North Sea

For other uses, see North Sea (disambiguation).

The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Oceanlocated between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany,the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric (or“shelf”) sea on the European continental shelf, it connectsto the ocean through the English Channel in the southand the Norwegian Sea in the north. It is more than 970kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi)wide, with an area of around 750,000 square kilometres(290,000 sq mi).The North Sea has long been the site of important Euro-pean shipping lanes as well as a major fishery. The sea is apopular destination for recreation and tourism in border-ing countries and more recently has developed into a richsource of energy resources including fossil fuels, wind,and early efforts in wave power.Historically, the North Sea has featured prominently ingeopolitical and military affairs, particularly in NorthernEurope but also globally through the power northern Eu-ropeans projected worldwide during much of the MiddleAges and into the modern era. The North Sea was thecentre of the Vikings’ rise. Subsequently, the HanseaticLeague, the Netherlands, and the British each sought todominate the North Sea and thus the access to the mar-kets and resources of the world. As Germany’s only outletto the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategicallyimportant through both World Wars.The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geolog-ical and geographical features. In the north, deep fjordsand sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coast-lines, whereas in the south it consists primarily of sandybeaches and wide mudflats. Due to the dense popula-tion, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the seaand area surrounding it, there have been a number of en-vironmental issues affecting the sea’s ecosystems. Envi-ronmental concerns — commonly including overfishing,industrial and agricultural runoff, dredging, and dumpingamong others — have led to a number of efforts to pre-vent degradation of the sea while still making use of itseconomic potential.

1 Geography

Main article: Geography of the North SeaSee also: List of rivers discharging into the North Sea

NorthSeaNorwegianSeaSkKaEng ChSk=Skagerrak Ka=KattegatEng Ch=English Channel

The North Sea is bounded by the Orkney Islands andeast coast of Great Britain to the west[1] and the north-ern and central European mainland to the east and south,including Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands,Belgium, and France.[2] In the southwest, beyond theStraits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the EnglishChannel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean.[1][2] In theeast, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak andKattegat,[2] narrow straits that separate Denmark fromNorway and Sweden respectively.[1] In the north it isbordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with theNorwegian Sea, which lies in the very north-eastern partof the Atlantic.[1][3]

The North Sea is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi)long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an areaof 750,000 square kilometres (290,000 sq mi) and avolume of 94,000 cubic kilometres (23,000 cu mi).[4]Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands

1

2 1 GEOGRAPHY

and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, and theFrisian Islands.[2] The North Sea receives freshwaterfrom a number of European continental watersheds, aswell as the British Isles. A large part of the Europeandrainage basin empties into the North Sea including wa-ter from the Baltic Sea. The largest and most importantrivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and theRhine – Meuse watershed.[5] Around 185 million peoplelive in the catchment area of the rivers discharging intothe North Sea encompassing some highly industrializedareas.[6]

1.1 Major features

For themost part, the sea lies on the European continentalshelf with a mean depth of 90 metres (300 ft).[1][7] Theonly exception is the Norwegian trench, which extendsparallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to an areanorth of Bergen.[1] It is between 20 and 30 kilometres (12and 19 mi) wide and has a maximum depth of 725 metres(2,379 ft).[8]

The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of un-consolidated glacial debris, rises to a mere 15 to 30 me-tres (50–100 ft) below the surface.[9][10] This feature hasproduced the finest fishing location of the North Sea.[1]The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large ar-eas with roughly uniform depth in fathoms, (forty fathomsand fourteen fathoms or 73 and 26 m deep respectively).These great banks and others make the North Sea partic-ularly hazardous to navigate,[11] which has been alleviatedby the implementation of satellite navigation systems.[12]The Devil’s Hole lies 200 miles (320 km) east of Dundee,Scotland. The feature is a series of asymmetrical trenchesbetween 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) long, 1 and2 kilometres (0.62 and 1.24 mi) wide and up to 230 me-tres (750 ft) deep.[13]

Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, FisherBank and Noordhinder Bank.

1.2 Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization defines thelimits of the North Sea as follows:[14]

On the Southwest. A line joining the WaldeLighthouse (France, 1°55'E) and LeathercoatPoint (England, 51°10'N).[15]

On the Northwest. From Dunnet Head(3°22'W) in Scotland to Tor Ness (58°47'N)in the Island of Hoy, thence through this islandto the Kame of Hoy (58°55'N) on to BreckNess on Mainland (58°58'N) through this is-land to Costa Head (3°14'W) and to Inga Ness(59'17'N) in Westray through Westray, to BowHead, across to Mull Head (North point ofPapa Westray) and on to Seal Skerry (North

point of North Ronaldsay) and thence to HorseIsland (South point of the Shetland Islands).

On the North. From theNorth point (Fetha-land Point) of the Mainland of the Shetland Is-lands, across to Graveland Ness (60°39'N) inthe Island of Yell, through Yell to Gloup Ness(1°04'W) and across to Spoo Ness (60°45'N)in Unst island, through Unst to Herma Ness(60°51'N), on to the SW point of the Rum-blings and to Muckle Flugga (60°51′N 0°53′W/ 60.850°N 0.883°W) all these being includedin the North Sea area; thence up the meridianof 0°53' West to the parallel of 61°00' Northand eastward along this parallel to the coast ofNorway, the whole of Viking Bank being thusincluded in the North Sea.

On the East. The Western limit of theSkagerrak [A line joining Hanstholm (57°07′N8°36′E / 57.117°N 8.600°E) and the Naze(Lindesnes, 58°N 7°E / 58°N 7°E)].

1.3 Hydrology

1.3.1 Temperature and salinity

The average temperature in summer is 17 °C (63 °F) and6 °C (43 °F) in the winter.[4] The average temperatureshave been trending higher since 1988, which has beenattributed to climate change.[16][17] Air temperatures inJanuary range on average between 0 to 4 °C (32 to 39 °F)and in July between 13 to 18 °C (55 to 64 °F). The wintermonths see frequent gales and storms.[1]

The salinity averages between 34 to 35 grams of salt perlitre of water.[4] The salinity has the highest variabilitywhere there is fresh water inflow, such as at the Rhineand Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coastof Norway.[18]

1.3.2 Water circulation and tides

The main pattern to the flow of water in the North Sea isan anti-clockwise rotation along the edges.[19]

The North Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean receivingthe majority of ocean current from the northwest open-ing, and a lesser portion of warm current from the smalleropening at the English Channel. These tidal currentsleave along the Norwegian coast.[20] Surface and deepwater currents may move in different directions. Lowsalinity surface coastal waters move offshore, and deeper,denser high salinity waters move in shore.[21]

The North Sea located on the continental shelf has dif-ferent waves than those in deep ocean water. The wavespeeds are diminished and the wave amplitudes are in-creased. In the North Sea there are two amphidromic sys-tems and a third incomplete amphidromic system.[22][23]

1.4 Coasts 3

In the North Sea the average tide difference in wave am-plitude is between 0 to 8 metres (0 to 26 ft).[4]

Ocean currents mainly entering via the north entrance exitingalong Norwegian coast

The Kelvin tide of the Atlantic ocean is a semidiurnalwave that travels northward. Some of the energy fromthis wave travels through the English Channel into theNorth Sea. The wave still travels northward in the At-lantic Ocean, and once past the northern tip of GreatBritain, the Kelvin wave turns east and south and onceagain enters into the North Sea.[24]

Selected tide ranges

1.4 Coasts

Main article: Coastline of the North SeaThe eastern and western coasts of the North Sea arejagged, formed by glaciers during the ice ages. The coast-lines along the southernmost part are covered with theremains of deposited glacial sediment.[1] The Norwegianmountains plunge into the sea creating deep fjords andarchipelagos. South of Stavanger, the coast softens, theislands become fewer.[1] The eastern Scottish coast issimilar, though less severe than Norway. From north eastof England, the cliffs become lower and are composedof less resistant moraine, which erodes more easily, sothat the coasts havemore rounded contours.[59][60] In Hol-land, Belgium and in the east of England (East Anglia) thelittoral is low and marshy.[1] The east coast and south-eastof the North Sea (Wadden Sea) have coastlines that are

• Localization of the tide-gauges listed• Tide times after Bergen (negative = before)• The three amphidromic centers• Coasts:marshes = greenmudflats = greenish bluelagoons = bright bluedunes = yellowsea dikes= purplemoraines near the coast= light brownrock-based coasts = grayish brown

The German North Sea coast

mainly sandy and straight owing to longshore drift, par-ticularly along Belgium and Denmark.[61]

4 2 COASTAL MANAGEMENT

2 Coastal management

Further information: Afsluitdijk, Delta Works, Floodcontrol in the Netherlands, Thames barrier and ZuiderzeeWorksThe southern coastal areas were originally amphibious

The Afsluitdijk (Closure-dike) is a major dam in the Netherlands

flood plains and swampy land. In areas especially vulner-able to storm tides, people settled behind elevated lev-ees and on natural areas of high ground such as spits andgeestland.[62]:[302,303] As early as 500 BC, people wereconstructing artificial dwelling hills higher than the pre-vailing flood levels.[62]:[306,308] It was only around the be-ginning of the High Middle Ages, in 1200 AD, that in-habitants began to connect single ring dikes into a dikeline along the entire coast, thereby turning amphibiousregions between the land and the sea into permanent solidground.[62]

The modern form of the dikes supplemented by overflowand lateral diversion channels, began to appear in the 17thand 18th centuries, built in theNetherlands.[63] TheNorthSea Floods of 1953 and 1962 were impetus for furtherraising of the dikes as well as the shortening of the coastline so as to present as little surface area as possible to thepunishment of the sea and the storms.[64] Currently, 27%of the Netherlands is below sea level protected by dikes,dunes, and beach flats.[65]

