Non-Experimental methods:

Qualitative research

Why used?• Growing concern about artificiality and lack of ecological

validity in research

• Non experimental research is now seen as valuable to

psychology

• Examples:

– Surveys

– Interviews

– Observations

– Case Studies

• Triangulation – combination of different research

methods in a study in order to collect richer data.

Depends on the topic.

• Deductive approach – the quantitative approach -

with a hypothesis that is tested against empirical

evidence.

• Inductive approach – qualitative approach –

researchers study how people experience

situations. They gather data and then see what

these could mean.

Subjectivity vs objectivity

• The role of the qualitative researcher involves an

active engagement in the research process –

a subjective element is placed in to the

research process.

• Experimental method is based on the assumption

of objectivity in the research process.

Interview

Interviews

• One of the most common ways of gathering qualitative dataCan be short or in-depthNeed interview schedule – plan to follow with structured or open ended questions

Interviewers need training!

Considerations of Interview

• Interviewer effect – researcher needs to act professionally

and be aware of responses to age, sex, ethnicity of the

interviewer.

• Participant bias – people often adjust their responses to

what they THINK is appropriate for the interviewer.

• Social Desirability Bias – most people want to present a

positive picture of themselves so they don’t always tell the

truth.

Types of Interviews• Structured

– procedure is highly controlled

– Specific questions

– Easy to analyze and compare data

• Unstructured

– Open ended: only topic and time are specified

– Difficult to analyze, but more info are revealed

• Semi-structured

– Look like informal conversation but follow the schedule

– Closed and open-ended questions (respondent can answer morefreely)

Ethics in interviews

• Informed consent and confidentiality

• May be distressing and sensitive

• Researcher must be professional!

• If respondents decide to withdraw their

information, you must follow wishes.

Your turn to be a researcher

You have been commissioned to carry out research using interviews on

one of the following issues:

1. positive and negative experiences in CAS projects

2. what it is like to live in a foreign country

3. teenagers and drug use and abuse

4. prejudice in classroom

Consider the following questions

1. How would you carry out your research?

2. How would you obtain your sample?

3. What potential difficulties do you anticipate in carrying out the

interview?

Observation

Observation

• A data collection method which aims to describe

behavior without trying to establish cause and effect

relationships.

• Most take place in a natural setting - Naturalistic

Observations

• Originally used with animal studies – but now some are

used in labs (one way mirrors)

• Raw data may be visual, audio or written

Observation

• Impossible to record EVERYTHING

• Researcher Bias – often the researcher sees what

s/he WANTS to see (to counteract - several

researchers and comparing notes – to ensure inter-

observer reliability)

• Try to get people and animals to act naturally -

typically they change their behavior when know

being watched.

Observation

• Participant observation

• Non-participant observation

• Reactivity – people and animals change their

behaviour when they are observed

• Covert observation (secret)

• Overt observation (participants know)

Example

• What happens when an administrator comes in to

observe students or the teacher? (overt observation)

– How valid is the data?

• What happens when an administrator asks student to

observe or report on activities in a classroom?

(covert)

– How valid is the data?

Your Turn

• During the break you will conduct an

observation.

• Where are you going to carry out your

observation? (cafeteria, media center,

front office, classroom)

• Each member of the group should take

notes.(!!!)

Your Turn

1. Compare your notes. To what

extent are your observations

similar? Discuss this.

2. Are there any ethical

considerations in what you did?

3. Discuss how you could make

sense of this data.

Ethics of Observational Research

1. Need to obtain informed consent of those being

observed.

2. If using covert research, must make proposal to

ethics committees.

3. It could be argued that observation in public places

does not violate rights because they are in

a PUBLIC place!

Famous Covert Participant Observation: Rosenhan, 1973

• Read the story in a frame – p. 34

1. Discuss ethical issues in

Rosenhan’s participant

observation

2. Was the use of covert

observation justified?

Case Studies

Case Studies

• Originated in clinical medicine – patient’s

personal history

• Grounded in real life, produces rich data that

provides insight into unique phenomenon or

individual’s behavior

Case Studies

• Individual or group observed

• Describes people’s experiences, feelings, thoughts

(qualitative data)

• Can include quantitative data – test scores, IQ

scores, blood tests

• Allows for in-depth investigations of human

experience not available in other research methods

Case Studies

• Not really a research method itself, but an approach to

the study of something unique (the case)

• Methods used for gathering data

– Interviews, observations

– Letters, diaries, pictures, TRIANGULATION

– Clinical notes,

– Blood samples

Ethical Aspects of Case Study

• It is deeply personal in nature, so researcher must be very

protective of identities

• Researcher needs professional competence (understand

anorexia, child abuse, drug dependence, etc.)

• Include

– Informed consent, no deception

– Right to withdraw, debriefing

– confidentiality

Famous Case Study: Money 1974

• Dr. Money and the Boy With No Penis• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUTcwqR4Q4Y&hd=1#t=12

• Another case study: Genie – wild child• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA&hd=1• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2112gchild.html• http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/genie.html