist (nobilissimus fidicen)in Cicero's judgment (Fam., IX. 22.3).Another instructor of Socrates wasDamon,61 to whose specialization inmusic (musica) Cicero testifies (DeOr., III. 33. 132).Cicero states that Diodotus, theblind Stoic, who lived with him formany years, played the lyre (fides)in the Pythagorean manner (T. D.,V. 39- 113).62" Very devoted to music " (musi-corum perstudiosus) is one of Ci-cero's comments on Dionysius theElder of Syracuse (T. D., V. 22. 63).63Cicero records that Epaminondassang excellently to the accompani-ment of the lyre (fidibus praeclarecanere) (T. D., I. 2. 4).A Roman knight named NumeriusFurius, who was a friend of L. Licini-us Crassus (i40-9i), is said to sing(cantare) when it suits him (De Or.,III. 23- 87).Cicero mentions the boast of Hip-pias of Elis, the sophist, that in music(musica) there was nothing that hedid not know (De Or., III. 32. 127).Phemius, the slave of Atticus, wasa performer on the xipaq (Att., V. 20.9, 21. 9, VI. I. I3).64Proficiency in music (musica) isattributed to Plato (De Or., I. 50. 217;Fin., I. 21. 72).

An unnamed flutist (or flautist, asthe aficionados favor the term) fromRhodes (Rhodius tibicen) was theman from whom Verres took Tertia,the daughter of the mimic actor Isi-dorus (Verr., II. 3. 34- 78; 5. 12. 31; 5-31. 81).An anecdote about Simonides ofCeos tells us that this poet sang apoem (carmen canere) of his owncomposition (De Or., II. 86. 352).Cato the Censor envied Socrates'skill on the lyre (fides),65 an instru-ment (fides) which the ancients usedto study (C. M., 8. 26).M. Tigellius Hermogenes, both atibicen and a cantor,66 was not kindlydisposed toward Cicero (Famn.,VII.24. 2).Cicero preserves the story that theSpartans cut all the strings (nervi)on the lyre (fides) of Timotheus be-yond the traditional seven (Leg., II.15. 39).67A certain Valerius (otherwise un-known) used to sing (cantare) daily,because he was an actor (De Or., III.23. 86).While for the sake of the argumenthe asserts that a musician (musicus),as opposed to an orator, pursues oneof the leviora artium studia (De Or.,I. 49. 212), yet generally Cicero hasonly high praise for students of mu-sic and the study of music. Cicerosays that the Greeks considered thatthe highest education (summa erudi-"?Cf. below, text at note 65.

B6So Diogenes Laertius, op. cit., II. I9."What the allusion is in Pythagoreorum mosis not immediately apparent. Perhaps it meansmerely that there was a certain Pythagoreanmethod to play the lyre, if it does not meanthat the Pythagoreans considered music ascontributing to moral culture. For a thirdpossibility cf. below, text at note 73."3From the context, in which the tyrant iscalled a tragic poet, I think that from Cicero'sphrase we must conclude that Dionysius hadmusical talents and was not just a person wholiked to hear music, as the bald phrase mightpersuade us to believe."Cf. above, note 8 ad fin.OCf. above, text at note 60.

'The manuscripts give unctorem, which maybe due to anagrammatism. The emendationcantorem is quite clever on the part of Manu-zio, for we have evidence from Horatius(Sermones, I. 3. 1-4, 129-130) that Tigelliushad an established reputation as a singer."6It appears that Timotheus had the temerityto affront Spartan conservatism by carryingan eleven-stringed lyre to one of their musicalfestivals (Dio Chrysostomus, Orationes,XXXIII. 57). The mutilated instrument,which the ephors had confiscated, was still onexhibition at Sparta some 500 years after theevent (Pausanias, Descriptio Graeciae, III. 12.Io). Cf. also Plutarchus, Instituta Laconica,?I7, and Vitae Parallelae: Agis et Cleomenes,Io0. 4.