Coastal management today consists of several levels.[66]The dike slope reduces the energy of the incomingsea, so that the dike itself does not receive the fullimpact.[66] Dikes that lie directly on the sea are espe-cially reinforced.[66] The dikes have, over the years, beenrepeatedly raised, sometimes up to 9 metres (30 ft) andhave been made flatter to better reduce wave erosion.[67]Where the dunes are sufficient to protect the land behindthem from the sea, these dunes are planted with beachgrass to protect them from erosion by wind, water, andfoot traffic.[68]

2.1 Storm tides

Main article: Storm tides of the North SeaStorm tides threaten, in particular, the coasts of the

Zuid-Beveland, North Sea flood of 1953

Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark and lowlying areas of eastern England particularly around TheWash and Fens.[61] Storm surges are caused by changesin barometric pressure combined with strong wind cre-ated wave action.[69]

The first recorded storm tide flood was the Julianenflut,on 17 February 1164. In its wake the Jadebusen, (a bayon the coast of Germany), began to form. A storm tidein 1228 is recorded to have killed more than 100,000people.[70] In 1362, the Second Marcellus Flood, alsoknown as the Grote Manndränke, hit the entire south-ern coast of the North Sea. Chronicles of the time againrecord more than 100,000 deaths as large parts of thecoast were lost permanently to the sea, including thenow legendary lost city of Rungholt.[71] In the 20th cen-tury, the North Sea flood of 1953 flooded several nations’coasts and cost more than 2,000 lives.[72] 315 citizens ofHamburg died in the North Sea flood of 1962.[73]:[79,86]

2.1.1 Tsunamis

Though rare, the North Sea has been the site of a numberof historically documented tsunamis. The Storegga Slideswere a series of underwater landslides, in which a piece ofthe Norwegian continental shelf slid into the NorwegianSea. The immense landslips occurred between 8150 BCEand 6000 BCE, and caused a tsunami up to 20 metres(66 ft) high that swept through the North Sea, having thegreatest effect on Scotland and the Faeroe Islands.[74][75]The Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 is among the firstrecorded earthquakes in the North Sea measuring be-tween 5.6 and 5.9 on the Richter Scale. This event causedextensive damage in Calais both through its tremors andpossibly triggered a tsunami, though this has never beenconfirmed. The theory is a vast underwater landslide

5

in the English Channel was triggered by the earthquake,which in turn caused a tsunami.[76] The tsunami trig-gered by the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake reached Holland,although the waves had lost their destructive power. Thelargest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdomwas the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured6.1 on the Richter Scale and caused a small tsunami thatflooded parts of the British coast.[76]

3 Geology

Main article: Geology of the North SeaShallow epicontinental seas like the current North Sea

The North Sea between 34 million years ago and 28 million yearsago, as Central Europe became dry land

have since long existed on the European continental shelf.The rifting that formed the northern part of the AtlanticOcean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, fromabout 150 million years ago, caused tectonic uplift in theBritish Isles.[77] Since then, a shallow sea has almost con-tinuously existed between the highs of the FennoscandianShield and the British Isles.[78] This precursor of the cur-rent North Sea has grown and shrunk with the rise and fallof the eustatic sea level during geologic time. Sometimesit was connected with other shallow seas, such as the seaabove the Paris Basin to the south-west, the ParatethysSea to the south-east, or the Tethys Ocean to the south.[79]

During the Late Cretaceous, about 85 million years ago,all of modern mainland Europe except for Scandinaviawas a scattering of islands.[80] By the Early Oligocene,34 to 28 million years ago, the emergence of West-ern and Central Europe had almost completely separatedthe North Sea from the Tethys Ocean, which graduallyshrank to become the Mediterranean as Southern Europeand South West Asia became dry land.[81] The North Seawas cut off from the English Channel by a narrow landbridge until that was breached by at least two catastrophicfloods between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago.[82][83]Since the start of the Quaternary period about 2.6 millionyears ago, the eustatic sea level has fallen during eachglacial period and then risen again. Every time the ice

Map showing hypothetical extent of Doggerland (c. 8,000 BC),which provided a land bridge between Great Britain and conti-nental Europe

sheet reached its greatest extent, the North Sea becamealmost completely dry. The present-day coastline formedafter the Last Glacial Maximum when the sea began toflood the European continental shelf.[84]

In 2006 a bone fragment was found while drilling foroil in the north sea. Analysis indicated that it was aPlateosaurus from 199 to 216 million years ago. This wasthe deepest dinosaur fossil ever found and the first find forNorway.[85]

4 Natural history

4.1 Fish and shellfish

See also: List of fish of the North SeaCopepods and other zooplankton are plentiful in theNorth Sea. These tiny organisms are crucial elementsof the food chain supporting many species of fish.[86]Over 230 species of fish live in the North Sea. Cod,haddock, whiting, saithe, plaice, sole, mackerel, herring,pouting, sprat, and sandeel are all very common and arefished commercially.[86][87] Due to the various depths ofthe North Sea trenches and differences in salinity, tem-perature, and water movement, some fish such as blue-mouth redfish and rabbitfish reside only in small areas ofthe North Sea.[88]

Crustaceans are also commonly found throughout the sea.Norway lobster, deep-water prawns, and brown shrimpare all commercially fished, but other species of lobster,shrimp, oyster, mussels and clams all live in the NorthSea.[86] Recently non-indigenous species have become es-

6 4 NATURAL HISTORY

Pacific oysters, blue mussels and cockles in the Wadden Sea inthe Netherlands

tablished including the Pacific oyster and Atlantic jack-knife clam.[87]

4.2 Birds

The coasts of the North Sea are home to nature re-serves including the Ythan Estuary, Fowlsheugh NaturePreserve, and Farne Islands in the UK and the WaddenSea National Parks in Denmark, Germany and theNetherlands.[86] These locations provide breeding habitatfor dozens of bird species. Tens of millions of birds makeuse of the North Sea for breeding, feeding, or migratorystopovers every year. Populations of black legged kit-tiwakes, Atlantic puffins, northern fulmars, and speciesof petrels, gannets, seaducks, loons (divers), cormorants,gulls, auks, and terns, andmany other seabirdsmake thesecoasts popular for birdwatching.[86][87]

4.3 Marine mammals

A female bottlenose dolphin with her young in Moray Firth, Scot-land

The North Sea is also home to marine mammals.Common seals, and harbour porpoises can be foundalong the coasts, at marine installations, and on islands.

The very northern North Sea islands such as the Shet-land Islands are occasionally home to a larger variety ofpinnipeds including bearded, harp, hooded and ringedseals, and even walrus.[89] North Sea cetaceans includevarious porpoise, dolphin and whale species.[87][90]

4.4 Flora

Phytoplankton bloom in the North Sea

Plant species in the North Sea include species of wrack,among them bladder wrack, knotted wrack, and serratedwrack. Algae, macroalgal, and kelp, such as oarweed andlaminaria hyperboria, and species of maerl are found aswell.[87] Eelgrass, formerly common in the entirety of theWadden Sea, was nearly wiped out in the 20th centuryby a disease.[91] Similarly, sea grass used to coat hugetracts of ocean floor, but have been damaged by trawlingand dredging have diminished its habitat and preventedits return.[92] Invasive Japanese seaweed has spread alongthe shores of the sea clogging harbours and inlets and hasbecome a nuisance.[93]

4.5 Biodiversity and conservation

Due to the heavy human populations and high level of in-dustrialization along its shores, the wildlife of the NorthSea has suffered from pollution, overhunting, and over-fishing. Flamingos, pelicans, and great auk were oncefound along the southern shores of the North Sea, butwent extinct over the 2nd millennium.[94] Walruses fre-quented the Orkney Islands through the mid-16th cen-tury, as both Sable Island and Orkney Islands lay withinits normal range.[95] Gray whales also resided in theNorth Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlanticin the 17th century[96] Other species have dramaticallydeclined in population, though they are still found. Rightwhales, sturgeon, shad, rays, skates, salmon, and otherspecies were common in the North Sea until the 20th cen-tury, when numbers declined due to overfishing.[97][98]Other factors like the introduction of non-indigenousspecies, industrial and agricultural pollution, trawling

5.1 Name 7

and dredging, human-induced eutrophication, construc-tion on coastal breeding and feeding grounds, sand andgravel extraction, offshore construction, and heavy ship-ping traffic have also contributed to the decline.[87]

The OSPAR commission manages the OSPAR conven-tion to counteract the harmful effects of human activityon wildlife in the North Sea, preserve endangered species,and provide environmental protection.[99] All North Seaborder states are signatories of the MARPOL 73/78 Ac-cords, which preserve the marine environment by pre-venting pollution from ships.[100] Germany, Denmark,and the Netherlands also have a trilateral agreement forthe protection of the Wadden Sea, or mudflats, which runalong the coasts of the three countries on the southernedge of the North Sea.[101]

4.6 Whaling

Whaling was an important economic activity from the 9thuntil the 13th century for Flemish whalers.[102] The me-dieval Flemish, Basque and Norwegian whalers who werereplaced in the 16th century by Dutch, English, Danesand Germans, took massive numbers of whales and dol-phins and nearly depleted the right whales. This activitylikely led to the extinction of the Atlantic population ofthe once common gray whale.[103] By 1902 the whalinghad ended.[102] After being absent for 300 years a singlegray whale returned,[104] it probably was the first of manymore to find its way through the now ice-free North-westPassage. Once 16-metre (50 ft) “fish” were taken in largequantities at the mouth of the Seine River.[105] Perhapsthe gray whale will someday return to its former Seine es-tuary breeding grounds and to the feeding grounds of theWadden Sea[105] where it will again roil the sediments andrelease its benthic nutrients that will benefit the ecosys-tem.

5 History

Main article: History of the North Sea

5.1 Name

Through history various names have been used for theNorth Sea. One of the earliest recorded names wasSeptentrionalis Oceanus, or “Northern Ocean,” whichwas cited by Pliny.[106] The name “North Sea” probablycame into English, however, via the Dutch “Noordzee”,who named it thus either in contrast with the Zuiderzee(“South Sea”), located south of Frisia, or simply becausethe sea is generally to the north of the Netherlands. Be-fore the adoption of “North Sea,” the names used in En-glish were “German Sea” or “German Ocean”, the latter

A 1490 recreation of a map from Ptolemy’s Geography showingthe “Oceanus Germanicus”

Edmond Halley's solar eclipse 1715 map showing The GermanSea

referred to the Latin name “Oceanus Germanicus”,[107]and they persisted even into the 1830s.[108]

Other common names in use for long periods were theLatin terms Mare Frisicum,[109] as well as their Englishequivalents, “Frisian Sea”.[110]

8 5 HISTORY

The modern names of the sea in local languages are:Danish: Nordsøen, Dutch: Noordzee, Dutch Low Saxon:Noordzee, French: Mer du Nord, Frisian: Noardsee,German: Nordsee, Low German: Noordsee, NorthernFrisian: Weestsiie, Norwegian: Nordsjøen, Nynorsk:Nordsjøen, Scots: German Ocean, Scottish Gaelic: AnCuan a Tuath, West Flemish: Nôordzêe and Zeeuws:Noôrdzeê.

5.2 Early history

The North Sea has provided waterway access for com-merce and conquest. Many areas have access to the NorthSea with its long coastline and European rivers that emptyinto it.[1] The British Isles had been protected from inva-sion by the North Sea waters[1] until the Roman conquestof Britain in 43 CE. The Romans established organisedports, shipping increased and sustained trade began.[111]When the Romans abandoned Britain in 410 the Ger-manic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great mi-gration across the North Sea during the Migration Periodinvading England.[112]

The Viking Age began in 793 with the attack onLindisfarne and for the next quarter-millennium theVikings ruled the North Sea. In their superior longships,they raided, traded, and established colonies and outpostson the sea’s coasts. From the Middle Ages through the15th century, the northern European coastal ports ex-ported domestic goods, dyes, linen, salt, metal goods andwine. The Scandinavian and Baltic areas shipped grain,fish, naval necessities, and timber. In turn the NorthSea countries imported high grade cloths, spices, andfruits from theMediterranean region[113] Commerce dur-ing this era was mainly undertaken by maritime trade dueto underdeveloped roadways.[113]

In the 13th century the Hanseatic League, though cen-tred on the Baltic Sea, started to control most of thetrade through important members and outposts on theNorth Sea.[114] The League lost its dominance in the 16thcentury, as neighbouring states took control of formerHanseatic cities and outposts and internal conflict pre-vented effective cooperation and defence.[115] Further-more, as the League lost control of its maritime cities,new trade routes emerged that provided Europe withAsian, American, and African goods.[116][117]

5.3 Age of sail

The 17th century Dutch Golden Age during which Dutchherring, cod and whale fisheries reached an all timehigh[113] sawDutch power at its zenith.[118][119] Importantoverseas colonies, a vast merchant marine, powerful navyand large profits made the Dutch the main challengers toan ambitious England. This rivalry led to the first threeAnglo-DutchWars between 1652 and 1673, which endedwith Dutch victories.[119] After the Glorious Revolution

Painting of the Four Days Battle of 1666 byWillem van de Veldethe Younger

the Dutch princeWilliam ascended to the English throne.With both countries united, commercial, military, andpolitical power shifted from Amsterdam to London.[120]The British did not face a challenge to their dominanceof the North Sea until the 20th century.[121]

5.4 Modern era

German cruiser SMS Blücher sinks in the Battle of Dogger Bankon 25 January 1915.

Tensions in the North Sea were again heightened in 1904by the Dogger Bank incident. During the Russo-JapaneseWar, several ships of the Russian Baltic Fleet, which wason its way to the Far East, mistook British fishing boatsfor Japanese ships and fired on them, and then upon eachother, near the Dogger Bank, nearly causing Britain toenter the war on the side of Japan.During the First World War, Great Britain’s Grand Fleetand Germany’s Kaiserliche Marine faced each other inthe North Sea,[122] which became the main theatre ofthe war for surface action.[122] Britain’s larger fleet andNorth Sea Mine Barrage were able to establish an ef-fective blockade for most of the war, which restrictedthe Central Powers' access to many crucial resources.[123]Major battles included the Battle of Heligoland Bight,[124]

6.2 Oil and gas 9

the Battle of the Dogger Bank,[125] and the Battle of Jut-land.[125] World War I also brought the first extensive useof submarine warfare, and a number of submarine actionsoccurred in the North Sea.[126]

The Second World War also saw action in the NorthSea,[127] though it was restricted more to aircraft recon-naissance, and action by fighter/bomber aircraft, sub-marines, and smaller vessels such as minesweepers andtorpedo boats.[128]

In the aftermath the war, hundreds of thousands of tonsof chemical weapons were disposed of by being dumpedin the North Sea.[129]

After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military sig-nificance because it is bordered only by NATO member-states. However, it gained significant economic impor-tance in the 1960s as the states around the North Sea be-gan full-scale exploitation of its oil and gas resources.[130]The North Sea continues to be an active trade route.[131]

6 Economy

The Exclusive Economic Zones in the North Sea

6.1 Political status

Countries that border the North Sea all claim the 12nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) of territorial waters,within which they have exclusive fishing rights.[132] TheCommon Fisheries Policy of the European Union (EU)exists to coordinate fishing rights and assist with dis-putes between EU states and the EU border state ofNorway.[133]

After the discovery of mineral resources in the NorthSea, the Convention on the Continental Shelf establishedcountry rights largely divided along the median line. Themedian line is defined as the line “every point of whichis equidistant from the nearest points of the baselinesfrom which the breadth of the territorial sea of each Stateis measured.”[134] The ocean floor border between Ger-many, the Netherlands, and Denmark was only reappor-tioned after protracted negotiations and a judgement ofthe International Court of Justice.[132][135]

6.2 Oil and gas

Further information: North Sea oil and List of oil andgas fields of the North Sea

As early as 1859, oil was discovered in onshore areasaround the North Sea and natural gas as early as 1910.[80]

Oil platform Statfjord A with the flotel Polymarine

Test drilling began in 1966 and then, in 1969, PhillipsPetroleum Company discovered the Ekofisk oil field[136]distinguished by valuable, low-sulphur oil.[137] Commer-cial exploitation began in 1971 with tankers and, after1975, by a pipeline, first to Teesside, England and then,after 1977, also to Emden, Germany.[138]

The exploitation of the North Sea oil reserves began justbefore the 1973 oil crisis, and the climb of internationaloil prices made the large investments needed for extrac-tion much more attractive.[139]

Although the production costs are relatively high, thequality of the oil, the political stability of the region,and the nearness of important markets in western Eu-rope has made the North Sea an important oil producingregion.[137] The largest single humanitarian catastrophein the North Sea oil industry was the destruction of theoffshore oil platform Piper Alpha in 1988 in which 167people lost their lives.[140]

Besides the Ekofisk oil field, the Statfjord oil field is alsonotable as it was the cause of the first pipeline to spanthe Norwegian trench.[141] The largest natural gas field in

10 6 ECONOMY

the North Sea, Troll gas field, lies in the Norwegian trenchdropping over 300 metres (980 ft) requiring the construc-tion of the enormous Troll A platform to access it.The price of Brent Crude, one of the first types of oilextracted from the North Sea, is used today as a stan-dard price for comparison for crude oil from the restof the world.[142] The North Sea contains western Eu-rope’s largest oil and natural gas reserves and is one ofthe world’s key non-OPEC producing regions.[143]

In the UK sector of the North Sea, the oil industry in-vested £14.4 billion in 2013, and was on track to spend£13 billion in 2014. Industry body Oil & Gas UK put thedecline down to rising costs, lower production, high taxrates, and less exploration.[144]

6.3 Fishing

A trawler in Nordstrand, Germany

Main article: Fishing in the North Sea

The North Sea is Europe’s main fishery accounting forover 5% of international commercial fish caught.[1] Fish-ing in the North Sea is concentrated in the southern partof the coastal waters. The main method of fishing istrawling.[145] In 1995, the total volume of fish and shell-fish caught in the North Sea was approximately 3.5 mil-lion tonnes.[146] Besides fish, it is estimated that one mil-lion tonnes of unmarketable by-catch is caught and dis-carded each year.[147]

In recent decades, overfishing has left many fisheries un-productive, disturbing marine food chain dynamics andcosting jobs in the fishing industry.[148] Herring, cod andplaice fisheries may soon face the same plight as mackerelfishing, which ceased in the 1970s due to overfishing.[149]The objective of the European Union Common FisheriesPolicy is to minimize the environmental impact associ-ated with resource use by reducing fish discards, increas-ing productivity of fisheries, stabilising markets of fish-eries and fish processing, and supplying fish at reasonableprices for the consumer.[150]

6.4 Mineral resources

Unpolished amber stones, in varying hues

In addition to oil, gas, and fish, the states along theNorth Sea also take millions of cubic metres per yearof sand and gravel from the ocean floor. Theseare used for beach nourishment, land reclamation andconstruction.[151] Rolled pieces of amber may be pickedup on the east coast of England.[152]

6.5 Renewable energy

Further information: Renewable energy in the EuropeanUnion and List of offshore wind farms in the North Sea