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CICERO MUSICUS 13tio) lay in instrumental and vocalmusic (nervorumvocumquecantus);therefore musicians (musici) flour-ished in Greece and all used to studythe subject; a man who knew noth-ing about it was thought not to becompletely educated (T. D., I. 2. 4).From Plato's Academy, as from anatelier of artists, musicians (musici)came (Fin., V. 3. 7). Persons whowant to play on the lyre or on theflute (fidibusaut tibiis uti) apply tomusicians (musici) for their training(Div., II. 3. 9). Like others engagedin specialized studies, musicians (mu-sici) speak in their own characteristicway (Fin., III. I. 4). Those who aretrained in music (cantus) hear morethan the ordinary person, for at thefirst note of the flutist (primus in-flatus tibicinis) they can identify theplay about to be presented, whenothers have not even a suspicion ofwhich play it will be (Acad., II. 7.zo). To recognize a song (carmenagnoscere) as soon as a flutist (tibi-cen) has blown (inflare) a note is themark of one who has been trained(Acad., II. 27. 86).

VIIn several passages Cicero illus-

tratesthe influence which music exertsover persons.18

Phrygian songs (Phrygius cantus)arouse disembodied souls (Div., I. 50.I14). To Cicero's fragmentary treat-ise De Consiliis Suis is assigned an an-ecdote about the Phrygian mode.69It seems that some tipsy youths, in-cited by the music of flutes (tibiarumcantus), were about to break a chastewoman's house-door, when Pytha-goras 70 advised a female flutist (tibi-cina) 71 to play a spondaic tune (spon-deum canere). When she had donethis, through the sluggishness of themeasures (modi) and by the slownessof the singer (canere) their mad wan-tonness subsided (Frag. Philos. F, X.3).In quoting a couplet from Pacu-vius' Iliona Cicero remarks that suchlines, when sung (concinere) inmeasuredand plaintive modes (modi),inflict sadness upon all in the theater(T. D., I. 44. o6).

By songs (cantus) men's souls oftenare stirred rather violently (Div., I.36. 80).72To turn their minds from mentalintensity to tranquillity by means ofvocal and instrumental music (cantusfidesque) was a Pythagorean prac-tice (T. D., IV. 2. 3).73In this category perhaps belongsa tale first told by Cicero (De Or.,

"In the already discussed episode of the Sirens(cf. above, text at note 50) Cicero weakenstheir power by supposing that voyagers stayedtheir course not so much because of the Sirens'musical charms as on account of the knowl-edge which the Sirens professed to impart."We look in vain to Cicero for any mention,as such, of the several Greek modes of musicand their variations. The traditional theory isthat originally there were three main modes:Dorian, Lydian, Phrygian. On these threefundamental modes there were invented laterthree variations: Hypodorian, Hypolydian,Hypophrygian (i7r6 signifying "lower inpitch "). No settled agreement among scholarshas established the place of a fourth variation,Mixolydian, or to which seven modes can beequated the Aeolian, the Ionian, the Lesbian,the Locrian, the Syntonolydian, the Theban,of which we also hear. Some support is givento the supposition that Aeolian and Hypodorian

are the same, that Ionian and Hypophrygianare similar, that Syntonolydian is akin toLydian and Hypolydian. Of course, the placesin which occurred intervals of tones andsemitones differed from mode to mode.But from Boethius (op. cit., I. I ad fin.) welearn that the type of music involved in theinitial part of this incident was the Phrygiusmodus. Augustinus also preserves Cicero'swords, although in briefer measure (Contralulianum Pelagianum, V. 23).7"Boethiusaccounts for the presence of Pytha-goras by telling that he was in the vicinityengaged in nocturnal astronomical pursuits(loc. cit. in note 69 above)."The only occurrence of this feminine nounin Cicero's works."Practically the same thing is said aboutsavage beasts, which by song (cantus) are in-fluenced and made to stand still (Arch., 8. I9)."sCf.above, note 62.


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14 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL OCIETYIII.6o.0. 225 - 6. 227). C. SemproniusGracchus had a skilled slave, who waswont to stand behind him out of sightwith a little ivory pipe (eburneola ...fistula),74 when his master was mak-ing an address, and to blow a note(inflare ... sonum) quickly, that hemight rouse him when he had be-come negligent or that he might re-call him from straining his voice. Inexplaining the principle on whichthe pipe (fistula) influenced thespeaker Cicero says that in everyvoice there is a mean pitch (quiddammedium), but each voice has its own:for the voice to rise gradually fromthis is both pleasant and also salutaryfor strengthening the voice; then thereis an extreme point of elevation (quid-dam contentionis extremum), whichnevertheless is lower than the shrillestscreech (acutissimus clamor), beyondwhich the pipe (fistula) will not letone advance and will recall one fromthe actual top (ipsa contentio); andlikewise on the other side there is adeepest point in descent (quiddamin remissione gravissimum) and to itone descends, as it were, by steps [i.e., scales] of sounds (tamquam sono-rum gradus). But, Cicero concludes,the piper (fistulator) 75 you will leaveat home and into the forum you willtake with you only the instinct de-rived from this practice.But the best or the largest exampleof the power exercised by musicdoubtless is Cicero's mention of thePlatonic theory that, when the songsof their musicians (musicorum can-tus) have been changed, the charac-

ter of commonwealths can be changed(Leg., III. 14. 32).76 Cicero's elabora-tion of this thesis occupies some space(Leg., II. 15. 38-39). Cicero concurswith Plato that nothing so easilymakes its way into youthful andyield-ing minds as the various notes of song(varii canendi soni), of which itscarcely can be told how great istheir power both for good and forevil. For it stimulates the listless andit calms the excited; now it releases,now it restrains men's spirits. Formany Greek states to preserve theirancient type of tunes (vocum modus)once was a matter of importance; but,when their songs (cantus) had be-come effeminate, their characters de-generated and likewise were changedto effeminacy, either because theywere depraved by this sweet corrup-tion, as some suppose, or because,when their strict pattern of life hadcollapsed because of other vices, intheir changed ears and hearts therewas place also for this alteration. Forthis reason indeed the wisest and byfar the most learned man of Greece[Plato] exceedingly feared this ca-tastrophe, for he denies that the lawsof music (musicae leges) can bechanged without change of the pub-lic laws. However, Cicero considersthat this change should neither bedreaded so greatly nor be entirely dis-dained; and yet he observes thatthose who were wont once to be satis-fied with the agreeable strictness ofthe tunes (modi) of Livius [Androni-cus] and Naevius now jump up andturn their necks and eyes in time withthe modulation of [modern] meas-ures (modorum flexiones).

VIIMusical customs, not strictly con-sidered in the class of private enter-tainment, secure some attention from

CCf. above, note 26.""Onlyhere in Cicero's writings.""Developedby Plato in his Politeia, IV. 424B-E. Additional treatment, especially alongethical and social lines in respect to the powerof music, is in op. cit., III. 401 D-4o2 D andin Leges, III. 7oo D-7oi A.


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CICERO MUSICUS I5Cicero.77 All these appear to be as-sociated in one or another way withreligious observances.In connection with funerals Ciceropreserves a statute from the TwelveTableswhich forbade that more thanten flute-players (tibicines) be em-ployed (Leg., II. 2 3- 59). A laudatiofunebris, says Cicero, customarily wassucceeded by a song (cantus) sungto the accompaniment of a flutist(tibicen). This song was known as anenia, a word which meant mourningsongs (cantus lugubres) in Greek(Leg., II. 24. 62).7 Funeral rites,which included ordinarily singing(cantus), were lacking in the case ofP. Clodius Pulcher (Mil., 32. 86).In compiling laws for his ideal StateCicero proposed that at the publicgames the public pleasurebe providedwith moderation in respect to vocaland instrumental music (cantus etfides et tibiae) and that this entertain-ment be combined with honor to thegods (Leg., II. 9. 22). In explainingthis provision, since the public gameswere divided between the theater andthe circus, Cicero says that the theatershall flourish with song, lyres, flutes(cantus ... fides et tibiae), providedthat this be with moderation, as willbe prescribed by law (Leg., II. 15.38).79 A preliminarychant (prae-centio) was a feature of the gamesand was supervised by priests (H. R.,10. 2I).80Music accompanied the consecra-

tion of property to the gods, as wasseen when C. Atinius Labeo had aflutist (tibicen) attend upon him indevoting the possessions of Q. Cae-cilius Metellus Macedonicus (DeDomo Sua, 47. 123), his politicalenemy, and when Clodius had a flutist(tibicen) as witness to his dedicationof the site of Cicero's Palatine houseto Liberty (Dorm.,48. 125), after hehad engineered his exile.At sacrifices, such as those whichCicero watched at Capua, where acolony had been established in 83, aflute-player (tibicen) assisted (Leg.Agr., II. 34- 93).-81The lyre and the flute (fides actibiae) were employed at ceremonialbanquets as early as the reign ofNuma Pompilius (De Or., III. 51.197).82 On the lyre (fides) wereplayed preludes (praecinere) at feastsfor gods and at banquets for magis-trates (T. D., IV. 2. 4).

VIIIMany references to music at pri-vate entertainments are found inCicero's writings.A curious word for performer isacroama, which Cicero uses thrice.