Due to the strong prevailing winds, countries on the NorthSea, particularly Germany and Denmark, have used theshore for wind power since the 1990s.[153] The NorthSea is the home of one of the first large-scale offshorewind farms in the world, Horns Rev 1, completed in2002. Since then many other wind farms have been com-missioned in the North Sea (and elsewhere), includingthe two largest windfarms in the world as of Septem-ber 2010; Thanet in the UK[154][155] and Horns Rev 2 inDenmark.[156]

The expansion of offshore wind farms has met withsome resistance. Concerns have included shippingcollisions[157] and environmental effects on ocean ecol-ogy and wildlife such as fish and migratory birds,[158]however, these concerns were found to be negligible ina long-term study in Denmark released in 2006 and againin a UK government study in 2009.[159][160] There arealso concerns about reliability,[161] and the rising costsof constructing and maintaining offshore wind farms.[162]Despite these, development of North Sea wind power iscontinuing, with plans for additional wind farms off thecoasts of Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK.[163]There have also been proposals for a transnational powergrid in the North Sea to connect new offshore windfarms.[164][165]

Energy production from tidal power is still in a pre-commercial stage. The European Marine Energy Centre

6.7 Marine traffic 11

has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on theOrkney mainland[166] and a tidal power testing station onthe nearby island of Eday.[167] Since 2003, a prototypeWave Dragon energy converter has been in operation atNissum Bredning fjord of northern Denmark.[168]

6.6 Tourism

The beach in Scheveningen, Netherlands in c. 1900

The beaches and coastal waters of the North Sea are pop-ular destinations for tourists. The Belgian, Dutch, Ger-man and Danish coasts[169][170] are especially developedfor tourism. The North Sea coast of the United Kingdomis also a well developed tourist destination with beach re-sorts and is particularly famous for its golfing resorts.The Kingdom of Fife in Scotland being particularly fa-mous for its Golfing coastal links courses. The coastalCity of St. Andrews being renowned as the “Homeof Golf”. The coast of North East England has sev-eral tourist towns such as Scarborough, Bridlington,Seahouses, Whitby, Robin Hood’s Bay & Seaton Carew.The coast of North East England has long sandy beachesand famous links golfing locations such as Seaton CarewGolf Club and Goswick Golf Club.The North Sea Trail is a long-distance trail linkingseven countries around the North Sea.[171] Windsurf-ing and sailing[172] are popular sports because of thestrong winds. Mudflat hiking,[173] recreational fishing andbirdwatching[170] are among other popular activities.The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast are of-ten claimed to be especially healthful. As early as the19th century, travellers used their stays on the NorthSea coast as curative and restorative vacations. The seaair, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are countedamong the beneficial conditions that are said to activatethe body’s defences, improve circulation, strengthen theimmune system, and have healing effects on the skin andthe respiratory system.[174]

6.7 Marine traffic

See also: List of North Sea ports

The North Sea is important for marine transport and itsshipping lanes are among the busiest in the world.[132]Major ports are located along its coasts: Rotterdam,the busiest port in Europe and the fourth busiest portin the world by tonnage as of 2013, Antwerp (was16th) and Hamburg (was 27th), Bremen/Bremerhavenand Felixstowe, both in the top 30 busiest container sea-ports,[175] as well as the Port of Bruges-Zeebrugge, Eu-rope’s leading RoRo port.[176]

Rotterdam, Netherlands

Fishing boats, service boats for offshore industries, sportand pleasure craft, and merchant ships to and from NorthSea ports and Baltic ports must share routes on the NorthSea. The Dover Strait alone sees more than 400 commer-cial vessels a day.[177] Because of this volume, navigationin the North Sea can be difficult in high traffic zones, soports have established elaborate vessel traffic services tomonitor and direct ships into and out of port.[178]

The North Sea coasts are home to numerous canals andcanal systems to facilitate traffic between and amongrivers, artificial harbours, and the sea. The Kiel Canal,connecting the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, is the mostheavily used artificial seaway in the world reporting anaverage of 89 ships per day not including sporting boatsand other small watercraft in 2009.[179] It saves an aver-age of 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi), instead ofthe voyage around the Jutland Peninsula.[180] The NorthSea Canal connects Amsterdam with the North Sea.

7 See also

• Doggerland

• European Atlas of the Seas

• List of languages of the North Sea

12 8 NOTES

• List of the largest islands in the North Sea

• North Sea Commission

8 Notes[1] L.M.A. (1985). “Europe”. In University of Chicago.

Encyclopædia Britannica Macropædia 18 (Fifteenth ed.).U.S.A.: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. pp. 832–835.ISBN 0-85229-423-9.

[2] Ripley, George; Charles Anderson Dana (1883). TheAmerican Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of GeneralKnowledge (Digitized 11 October 2007 by Google Booksonline). D. Appleton and company. p. 499. Retrieved 26December 2008.

[3] Helland-Hansen, Bjørn; Fridtjof Nansen (1909). “IV. TheBasin of the Norwegian Sea.”. Report on Norwegian Fish-ery and Marine-Investigations Vol. 11 No. 2. GeofysiskInstitutt. Retrieved 9 January 2009.

[4] “About the North Sea: Key facts”. Safety at Sea project:Norwegian Coastal Administration. 2008. Retrieved 2November 2008.

[5] Ray, Alan; G. Carleton; Jerry McCormick-Ray (2004).Coastal-marine Conservation: Science and Policy (Digi-tized by Google Books online) (illustrated ed.). BlackwellPublishing. p. 262. ISBN 0-632-05537-5. Retrieved 21January 2009.

[6] “Chapter 5: North Sea” (PDF). Environmental Guidebookon the Enclosed Coastal Seas of the World. InternationalCenter for the Environmental Management of EnclosedCoastal Seas. 2003. Retrieved 24 November 2008.

[7] Calow, Peter (1999). Blackwell’s Concise Encyclopedia ofEnvironmental Management. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN0-632-04951-0. Retrieved 26 December 2008.

[8] “Limits in the seas: North Sea continental shelf bound-aries” (PDF). U.S. Department of State. United StatesGovernment. 14 June 1974. Retrieved 17 June 2013.

[9] Ostergren, Robert Clifford; John G. Rice (2004). TheEuropeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Envi-ronment (Digitized by Google Books online). Bath, UK:Guilford Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-89862-272-7. Retrieved10 January 2009.

[10] Dogger Bank. Maptech Online MapServer. 1989–2008.Retrieved 20 July 2007.

[11] Tuckey, JamesHingston (1815). Maritime Geography andStatistics ... (Digitized 2 May 2007 by Google Books on-line). Black, Parry & Co. p. 445. ISBN 9780521311915.Retrieved 10 January 2009.

[12] Bradford, Thomas Gamaliel (1838). Encyclopædia Amer-icana: A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Litera-ture, History, Politics, and Biography, Brought Down to thePresent Time; Including a Copious Collection of OriginalArticles in American Biography; on the Basis of the SeventhEdition of the German Conversations-lexicon (Digitized 11

October 2007 by Google Books online). Thomas, Cow-perthwait, & co. p. 445. ISBN 9780521311915. Re-trieved 10 January 2009.

[13] Alan Fyfe (Autumn 1983). “TheDevil’s Hole in the NorthSea”. The Edinburgh Geologist (14). Retrieved 2 Novem-ber 2008.

[14] “Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition” (PDF). Inter-national Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 6February 2010.

[15] The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km (4 mi) east of Calais(50°59′06″N 1°55′00″E / 50.98500°N 1.91667°E), andLeathercoat Point is at the north end of St Margaret’s Bay,Kent (51°10′00″N 1°24′00″E / 51.16667°N 1.40000°E).

[16] “North Sea cod 'could disappear' even if fishing outlawed”Telegraph.co.uk

[17] “Global Warming Triggers North Sea Temperature Rise”.Agence France-Presse. SpaceDaily.AFP and UPI WireStories. 14 November 2006. Retrieved 1 December2008.

[18] Reddy, M. P. M. (2001). “Annual variation in SurfaceSalinity”. Descriptive Physical Oceanography. Taylor &Francis. p. 114. ISBN 90-5410-706-5. Retrieved 3 De-cember 2008.

[19] “Met Office: Flood alert!". Met office UK government.28 November 2006. Archived from the original on 31 De-cember 2006. Retrieved 2 November 2008.

[20] “Safety At Sea”. Currents in the North Sea. 2009. Re-trieved 9 January 2009.

[21] Freestone, David; Ton IJlstra (1990). “Physical Proper-ties of Sea Water and their Distribution Annual: Varia-tion in Surface Salinity”. The North Sea: Perspectives onRegional Environmental Co-operation. Martinus NijhoffPublishers. pp. 66–70. ISBN 1-85333-413-8. Retrieved3 December 2008.

[22] Dyke, Phil (1974). Modeling Coastal and Offshore Pro-cesses. Imperial College Press. pp. 323–365. ISBN 1-86094-674-7. Retrieved 4 December 2008. p. 329 tidalmap showing amphidromes

[23] Carter, R. W. G. (1974). Coastal Environments: An In-troduction to the Physical, Ecological and Cultural Systemsof Coastlines. Academic Press. pp. 155–158. ISBN 0-12-161856-0. Retrieved 4 December 2008. p. 157 tidalmap showing amphidromes

[24] Pugh, D. T. (2004). Changing Sea Levels: Effects of Tides,Weather, and Climate (Digitized byGoogle Books online).Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-521-53218-3. Retrieved 4 December 2008. p. 94 shows the am-phidromic points of the North Sea

[25] Tide table for Lerwick: tide-forecast

[26] Tide table for Aberdeen: tide-forecast

[27] Tide table for North Shields: tide-forecast

[28] Tide tables for Kingston upon Hull: Mobile Geographicsand Tide-Forecast

13

[29] Tide table for Grimsby: Tide-Forecast

[30] Tide tables for Skegness: Visit My Harbour und Tide-Forecast

[31] Tide tables for King’s Lynn: Visit My Harbour und Tide-Forecast

[32] Tide tables for Hunstanton: Visit My Harbour

[33] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Harwich”. tide-forecast.com.