Originally meaning something like anaural gratification, such as reading ormusic, especially at meals, by me-tonymy it seems to mean an enter-tainer (Verr., II. 4. 22. 49), whether"7The sweeping statement that all Greeks usedto study music (T. D., I. 2. 4) and thePythagorean custom of withdrawal from in-tense cogitation by the use of vocal and instru-mental music (T. D., IV. 2. 3) have beenmentioned in the text after note 67 and atnote 73 respectively.T8What this Greek word was we know not.Nenia occurs only here in Cicero's works."Then follows Cicero's agreement with Plato'sstatement about the influence of music on youth(cf. above, text after note 76).

S0Particularly by members of the collegiumepulonum, which was composed of three atfirst and afterwards of seven members, whosuperintended sacrificial banquets to the gods.The Lentulus to whom Cicero speaks and towhose sacerdotium Cicero says the praecentiopertains seems to have been L. CorneliusLentulus Niger, who was a flamen Martialis.S1The flutist played to drown any ill-omenedsound (Plinius, Naturalis Historia, XXVIII.2. II).'The traditional date (for what little it isworth) is 715-672.


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16 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYa reader (Arch., 9. 20o) or a musician(Sest., 54. I I6).83Cicero reports that M. PorciusCato Censorius in his Origines 84 re-cords that guests at banquets were ac-customed to sing (canere) to the ac-companiment provided by a flutist(tibicen) the virtues of famous men(T. D., I. 2. 3).85 Cicero repeats thisstatement twice in slightly differentwords. In the first repetition (T. D.,IV. 2. 3) Cicero, using canere andtibia, deduces that in those early timessongs (cantus) and poems (carmina)had been written in accordance withvocal notes (vocum soni). In thesecond reiteration (Brut., 19. 75)Cicero, using cantitare 86and carmina,wishes that the songs were still extant.It was from feasting that the sameCato as a youth used to see in his oldage C. Duilius, who was the first Ro-man to conquer the Carthaginians ina naval battle, returning homeward,attended by a torch-bearer and by aflute-player (tibicen), 87 - a displaywhich without precedent as a privatecitizen he had assumed (C. M., I3.44) .8sDuring the consulate of A. Gabini-

us and L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninusthe former used to dance naked atbanquets in his house, which re-sounded (personare) with song andcymbals (cantus et cymbala), whilethe latter earned from Cicero the epi-thet of musicus 89 for his participationin a sort of feast of Lapiths and Cen-taurs (Pis., o. 22).The devotion of Chrysogonus tomusic was so great that the entireneighborhood rang (personare) withthe daily sound of vocal and instru-mental music (cantus vocum et ner-vorum et tibiarum) and with thenoise of nocturnal banquets (ProRoscio Aimerino, 46. 134).90Q. Apronius used to feast in public,while a combination of choral sing-ing and instrumental accompaniment(symphonia) provided music (can-ere) and wine was served in verylarge cups (Verr., II. 3. 44. io5)-That there were poets before Ho-merus is clear to Cicero on the groundthat songs (carmina) were sung (can-ere) at the banquets of the Phaeaciansand of the suitors for Penelope (Brut.,18. 71).91At dinner in another person's houseSimonides of Ceos honored his hostby singing a poem (carmen . . .There is in my mind no doubt about themeaning in the last locus, because in the tworelative clauses describing acroama appearfirst embolium and second psaltria."Cicero uses Cato's account in two ways: (x)To show the influence of Pythagoreanism uponthe Romans. His reasoning is remarkable: thePythagoreans conveyed precepts in metricalform and quieted their minds by singing to thelyre (cf. above, text at notes 62 and 73); theearly Romans at banquets sang about heroicdeeds to the flute; therefore the ancientRomans were acquainted with Pythagoreanprinciples. (2) To corroborate this statementby the testimony of the Twelve Tables, whichprove that at that time 1451-4491 it was usualto compose songs (carmen), because the lawdeclared that this could not be done to another'sinjury (T. D., IV. 2. 4; cf. Rep., IV. 0o. x12,where the same statute is mentioned, givingthe words carmen and occentare, on whichlatter word cf. above, note 20)."In the next section (4) of this treatise Cicerotells that Themistocles was held to be ratheruncultured, because he refused to play the lyre(lyra) at banquets. Lyra occurs only here inCicero's writings.