[34] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for London”. tide-forecast.com.

[35] Tide tables for Dunkerque: Mobile Geographics and tideforecast

[36] Tide tables for Zeebrugge: Mobile Geographics and tideforecast

[37] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Antwerpen”. tide-forecast.com.

[38] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Rotterdam”. tide-forecast.com.

[39] Ahnert. F.(2009): Einführung in die Geomorphologie. 4.Auflage. 393 S.

[40] “Katwijk aan Zee Tide Times & Tide Charts”. surf-forecast.com.

[41] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Den Helder”. tide-forecast.com.

[42] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Harlingen”. tide-forecast.com.

[43] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Borkum”. tide-forecast.com.

[44] Tide table for Emden

[45] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Wilhelmshaven”. tide-forecast.com.

[46] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Bremerhaven”. tide-forecast.com.

[47] Guido Gerding. “Gezeitenkalender für Bremen, Osleb-shausen, Germany (Tidenkalender) – und viele weitereOrte”. gezeiten-kalender.de.

[48] “Gezeitenvorausberechnung”. bsh.de.

[49] calculated from Ludwig Franzius: Die Korrektion der Un-terweser (1898). suppl. B IV.: weekly average tide ranges1879

[50] telephonical advice by Mrs. Piechotta, head of depart-ment of hydrology, Nautic Administration for Bremen(WSA Bremen)

[51] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Cuxhaven”. tide-forecast.com.

[52] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Hamburg”. tide-forecast.com.

[53] “Gezeitenvorausberechnung”. bsh.de.

[54] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Westerland”. tide-forecast.com.

[55] “Gezeitenvorausberechnung”. bsh.de.

[56] “Tidal tables”. dmi.dk.

[57] “Tide Times and Tide Chart for Esbjerg, Denmark”. tide-forecast.com.

[58] Vannstand – Norwegian official maritime Information →English version

[59] “Development of the East Riding Coastline” (PDF). EastRiding of Yorkshire Council. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 August 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2007.

[60] “Holderness Coast UnitedKingdom” (PDF). EUROSIONCase Study. Retrieved 24 July 2007.

[61] Overview of geography, hydrography and climate of theNorth Sea (Chapter II of the Quality Status Report). (PDF).Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environmentof the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR). 2000. Retrieved 4December 2007.

[62] Wefer, Gerold; Wolfgang H. Berger; K. E. Behre; EysteinJansen (2002) [2002]. Climate Development and Historyof the North Atlantic Realm: With 16 Tables. Springer. pp.308–310. ISBN 3-540-43201-9. Retrieved 4 December2008.

[63] Oosthoek, K. Jan (2006–2007). “History of Dutch riverflood defences”. Environmental History Resources. Re-trieved 24 July 2007.

[64] “North Sea Protection Works – Seven Modern Wondersof World”. Compare Infobase Limited. 2006–2007.Archived from the original on 25 May 2007. Retrieved24 July 2007.

[65] Rosenberg, Matt (30 January 2007). “Dykes of theNetherlands”. About.com – Geography. Retrieved 19 July2007.

[66] “Science around us: Flexible covering protects imperileddikes – BASF – The Chemical Company – CorporateWebsite”. BASF. Retrieved 16 January 2009.

[67] Peters, Karsten; Magnus Geduhn; Holger Schüttrumpf;Helmut Temmler (31 August – 5 September 2008).“Impounded water in Sea Dikes” (PDF). ICCE. Retrieved16 January 2009.

[68] “Dune Grass Planting”. A guide to managing coastal ero-sion in beach/dune systems – Summary 2. Scottish NaturalHeritage. 2000. Retrieved 2 November 2008.

[69] Ingham, J. K.; John Christopher Wolverson Cope; P. F.Rawson (1999). “Quaternary”. Atlas of Palaeogeographyand Lithofacies. Geological Society of London. p. 150.ISBN 1-86239-055-X. Retrieved 15 December 2008.

[70] Morin, Rene (2 October 2008). “Social, economical andpolitical impact ofWeather” (PDF). EMS annualmeeting.Retrieved 4 December 2008.

14 8 NOTES

[71] “scinexx | Der Untergang: Die Grote Manndränke –Rungholt Nordsee” (in German). MMCDNEWMEDIA.24 May 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2008.

[72] Coastal Flooding: The great flood of 1953. InvestigatingRivers. Retrieved 24 July 2007.

[73] Lamb, H. H. (1988). Weather, Climate & Human Af-fairs: A Book of Essays and (Digitized online by Googlebooks) (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN9780415006743. Retrieved 12 January 2009.

[74] Bojanowski, Axel (11 October 2006). “Tidal Waves inEurope? Study Sees North Sea Tsunami Risk”. SpiegelOnline. Retrieved 24 July 2007.

[75] Bondevik, Stein; Sue Dawson; Alastair Dawson; ØysteinLohne (5 August 2003). “Record-breaking Height for8000-Year-Old Tsunami in the North Atlantic” (PDF).EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union84 (31): 289, 293. Bibcode:2003EOSTr..84..289B.doi:10.1029/2003EO310001. Retrieved 15 January2007.

[76] A tsunami in Belgium?. Royal Belgian Institute of NaturalSciences. 2005. Retrieved 2 November 2008.

[77] Ziegler, P. A. (1975). “Geologic Evolution ofNorth Sea and Its Tectonic Framework”. AAPGBulletin 59. doi:10.1306/83D91F2E-16C7-11D7-8645000102C1865D.

[78] See Ziegler (1990) or Glennie (1998) for the developmentof the paleogeography around the North Sea area from theJurassic onwards

[79] Torsvik, TrondH.; Daniel Carlos; Jon L.Mosar; RobinM.Cocks; Tarjei N. Malme (November 2004). “Global re-constructions and North Atlantic paleogeography 440 Mato Recen” (PDF). Retrieved 19 November 2008.

[80] Glennie, K. W. (1998). Petroleum Geology of the NorthSea: Basic Concepts and Recent Advances. Blackwell Pub-lishing. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-632-03845-9.

[81] Smith, A. G. (2004). Atlas of Mesozoic and CenozoicCoastlines (Digitized by Google Books online). Cam-bridge University Press. pp. 27–38. ISBN 0-521-60287-4. Retrieved 24 November 2008.

[82] Gibbard, P. (19 July 2007). “Palaeogeography:Europe cut adrift”. Nature 448 (7151): 259–60.Bibcode:2007Natur.448..259G. doi:10.1038/448259a.PMID 17637645. (Registration is required)

[83] Gupta, Sanjeev; Collier, Jenny S.; Palmer-Felgate, Andy;Potter, Graeme (2007). “Catastrophic flooding originof shelf valley systems in the English Channel”. Na-ture 448 (7151): 342–5. Bibcode:2007Natur.448..342G.doi:10.1038/nature06018. PMID 17637667.

[84] Sola, M. A.; D. Worsley, Muʼassasah al-Waṭanīyah lil-Nafṭ (2000). Geological Exploration in Murzuq Basin(Digitized by Google Books online). A contributionto IUGS/IAGC Global Geochemical Baselines (ElsevierScience B.V.). ISBN 9780080532462. Retrieved 19November 2008.

[85] Lindsey, Kyle (25 April 2006). “Dinosaur of the Deep”.Paleontology Blog. Retrieved 23 June 2013.

[86] “MarBEF Educational Pullout: The North Sea” (PDF).Ecoserve. MarBEF Educational Pullout Issue 4. Re-trieved 12 January 2009.

[87] “Quality Status Report for the Greater North Sea”.Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environmentof the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR). 2010. Retrieved 23June 2013.

[88] Piet, G. J.; van Hal, R.; Greenstreet, S. P. R.(2009). “Modelling the direct impact of bottom trawl-ing on the North Sea fish community to derive esti-mates of fishing mortality for non-target fish species”.ICES Journal of Marine Science 66 (9): 1985–1998.doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsp162.

[89] “Walrus”. Ecomare. Retrieved 23 June 2013.

[90] Whales and dolphins in the North Sea 'on the increase'.Newcastle University Press Release. 2 April 2005. Re-trieved 21 December 2007.

[91] Nienhuis, P.H. (2008). “Causes of the eelgrass wastingdisease: Van der Werff’s changing theories”. AquaticEcology 28 (1): 55. doi:10.1007/BF02334245.

[92] “Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitat”.Ocean Studies Board (OSB). National Academy of Sci-ences. 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2008.

[93] Tait, Ronald Victor; Frances Dipper (1998). Elementsof Marine Ecology (Digitized by Google Books online).Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 432. ISBN 9780750620888.Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[94] “Extinct / extirpated species” (doc). Dr. RansomA.Myers– Research group website. Future of Marine Animal Pop-ulations/Census of Marine Life. 27 October 2006. Re-trieved 24 November 2008.

[95] Ray, C.E. (1960). “Trichecodon huxlei (Mammalia:Odobenidae) in the Pleaistocene of southeastern UnitedStates.”. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoologyat Harvard College 122: 129–142.

[96] “The Extinction Website – Species Info – Atlantic GreyWhale”. 19 January 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2008.

[97] Brown, Paul (21 March 2002). “North Sea in crisis asskate dies out Ban placed on large areas to stave off riskof species being destroyed”. London: Guardian Unlim-ited © Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 3December 2008.

[98] Williot, Patrick; Éric Rochard. “Ecosystems and terri-tories” (PDF). Sturgeon, Restoring an endangered species.Cemagref. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 De-cember 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2008.