"Only occurrence in Cicero's writings."'Presumably the flutist of Duilius assisted inthe musical amenities of the meal."But Livius (Periochae, XVII) says that thishonor was conferred on Duilius in recognitionof his victory."Here an adjective used apparently meta-phorically, as is the sole appearance of theadverb musice in Latin (Plautus, Mostellaria,728). It seems to mean "living luxuriously"in each instance."It is doubtful that Cicero meant to distinguishbetween music by day and feasting by night,but it is unlikely that the banquets featured nomusical divertissement. The adjective cotidi-acus used need not mean necessarily "duringdaylight "; hence I have put here this passage."gFor the former by Demodocus (Homerus,Od., VIII. 43-47, 62-99, 470-543); for thelatter by Phemius (cf. above, note 8 ad init.).


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CICERO MUSICUS 17canere) of his own composition (DeOr., II. 86. 352).A brief description of a luxuriousbanquet provides the phrase sym-phoniae cantus (Frag. Orat. A, VI. I).Other references to entertainmentsnot necessarily feasts include these:Tiro had an invitation to Lyso's mu-sical party (symphonia), which Ci-cero wished that his faithful freedmanhad declined because of his delicatehealth (Fam., XVI. 9. 3). Clodia atBaiae organized recitals (cantus) andconcerts (symphoniae) for her guests(Cael., 15. 35).

IXAllusions to martial music are not

infrequent in Cicero's writings.Four times Cicero mentions thesignal to retreat. The orator askswhy, when the senate has soundedthe recall (receptui canere), the armyen route to Mutina should hasten tofight (Phil., XII. 3. 8). In an appealto M. Aemilius Lepidus it is assertedthat the weapons of patriotic Romanscannot be wrested from their handsand that the signal for retreat (recep-tui signum) they cannot hear (Phil.,XIII. 7. I5). Reason prohibits pay-ment of observance to vexations,withdraws from crabbed thoughts,makes its edge dull in contemplatingmiseries and, when it sounds a retreat(canere receptui) from these, againimpels and incites the soul to perceiveand to participate in various pleasureswith all one's mental powers (T. D.,III. 15-33). In a noble passageCiceroproclaims that, since we are urgedespecially to increase the resourcesof the human race and since we wishby our plansand efforts to make men'slife safer and richer and since by theincentives of Nature herself we areimpelled to this desire, we shouldmaintain that course, which has beenever that of every excellent man, and

we should not hear those signals,which sound the retreat (signa ...quae receptui canunt), to recall eventhose who already have preceded usRep., I. 2. 3).Bellicum canere 92 (to give the sig-nal for march or for attack) Cicerouses thrice, characterizing thus Thu-cydides' description of war (Or., 12.39), telling that others apply thisidiom to himself on account of hisactivities againstAntonius (Phil., VII.I. 3), employing this phrase to indi-cate the inception of a disturbancedestructive of the peacetime pursuitof oratory (Mur., 14. 30).An example of Cicero's antiquarianinterests is his etymology of lituus,the staff marking the augural office.This wand, which was crooked andat the top slightly curved, took itsname from its likeness to the trumpet(lituus) with which was sounded(canere) the charge to battle (Div.,I. 17. 30).To illustrate that in canvassing forthe consulate military distinctionbrings much more dignity than dis-tinction in jurisprudence, Cicero con-trasts the lives of Ser. Sulpicius Rufusand L. Licinius Murena (Mur., 9. 22),claiming inter alia that the former isawakened by the call of cocks, butthe latter is aroused by the sound oftrumpets (bucinarum cantus).In an imaginative flight Cicero as-sures Caesarthat the trumpets' sound(tubarum sonus) somehow seems todrown even the reading of the dicta-tor's praises won in war (Pro Mar-cello, 3. 9).Trumpets (tubae) and bugles(cornua) were sent to Catiline's army(Cat., II. 6. 13; Sull., 5. 17).9392Bellicum as a military signal seems alwaysto be used with canere.'Tubae in the first reference; in the secondreference cornua and also tubae, which com-monly is accepted for the manuscriptal tubes.


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18 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYTo the measure of the flute (modusac tibia) marched the Spartans (T. D.,II. I6. 37).

XSeveral musical terms take meta-phorical meanings in Cicero's works.Among such words arethe following:Cicero's son in a letter to Tiro(Farm.,XVI. 2 I. 2) calls him "thetrumpeter of my reputation " (buci-nator . .. existimationis meae).94Chorus carries twice an unfavor-able connotation, when Cicero ap-plies it to Catiline's crew of youths(Mur., 24. 49) and to idlers at Baiae(Att., XIV. 8. i); but Cicero also usesit in a good sense, when he attachesto it philosophi (Fin., I. 8. 26) andvirtutes (Off., III. 33. I 6; T. D., V.5. '3).In attacking Stoic syllogisms Ci-cero complains that by such reasoningit can be shown that the world is amusician (musicus) and he askswhether he must admit that the worldis a lyrist (fidicen) and a trumpeter(tubicen),95 because men of thoseprofessions are produced by it (N.D., III. 9- 23)-When Clodia is " on the warpath"for him, Cicero writes of her litui,which here probably mean the soundsmade by a bugle (Att., II. I2. 2).Attributed to Caesaris the expressionlituus meae perfectionis (Att., XI. 12.i), applied by him to Cicero'sbrother Quintus with reference toMarcus.Tuba belli civilis is a characteriza-tion of T. Ampius Balbus (Fam., VI.12. 3).Cicero asks from what symphony,so to speak (quasi concentus), canthere be a common ground between

a fissure in a liver and a paltry finan-cial profit (Div., II. 14. 34). When isseen clearly the range of the theorywhereby the causes and the issues ofthings are understood, a certain won-derful, so to speak, agreement andharmony (quasi concentus) of allstudies is found (De Or., III. 6. 21).Cicero uses wa),vwp2ia hree times(Att., II.9. I, IV. 5. 1, VII. 7- i).In the first place Cicero advises Atti-cus to expect a brilliant recantationof the superfine orations which hehas delivered in favor of Pompeius,if Pompeius can not keep Clodius un-der control. The third occurrenceof it refers to Cicero's reluctance tomake a volte face about his freedmanDionysius, whose character at timesdisplayed a lack of gratitude, butwhose literary attainments influencedCicero too much at the time of writ-ing to prevent Cicero from retractinghis recommendation of him. Thesecond passage has occasioned muchdiscussion as to the form of Cicero'srecantation, which clearly was anoverture to Caesar and a renuncia-tion of the optimate policy espousedby Cicero. Some suppose that thepalinode was Cicero's poem eitherDe Consulatu Suo or De TemporibusSuis; others suggest that it was Ci-cero's oration either De ProvinciisConsularibusor Pro Balbo; most favora formal letter to Caesar. If the lasthypothesis be true, the communica-tion has not survived.Canere in the sense of "to pro-phesy " occurs four times (Div., I. 50.115, II. 47- 98; Cat., III. 8. i8; Sest.,21. 47)."96 It also means "to compose "verses (Q. F., III. 5-6- 4) and "todescant " a speech (Or., 8. 27).Perhaps the only place in republi-can prose where cantare is found inthe general meaning of praising aThis is the only occurrence of bucinator inCicero's writings.

"5Some manuscripts record tibicen for tubicen,which appears only here in Cicero's works. "Cf. above, text at note 56.


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CICERO MUSICUS 19person without the laudation being inverse is Cicero's statement (Q. F., II.ii11[3]. i) that he sings Caesar'spraises (cantare Caesarem).Decantare in Cicero's writings,where it is found frequently, thoughit is rare elsewhere in the republicanperiod, appearsusually in a secondarysense " to repeat often " or " to sayover and over again " (Fin., IV. 4. 10;Rep., II. 31. 55; Div., I. 47. 105; Att.,XIII. 34. I; De Or., II. I8. 75, 32. 140).The only occurrence of praecen-tare in Cicero's works carries themeaning "to heal by incantation"(Fin., II. 29. 94).

XIBut it is in numerous similes thatwe see Cicero's knowledge of musicat its best and in its widest extent.Here is the truest touchstone to Ci-cero's contribution to music as a sci-ence and an art.Orators and oratory compared withmusicians and music furnish these ex-

amples:As they say in the case of Greekmusicians (artifices), those who cannot become singers to the lyre (citha-roedi)97 are singers to the flute(auloedi),98 so we see that those whocannot become orators turn aside tothe study of law (Mur., I3. 29).9"As a prelude (prooemium) of asinger to the lyre (citharoedus) ap-parently served simply as some kindof an introduction to the main partof the music, so Cicero warns hisreaders not to adopt that convention

in construction of a speech, wherethe opening part should be connectedclosely with what follows and shouldbe a member of the whole structure(De Or., II. 80. 325).100Just as, when flutes blown upon(tibiae inflatae) do not return asound (sonus), the flutist (tibicen)reckons that these must be discarded,so for the orator the ears of the popu-lace are, as it were, flutes (tibiae);if the ears do not receive the breathblown into these (inflatus) or if thehearer, like a horse, does not respond,there must be made an end of urging(Brut., 5-. 192). Akin to this state-ment is this comparison: A crowdhas such an effect that, as a flutist(tibicen) cannot make music (ca-nere) without a flute (tibiae), so anorator can not be eloquent withouta listening throng (De Or., II. 83.338).