[99] “OSPAR Convention”. European Union. 2000. Re-trieved 30 November 2008.

15

[100] “Official Journal of the European Communities28.12.2000 L 332/81”. DIRECTIVE 2000/59/EC OFTHE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUN-CIL of 27 November 2000 on port reception facilitiesfor ship-generated waste and cargo residues. Retrieved12 January 2009. “Member States have ratified Marpol73/78”.

[101] “Wadden Sea Region” (PDF). Scottish Natural Heritage:A Review of Relevant Experience in Sustainable Tourism inthe Coastal and Marine Environment, Case Studies, Level1, Wadden Sea Region. Stevens & Associates. 1 June2006. Retrieved 1 December 2008.

[102] “Cetaceans and Belgian whalers, A brief historical review”(PDF). Belgian whalers. Retrieved 13 March 2015.

[103] Lindquist, O. (2000). The North Atlantic gray whale (Es-cherichtius [sic] robustus): An historical outline based onIcelandic, Danish-Icelandic, English and Swedish sourcesdating from ca 1000 AD to 1792. Occasional papers 1.Universities of St Andrews and Stirling, Scotland. 50 p.

[104] Scheinin, Aviad P; Aviad, P.; Kerem, Dan (2011). “Graywhale (Eschrichtius robustus) in the Mediterranean Sea:anomalous event or early sign of climate-driven distribu-tion change?". Marine Biodiversity Records 2: e28.

[105] Van Deinse, A.B.; Junge, G.C.A. (1936). Recent andolder finds of the California grey whale in the Atlantic.Temminckia 2 161-88.

[106] Roller, Duane W. (2006). “Roman Exploration”.Through the Pillars of Herakles: Greco-Roman Explo-ration of the Atlantic. Taylor and Francis. p. 119. ISBN0-415-37287-9. Retrieved 8 December 2008. Footnote28. Strabo 7.1.3. The name North Sea – more prop-erly “Northern Ocean.” Septentrionalis Oceanus – prob-ably came into use at this time; the earliest extant citationis Pliny, Natural History 2.167, 4.109.

[107] Hartmann Schedel 1493 map File:SchedelscheWeltchronik d 287.jpg: Baltic Sea called MareGermanicum, North Sea called Oceanus Germanicus

[108] North Sea Online Etymology Dictionary

[109] Thernstrom, Stephan; Ann Orlov; Oscar Handlin (1980).Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Digi-tized online by Google books). Harvard University Press.ISBN 0-674-37512-2. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[110] Looijenga, Tineke (2003). “Chapter 2 History of RunicResearch”. Texts & Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscrip-tions (Digitized by Google Books online). BRILL. p. 70.ISBN 90-04-12396-2. Retrieved 8 December 2008.

[111] Cuyvers, Luc (1986). The Strait of Dover (Digitizedby Google Books online). BRILL. p. 2. ISBN9789024732524. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[112] Green, Dennis Howard (2003). The Continental Saxonsfrom the Migration Period to the Tenth Century: An Ethno-graphic Perspective (Digitized by Google Books online).Frank Siegmund. Boydell Press. pp. 48–50. ISBN9781843830269. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[113] Smith, H. D. (1992). “The British Isles and the Age ofExploration – A Maritime Perspective”. GeoJournal 26(4): 483–487. doi:10.1007/BF02665747.

[114] Lewis, H. D.; Archibald Ross, Timothy J. Runyan, Amer-ican Council of Learned Societies (1985). “EuropeanNaval and Maritime History, 300–1500” (Digitized byGoogle Books online). Indiana University Press. p. 128.ISBN 9780253320827. Retrieved 17 December 2008.

[115] Hansen, Mogens Herman (2000). “A Comparative Studyof Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation” (Digitizedby Google Books online). Kgl. Danske VidenskabernesSelskab. p. 305. ISBN 9788778761774. Retrieved 27December 2008.

[116] Køppen, Adolph Ludvig; Karl Spruner von Merz (1854).The World in the Middle Ages (Digitized 29 November2006 by Google Books online). New York: D. Appletonand Company. p. 179. OCLC 3621972. Retrieved 1December 2008.

[117] Ripley, George R; Charles Anderson Dana (1869). TheNew American Cyclopædia: A Popular Dictionary of Gen-eral Knowledge (Digitized 9 June 2008 by Google Booksonline). New York: D. Appleton. p. 540. Retrieved 9January 2000. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[118] Cook, Harold John (2007). Matters of Exchange: Com-merce, Medicine, and Science in the Dutch Golden Age(Digitized by Google Books online). Yale UniversityPress. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-300-11796-7. Retrieved 8 Jan-uary 2008.

[119] Findlay, Ronald; Kevin H. O'Rourke (2007). Power andPlenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Sec-ond Millennium (Digitized 29 November 2006 by GoogleBooks online). Princeton University Press. p. 187 and238. ISBN 9780691118543. Retrieved 27 December2008.

[120] MacDonald, Scott (2004). A History of Credit and Powerin the Western World. Albert L. Gastmann. TransactionPublishers. pp. 122–127, 134. ISBN 0-7658-0833-1.

[121] Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). NavalWarfare, 1815–1914.New York: Routledge. p. 183. ISBN 0-415-21478-5.Retrieved 3 December 2008.

[122] Halpern, Paul G. (1994). A naval history of World War I.Ontario: Routledge. pp. 29, 180. ISBN 1-85728-498-4.Retrieved 3 December 2008.

[123] Tucker, Spencer (September 2005) [2005]. World War I:Encyclopedia. Priscilla Mary Roberts. New York, USA:ABC-CLIO. pp. 836–838. ISBN 1-85109-420-2. Re-trieved 1 December 2008.

[124] Osborne, Eric W. (2006). The Battle of Heligoland Bight.London: Indiana University Press. p. Introduction. ISBN0-253-34742-4. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[125] Sondhaus, Lawrence (2004). Navies in Modern WorldHistory. London: Reaktion Books. pp. 190–193, 256.ISBN 1-86189-202-0. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

16 8 NOTES

[126] Tucker, Spencer; Priscilla Mary Roberts (September2005) [2005]. World War I: Encyclopedia (Digitized byGoogle Books online). London: ABC-CLIO. pp. 165,203, 312. ISBN 9781851094202. Retrieved 9 January2009.

[127] Frank, Hans (15 October 2007) [2007]. German S-Boatsin Action in the Second World War: In the Second WorldWar (Digitised by Google Books online). Naval InstitutePress. pp. 12–30. ISBN 9781591143093. Retrieved 9January 2009.

[128] “Atlantic, WW2, U-boats, convoys, OA, OB, SL, HX,HG, Halifax, RCN ...”. Naval-History.net. Retrieved 24July 2007.

[129] Kaffka, Alexander V. (1996). Sea-dumped ChemicalWeapons: Aspects, Problems, and Solutions. North At-lantic Treaty Organization Scientific Affairs Division.New York, USA: Springer. p. 49. ISBN 0-7923-4090-6.Retrieved 9 January 2009.

[130] It was, incidentally, the home of several Pirate Radiostations from 1960–1990. Johnston, Douglas M. (1976)[1976]. Marine Policy and the Coastal Community. Lon-don: Taylor & Francis,. p. 49. ISBN 0-85664-158-8.

[131] “Forth Ports PLC”. 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.

[132] Barry, M.,, Michael; Elema, Ina; van der Molen, Paul(2006). Governing the North Sea in the Netherlands:Administering marine spaces: international issues (PDF).Frederiksberg, Denmark: International Federation ofSurveyors (FIG). pp. 5–17, Ch. 5. ISBN 87-90907-55-8.Retrieved 12 January 2009.

[133] About the Common Fisheries Policy. European Commis-sion. 24 January 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2008.

[134] Text of the UN treaty

[135] North Sea Continental Shelf Cases. International Court ofJustice. 20 February 1969. Retrieved 24 July 2007.

[136] Pratt, J. A. (1997). “Ekofisk and Early North Sea Oil”. InT. Priest, & Cas James. Offshore Pioneers: Brown & Rootand the History of Offshore Oil and Gas. Gulf ProfessionalPublishing. p. 222. ISBN 0-88415-138-7. Retrieved 8December 2008.

[137] Lohne, Øystein (1980). “The Economic Attraction”. TheOil Industry and Government Strategy in the North Sea.Taylor & Francis. p. 74. ISBN 0-918714-02-8.

[138] “TOTAL E&P NORGE AS – The history of Fina Explo-ration 1965–2000”. About TOTAL E&P NORGE > His-tory > Fina. Retrieved 15 January 2009.

[139] McKetta, John J. (1999). “The Offshore Oil Industry”. InGuy E. Weismantel. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processingand Design: Volume 67 – Water and Wastewater Treat-ment: Protective Coating Systems to Zeolite. CRC Press. p.102. ISBN 0-8247-2618-9.

[140] “On This Day 6 July 1988: Piper Alpha oil rig ablaze”.BBC. 6 July 1988. Retrieved 3 November 2008.

[141] “Statpipe Rich Gas”. Gassco. Retrieved 3 November2008.

[142] “North Sea Brent Crude”. Investopedia ULC. Retrieved3 November 2008.

[143] “North Sea”. Country Analysis Briefs. Energy Informa-tion Administration (EIA). January 2007. Retrieved 23January 2008.

[144] “Shell to cut 250 onshore jobs at its Scotland North Seaoperations”. Yahoo Finance. 12 August 2014. Retrieved16 December 2014.

[145] Sherman, Kenneth; Lewis M. Alexander; Barry D. Gold(1993). Large Marine Ecosystems: Stress, Mitigation, andSustainability (3, illustrated ed.). Blackwell Publishing.pp. 252–258. ISBN 0-87168-506-X. Retrieved 12 Jan-uary 2009.