As from the sound (sonus) of thestrings (nervi) on the lyre (fides) oneis wont to perceive how skillfullythese have been struck (pellere), sofrom the emotion of men's minds isseen what an orator accomplishes inplaying upon these (Brut., 54. 199).This simile leads to two others likeit: In the case of inattentive jurors,who yawn and gossip and inquirewhat is the time and ask for adjourn-ment, one realizes that in that law-suit there is not present an orator whocan make his oration play on thejurors' minds as one can make one'shand play on the lyre (admovere ...fidibus manum); but if one seesjurors alert and attentive and agree-ing and hanging on the orator's words,'That a citharoedus played on and sang tothe cithara seems clear from T. D., V. 4o. I16,where Cicero remarks that deaf persons do not

hear the voice of the singer to the lyre (voxcitharoedi). A citharista merely played thecithara."Apparently the only occurrence of this wordin Cicero's writings. Following the precedingnote, we can say that an auloedus sang to theai?6c (the word does not occur in Latindress) and that an abi-lr?f (this word iswanting in Latin) merely played the aia6.

"Quintilianus (op. cit., VIII. 3. 79) quotesthis simile to illustrate the figure redditio (re-ciprocal representation), whereby each subjectof comparison is placed, so to speak, beforeour eyes and is displayed side by side.x1?How universal was this lack of musicalintegration we know not, but from Cicero'ssweeping statement it seems that an exceptionwas extremely unusual, if not unconventional.


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20 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYlike a bird lured by some song (can-tus), one recognizes that an orator isengaged in the trial and that the ora-tor's work is in process or already hasbeen accomplished (Brut., 54. 200).A double illustration from thestage provides another comparison inthis category: As Roscius in his oldage sang (canere) the rhythms (nu-meri) in song (cantus) more slowlythan previously and made even theflutes (tibiae) play more slowly, sodaily you are mitigating somewhatthe terrific tensions (contentiones)which you used to employ, so thatnow your speaking is not much dif-ferent from the mildness of philoso-phers (Leg., I. 4. ii1). To add to hislikeness of an orator Cicero employsthis example again: Roscius is wontto say that, as he grows older,101hewill make the flutist's (tibicen) meas-ures (modi) slower and the songs(cantus) slower (De Or., I. 60. 254)-Music and morality produce thesecomparisons:102Just as the man wishing to be con-sidered a musician (musicus) butsinging out of tune (absurde canere)would be the more disgraced, becausehe fails in the very subject of whichhe professes knowledge, so a philo-sopher erring in his rule of life is themore disgraced, because in the dutyof which he desires to be a teacher hestumbles and he fails in his conductof life, though professing the art ofliving (T. D., II. 4. 12).To illustrate the correction of ourfaults is the aim of these two similes:As in lyres or flutes (fides aut tibiae),though only a little out of tune (pau-lum discrepare), nevertheless the

fault is wont to be noticed by an ex-pert, so in life we must watch, lestperhaps anything be out of tune (dis-crepare), or even much more, be-cause the harmony (concentus) ofactions is more important and betterthan that of sounds (soni). And so,as the ears of musicians (musici) dis-cern even the slightest errors in lyres(fides), so we, if we wish to be keenand careful observers of failings,often shall perceive important mat-ters from trifling things (Off., I. 40.I45 - 41. I46).In blasting the Stoic paradox thatall transgressions are equal Ciceroputs into the mouth of a Stoic pro-ponent this comparison: As in thecase of several lyres (fides), if noneof these is so strung (contendere) inrespect to its strings (nervi) that itcan keep its tune (concentus), all areequally out of tune (incontentus),103so transgressions, because these failto harmonize (discrepare), are equallydiscordant (discrepare); thereforethese are equal. Cicero calls this anequivocation and answers that it hap-pens that all the lyres (fides) equallyare out of tune (incontentus), butthat it does not follow that all areequally out of tune (incontentus).Cicero concludes that therefore thiscomparison does not aid the argu-ment (Fin., IV. 27. 75).Several similes concern the physi-cal side of life. Here belong these:Man's whole body and his everyfacial expression and all his vocaltones (voces), like strings (nervi) inlyres (fides), so sound (sonare) asthese are touched (pulsare) by eachemotion of the mind. For vocal tones(voces), like strings (chordae), areset (intendere) so as to answer toeach touch (De Or., III. 57. 216).

101Since Q. Roscius [Gallus], the celebratedcomedian, died in 62 when he was senex(Arch., 8. I7), Cicero seems to be guilty ofanachronism when he represents him as speak-ing of his advancing age in 91, which is thesupposed date of this dialogue.1Cf. above, text at note 76.

1'"In Latin this adjective seems to be airate2y6Pevov.


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CICERO MUSICUS 2 IA more detailed comparison is de-rived from the Stoic school: That the

tongue is like the quill of the lyre(plectrum),o"0 the teeth like thestrings (chordae), the nostrils likethose horns (cornua)105 which echo(resonare) to the strings (nervi) ininstrumental music (cantus), ourphilosophers are accustomed to say(N. D., II. 59. 149).Cicero says that, just as it must besaid that lyres (fides) and flutes(tibiae) have been made for the sakeof them who use these, so it must beadmitted that those things which hehas mentioned 106 have been pro-vided only for those who use them(N. D., II. 63. 157).A sustained analogy comes fromthe field of politics and is rather re-nowned: As in lyres (fides) or flutes(tibiae) and as in vocal music (cantusipse ac voces) must be maintainedfrom different tones (distincti soni)a certain concert (concentus), which,when altered or discordant (discre-pare), trained ears cannot endure,and as this concert (concentus) fromregulation of very unlike tones(voces) still is made to be concordant(concors) and consistent, so fromhighest and lowest and middle classes,when intermingled like tones (soni),a commonwealth, when systemati-cally regulated, is in accord (con-cinere) through the agreement ofmost dissimilarelements; and what bymusicians (musici) is called harmony(harmonia) in music (cantus) is con-cord (concordia)107 in a common-

wealth, the closest and greatest -bondof security in every commonwealth;and without justice this in no way canexist (Rep., II. 42. 69).Two miscellaneous similes concludethis collection:In disparaging lawyers who areready to advise any litigant, whetheror not right is on his side, Cicero says(Mur., 12. 26) that the same juris-consult deserts the plaintiff for thedefendant in the manner of a Latinflutist (tibicen).108To illustrate choice of avocationsto occupy one's spare time Ciceronotes (De Or., III. 15. 58) that, aspersons accustomed to constant dailywork, when they are kept from workbecause of the weather, turn their at-tention to ball-playing or to dicingor even invent some new game intheir leisure, so of those who eitherhave been debarred from political

affairs by the circumstances of thetime or have taken a vacation volun-tarily, some have betaken themselvesentirely to poets, others to geome-tricians, others to musicians (musici),while others even as dialecticianshave created for themselves a newinterest and amusement, and in thesepursuits, which were devised to moldchildren's minds to culture and tovirtue, they have spent all their timeand their lives.109

XIIIf we adhere to the limitation ofthis investigation as already deter-mined,109Cicero's presentation of thedoctrine of the music of the spheres,which he offers in the so-called Som-'Only occurrence in Cicero's writings.

'1OCornua was applied to the so-called hornsof the lyre. Since these were hollow, thesound of the strings, when played, was in-tensified.t10The produce of the earth (N. D., II. 62. 156)."'Earlier Cicero has said (Rep., I. 32. 49) thatconcord (cancordia) exists most easily in thatcommonwealth in which the same object isundertaken for the benefit of all and that

discords (discordiae) are produced from varia-tions of interest, when different measures areadvantageous to different persons.108The tibicen was supposed to have ac-companied on the tibia the actors, when theyalternately recited the cantica.1Cf. above, note 5.


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22 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETYnium Scipionis, the celebrated con-clusion of his De Re Publica (VI. I8.I8-I9),11O must be omitted. Apartfrom his treatment of that theoryenough evidence perhaps has been

assembled to show Cicero's contribu-tion to musical science and art, acontribution which appears to be themost extensive extant in Latin of therepublican age of Roman antiquity.

1'0Cicerohas several other references to themusic of the spheres in N. D., II. 7. 19, 46.119, III. II. 27. Princeton University

norton, p.r. - cicero musicus (jams vol. 1, no. 2, summer 1948)

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