[146] “MUMM – Fishing”. Royal Belgian Institute of NaturalSciences. 2002–2008. Retrieved 29 November 2008.

[147] “One Million Tons of North Sea Fish Discarded EveryYear”. Environment News Service (ENS). 2008. Re-trieved 9 December 2007.

[148] Clover, Charles (2004). The End of the Line: How over-fishing is changing the world and what we eat. London:Ebury Press. ISBN 0-09-189780-7.

[149] “North Sea Fish Crisis – Our Shrinking Future”. Part 1.Greenpeace. 1997. Retrieved 2 November 2008.

[150] Olivert-Amado, Ana (13March 2008). The common fish-eries policy: origins and development. European Parlia-ment Fact Sheets. Retrieved 19 July 2007.

[151] Phua, C.; S. van den Akker; M. Baretta; J. van Dalfsen.“Ecological Effects of Sand Extraction in the North Sea”(PDF). University of Porto. Retrieved 12 January 2009.

[152] Rice, Patty C. (2006). Amber: Golden Gem of the Ages:Fourth Edition (4, illustrated ed.). Patty Rice. pp. 147–154. ISBN 1-4259-3849-3. Retrieved 12 January 2009.

[153] LTI-ResearchGroup, LTI-ResearchGroup (1998). Long-term Integration of Renewable Energy Sources Into the Eu-ropean Energy System. Springer. ISBN 3-7908-1104-1.Retrieved 12 January 2009.

[154] Shankleman, Jessica. UK cuts ribbon on world’s largestoffshore wind farm BusinessGreen, 23 September 2010.Retrieved: 23 September 2010.

[155] Thanet offshore wind farm starts electricity productionBBC, 23 September 2010

[156] Matthew McDermott. “Denmark Inaugurates World’sLargest Offshore Wind Farm – 209 MW Horns Rev 2”Treehugger.

[157] “New Research Focus for Renewable Energies” (PDF).Federal Environment Ministry of Germany. 2002. p. 4.Retrieved 8 December 2008.

[158] Ecology Consulting (2001). “Assessment of the Effectsof Offshore Wind Farms on Birds” (PDF). United King-dom Department for Business, Enterprise, & RegulatoryReform. Retrieved 16 January 2009.

17

[159] Study finds offshore wind farms can co-exist with marineenvironment. Businessgreen.com (26 January 2009). Re-trieved on 2011-11-05.

[160] Future Leasing for Offshore Wind Farms and Licens-ing for Offshore Oil & Gas and Gas Storage. UK Off-shore Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment. Jan-uary 2009 (PDF) . Retrieved on 5 November 2011.

[161] Kaiser, Simone; Michael Fröhlingsdorf (20 August 2007).“Wuthering Heights: The Dangers of Wind Power”. DerSpiegel. Retrieved 16 January 2009.

[162] “Centrica warns on wind farm costs”. BBC News. 8 May2008. Retrieved 16 January 2009.

[163] “Centrica seeks consent for 500MW North Sea windfarm”. New Energy Focus. 22 December 2008. Re-trieved 16 January 2009.

[164] Gow, David (4 September 2008). “Greenpeace’s gridplan: North Sea grid could bring wind power to 70mhomes”. London: The Guardian. Retrieved 16 January2009.

[165] Wynn, Gerard (15 January 2009). “Analysis – New EUpower grids in frame due to gas dispute”. Reuters. Re-trieved 16 January 2009.

[166] “Billia Croo Test Site”. EMEC. Retrieved 1 November2008.

[167] “Fall of Warness Test Site”. EMEC. Retrieved 1 Novem-ber 2008.

[168] “Prototype testing in Denmark”. Wave Dragon. 2005.Retrieved 1 November 2008.

[169] Wong, P. P. (1993). Tourism Vs. Environment: The Casefor Coastal Areas. Springer. p. 139. ISBN 0-7923-2404-8. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[170] Hall, C. Michael; Dieter K. Müller; Jarkko Saarinen(2008). Nordic Tourism: Issues and Cases. Channel ViewPublications. p. 170. ISBN 1-84541-093-9. Retrieved27 December 2008.

[171] “Welcome North Sea Trail”. European Union. The NorthSea Trail/NAVE Nortrail project. Retrieved 2 January2009.

[172] Knudsen, Daniel C.; Charles Greet; Michelle Metro-Roland; Anne Soper (2008). Landscape, Tourism, andMeaning. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 112. ISBN 0-7546-4943-1. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[173] Schulte-Peevers, Andrea; Sarah Johnstone; EtainO'Carroll; Jeanne Oliver; Tom Parkinson; NicolaWilliams (2004). Germany. Lonely Planet. p. 680.ISBN 1-74059-471-1. Retrieved 27 December 2008.

[174] Büsum: The natural healing power of the sea. GermanNational Tourist Board. Retrieved 2 November 2008.

[175] “World Port Rankings” (PDF). American Association ofPort Authorities. 2008. Retrieved 25 July 2010.

[176] “Port Authority Bruges-Zeebrugge”. MarineTalk a Divi-sion of Scientia Technologies Corporation. 1998–2008.Retrieved 28 December 2008.

[177] “The Dover Strait”. Maritime and Coastguard Agency.2007. Retrieved 8 October 2008.

[178] Freestone, David (1990). link, ed. The North Sea: Per-spectives on Regional Environmental Co-operation. Mar-tinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 186–190. ISBN 1-85333-413-8. Retrieved 12 January 2009.

[179] “Kiel Canal”. Kiel Canal official website. Retrieved 2November 2008.

[180] “23390-Country Info Booklets Hebridean Spirit TheBaltic East” (PDF). Hebridean Island Cruises. Retrieved18 January 2009.

9 References

• “North Sea”. Country Analysis Briefs. Energy In-formation Administration (EIA). January 2007. Re-trieved 23 January 2008.

• “North Sea Facts”. Royal Belgian Institute of Natu-ral Sciences. Management Unit of North Sea Math-ematical Models. Retrieved 15 February 2009.

10 Further reading

• Starkey, David J.; Morten Hahn-Pedersen (2005).Bridging troubled waters: Conflict and co-operationin the North Sea Region since 1550. Esbjerg [Den-mark]: Fiskeri-og Søfartsmuseets. ISBN 87-90982-30-4.

• Ilyina, Tatjana P (2007). The fate of persistentorganic pollutants in the North Sea multiple yearmodel simulations of [gamma]-HCH, [alpha]-HCHand PCB 153Tatjana P Ilyina;. Berlin ; New York:Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-68163-2.

• Karlsdóttir, Hrefna M. (2005). Fishing on commongrounds: the consequences of unregulated fisheries ofNorth Sea Herring in the postwar period. Göteborg:Ekonomisk-Historiska Inst., Göteborg Univ. ISBN91-85196-62-2.

• Tiedeke, Thorsten; Werner Weiler (2007). NorthSea coast: landscape panoramas. Nelson: NZ Vis-itor; Lancaster: Gazelle Drake Academic. ISBN978-1-877339-65-3.

• ed. by Erik Thoen (2007). Rural history in the NorthSea area: a state of the art (Middle Ages – begin-ning 20th century). Turnhout: Brepols. ISBN 978-2-503-51005-7.

18 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Waddington, Clive; Kristian Pedersen (2007).Mesolithic studies in the North Sea Basin and be-yond: proceedings of a conference held at Newcastlein 2003. Oxford: Oxbow Books. ISBN 1-84217-224-7.

• Zeelenberg, Sjoerd (2005). Offshore wind energy inthe North Sea Region: the state of affairs of offshorewind energy projects, national policies and economic,environmental and technological conditions in Den-mark, Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium and theUnited Kingdom. Groningen: University of Gronin-gen. OCLC 71640714.

11 External links• Etymology and History of Names

• North Sea Commission Environment Group Mem-ber Profiles 2006 PDF (910 KB)

• Old map: Manuscript chart of the North Sea, VOC,ca.1690 (high resolution zoomable scan)

• Overview of geography, hydrography and climate ofthe North Sea PDF (2.9 MB)

• The Jurassic-Cretaceous North Sea Rift Dome andassociated Basin Evolution PDF (2.5 MB)

• OSPAR Commission Homepage an internationalcommission designed to protect and conserve theNorth-East Atlantic and its resources

• North Sea Region Programme 2007–2013 transna-tional cooperation programme under the EuropeanRegional Development Fund

• Video of storm

19

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text• North Sea Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea?oldid=675217827 Contributors: Derek Ross, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan

Derksen, Zundark, Andre Engels, Eob, Scipius, Danny, Tsja, JeLuF, Rmhermen, Christian List, SimonP, Olivier, Pit~enwiki, Liftarn, Mic,Kosebamse, Ellywa, Iulianu, Docu, Snoyes, Lupinoid, Ffx, Andres, Jeandré du Toit, Lancevortex, Lee M, Tpbradbury, Shizhao, Nick-shanks, Wetman, Chrisjj, Eugene van der Pijll, Donarreiskoffer, Branddobbe, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Moriori, Naddy, Securiger, Gidonb,Caknuck, Bkell, Mervyn, Saforrest, David Edgar, Jacoplane, Marnanel, Oberiko, Southpark~enwiki, Everyking, Curps, Alison, Michael De-vore, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Golbez, Knutux, Zfr, Neutrality, Mschlindwein, Rich Farmbrough, HeikoEvermann, SpookyMulder, Bender235,ESkog, Billlion, El C, Gilgamesh he, Art LaPella, Jojit fb, Runner1928, A Karley, Jumbuck, Anthony Appleyard, Miranche, Edgriebel,Rodw, Kurt Shaped Box, Walkerma, Ariwara, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Max Naylor, Gene Nygaard, Adrian.benko, Bastin, Stemonitis,Rodii, Nicklott, RHaworth, Pol098, Commander Keane, Matijap, Twthmoses, Kelisi, Steinbach, John Hill, Kralizec!, M100, Graeme-Leggett, Graham87, Chun-hian, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Tim!, Dimitrii, KuK, Саша Стефановић, Vegaswikian, IanDunster, Williamborg, FlaBot, RJP, Nihiltres, MacRusgail, RexNL, Chobot, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp, Russ-Bot, Michael Slone, Chamdarae, Gaius Cornelius, Manxruler, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Test-tools~enwiki, Desk Jockey, Zwobot, Epipelagic,DeadEyeArrow, Zzuuzz, Lycaon, Jkransen, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Hayden120, Mais oui!, David Biddulph, Jonathan.s.kt, Grin-Bot~enwiki, Hal peridol, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Ratarsed, Moeron, Unyoyega, CRKingston, Big Adamsky, Finavon, Ilikeeatingwaffles,Alsandro, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, IanDavies, MalafayaBot, Akanemoto, Bazonka, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, JRPG,Chlewbot, Backspace, SundarBot, Khoikhoi, Gragox, -xfi-, Jumping cheese, Cybercobra, RandomP, Paul H., Jon T Bruinline, Parrot ofDoom, SashatoBot, Anlace, J 1982, Mrom, Saluton~enwiki, Hemmingsen, Ckatz, Makyen, Meco, Ζεύς, Skinsmoke, Rapidpc, Irides-cent, Jh12, Ghaly, Stifynsemons, BoH, Van helsing, The ed17, Woudloper, Sebastian789, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Palmiped, Eu.stefan,JamesAM, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Tsogo3, N5iln, CarrotMan, John254, NorwegianBlue, Horologium, JustAGal, Mnemeson, NickNumber, RoboServien, Flibjib8, Kriddel, RapidR, Darklilac, Dweir, Darrenhusted, Mikenorton, Sophie means wisdom, Jahoe, Geniac,Naval Scene, Easchiff, Magioladitis, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Appraiser, Lucyin, Hekerui, Zagubov, DerHexer, Plu-tochaun, LucaG, MartinBot, Jim.henderson, Ben MacDui, Keith D, Mercatorum, CommonsDelinker, VirtualDelight, Fconaway, J.delanoy,Philcha, Uncle Dick, Deuce1980, Ryan Postlethwaite, InspectorTiger, SriMesh, SirJibby, Inwind, StuzzyW, FeralDruid, VolkovBot, Raggz,Gretus~enwiki, Aesopos, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, BertSen, Ninum, Michael riber jorgensen, PDFbot, Dashes, Doug, Lerdthenerd, ARaider Like Indiana, Mike4ty4, AlleborgoBot, Ajihfiuehwu hghiriu bnlsjlu, Shelblake, SieBot, Sahilm, Jauerback, RJaguar3, Triwbe,Lightmouse, Spamsara, Fratrep, DanniellaWB, OKBot, Rosiestep, Ulamm, Hooiwind, Hordaland, Escape Orbit, Finetooth, Rennab, Sep-ara, ClueBot, Artichoker, Lmhooo, Snigbrook, Mattgirling, Mild Bill Hiccup, Peanut4, Ashdod, DragonBot, AssegaiAli, NK57SDF,Mikemikezz, Feline Hymnic, MacedonianBoy, NuclearWarfare, 7&6=thirteen, Hans Adler, Scog, SchreiberBike, BOTarate, Versus22,Mhockey, Editorofthewiki, Mhese, Cradel, Dubmill, Notuncurious, Thatguyflint, Kobbaen, Shephia, Donhoraldo, DOI bot, NjaelkiesLea, MikeF9, Over9001, 37ophiuchi, LinkFA-Bot, Vikslen, Numbo3-bot, Alan16, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Bermicourt, Luckas-bot, Yobot,Ptbotgourou, Legobot II, Dzied Bulbash, Velocitas, MacTire02, Szajci, AnomieBOT, Lustiger seth, Mrosaclot, Duncan MacCall, Lly-welynII, Kingpin13, NickK, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Nurnord, Webspook~enwiki, Ulf Heinsohn, DSisyphBot,GrouchoBot, Landed little marsdon, Smallman12q, Shadowjams, Pablo13345, Hyperboreer, FrescoBot, NSH002, Rubenescio, Lucien-BOT, Originalwana, Lothar von Richthofen, Thayts, Weet123, Shreemurphy, Nelsonp88, Citation bot 1, Abc26324, DrilBot, I dream ofhorses, HRoestBot, Abductive, Rameshngbot, Another avatar, Horst-schlaemma, FoxBot, DixonDBot, Fama Clamosa, Ipodnerd, Watis-fictie, Mean as custard, TjBot, Avatarion, TGCP, EmausBot, Gymcrazy123456789, ZéroBot, The Nut, H3llBot, Mentoz86, Eurothrash,Demiurge1000, Rcsprinter123, Morgan Hauser, Mx121fox, Neil P. Quinn, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Ykvach, Cwmhiraeth, Satellizer,CommonPAS, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tholme, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Suitcivil133, Woestyn Anne-France, Min.neel, Snow Blizzard,Glacialfox, BattyBot, Factsearch, AndyKamy, Firething11, Aliwal2012, Gairderek, Dexbot, Mogism, Lugia2453, Mikko8, Theveravee,Patty.rich, W. P. Uzer, Kind Tennis Fan, Aeroid, Jaaron95, Green Adair, Munchkin2013, Aster554, Monkbot, Ejamshidi, Brigidkilloran,KasparBot, Bailey02 and Anonymous: 242

12.2 Images• File:Abschlussdeich_Blickrichtung_Nord.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Abschlussdeich_

Blickrichtung_Nord.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: eigene Fotografie, Fotograf/Zeichner: Johann H. Addicks Original artist:User -jha- on de.wikipedia

• File:Amber_Bernstein_many_stones.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Amber_Bernstein_many_stones.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: own work from User Lanzi on de.wikipedia Original artist: uploaded with permissionfrom User Lanzi by Ra'ike on de.wikipedia

• File:Bank_met_ondermeer_kokkels_mosselen_en_Japanse_oesters_in_de_Waddenzee_bij_Schiermonnikoog.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Bank_met_ondermeer_kokkels_mosselen_en_Japanse_oesters_in_de_Waddenzee_bij_Schiermonnikoog.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: own work (Transferred from nl.wikipedia) Originalartist: Sonty567 at nl.wikipedia

• File:Bluecher_sinkend.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Bluecher_sinkend.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://www.archives.gov/research_room/arc/ ARC Identifier: 533748 [1]; also U.S. Defensimagery.mil photo HD-SN-99-02352Original artist: This photo was taken from the deck of the British cruiser HMS Arethusa. International Film Service.

• File:Bottlenose_dolphin_with_young.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Bottlenose_dolphin_with_young.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Doggerland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Doggerland.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-tors: Own work Original artist: Max Naylor

• File:ECT_waalhaven_bij_nacht.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/ECT_waalhaven_bij_nacht.jpgLicense: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Quistnix

20 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Fischkutterquerinhafen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Fischkutterquerinhafen.jpg License:CC BY-SA 2.0 de Contributors: photo taken by Dirk Ingo Franke Original artist: Dirk Ingo Franke

• File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Mediterranean_Rupelian.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Mediterranean_Rupelian.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Woudloper

• File:Netherlands-Scheveningen-beach-1900.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Netherlands-Scheveningen-beach-1900.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original image: Photochrom print (color photolithograph)

Reproduction number: LC-DIG-ppmsc-05861 from Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Photochrom Prints CollectionOriginal artist: Unknown

• File:NorthSeaCurrents.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/NorthSeaCurrents.png License: CCBY-SA3.0 Contributors: Derivative work from File:NASA NorthSea1 2.jpg Original artist: SriMesh, recoloured by Ulamm (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ulamm' title='User talk:Ulamm'>talk</a>) 22:29, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

• File:North_sea_eez.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/North_sea_eez.PNG License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Inwind

• File:Nseamap.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Nseamap.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Phytoplankton_Bloom_in_the_North_Sea.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Phytoplankton_Bloom_in_the_North_Sea.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory Original artist: Jeff Schmaltz

• File:Ptolemy-british-isles_(edited).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Ptolemy-british-isles_%28edited%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: the Geography of Ptolemy, 1490 Original artist: Ptolemy (circa 90 - circa 168)

• File:Solar_eclipse_1715May03_Halley_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Solar_eclipse_1715May03_Halley_map.png License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Public domain

• File:StatfjordA(Jarvin1982).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/StatfjordA%28Jarvin1982%29.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: no:wikipedia Original artist: User:Jarvin Jarle Vines

• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil

• File:Terrestrial_globe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6b/Terrestrial_globe.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Tiden_loc.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Tiden_loc.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: Ulamm (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ulamm' title='User talk:Ulamm'>talk</a>) 23:35,17 March 2014 (UTC)

• File:Watersnoodramp_1953.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Watersnoodramp_1953.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged underthe ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 541705. Original artist: Agency for International Development

• File:Wattenmeer-Nordfriesland.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Wattenmeer-Nordfriesland.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mogens Engelund

• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

• File:Willem_van_de_Velde_(II)_-_De_verovering_van_het_Engelse_admiraalschip_de_'Royal_Prince'.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Willem_van_de_Velde_%28II%29_-_De_verovering_van_het_Engelse_admiraalschip_de_%27Royal_Prince%27.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [www.rijksmuseum.nl Home] - info - Original artist:Willem van de Velde the Younger

• File:Yacht_foresail.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Yacht_foresail.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contrib-utors: Own work. Original artist: Masur

12.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0