nobility in the kingdom of hungary

8/13/2019 Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary

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Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary 1

Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary

The front page of the Tripartitum, the law-book

summarizing the privileges of the nobility in the

kingdom

The origin of the nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary can be

traced to the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in the

9th century, and it developed over the course of the Middle Ages.

It flourished during the Late Middle Ages, up to the partial

Ottoman conquest of the 16th century.

The origin of the Hungarian aristocracy (with regard to rank but

not different in function from the minor nobility) derives from

"men distinguished by birth and dignity" (maiores natu et

dignitate) mentioned in the charters of the first kings. They

descended partly from the leaders of the Magyar tribes and clans

and including immigrant (mainly German, Italian and French)

knights (by invitation from the kings of Hungary) who settled in

the kingdom in the course of the 10-12th centuries. Local Slavicleaders were also recognized as nobles during the centuries. By the

13th century, the royal servants (servientes regis), who mainly

descended from the wealthier freemen (liberi), managed to ensure

their liberties and their privileges were confirmed in the Golden

Bull issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1222. Several

families of the "castle warriors" (iobagiones castri) could also

strengthen their liberties and they received the status of the "true

nobles of the realm" (veri nobiles regni) by the end of the 13th

century, although most of them lost their liberties and became

subordinate to private castle-holders. Many leaders of the mainlySlavic, German and Romanian colonists who immigrated to the kingdom during the 11th-15th centuries also merged

into the nobility. Kings had the authority to reward commoners with nobility and thenceforward, they enjoyed all the

liberties of other nobles.

Eszterhzy Palace in Fertd, Hungary

From the 14th century, the idea of "one and

the same liberty" (una eademque libertas)

appeared in the public law of the kingdom;

the idea suggested that all the nobles

enjoyed the same privileges independently

of their offices, birth or wealth. In reality,even the legislation made a distinction partly

between the members of the upper nobility

(i.e., the nobles who held the highest offices

in the Royal Households and in the royal

administration or, from the 15th century,

who used distinctive noble titles granted by

the kings) and other nobles, and partly

between nobles possessing lands and those

without land possession. Moreover, public

law also recognized the existence of some groups of the "conditional nobles" (conditionarius) whose privileges were

limited; e.g., the "nobles of the Church" (nobilis ecclesi) were burdened with defined services to be provided to
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certain prelates. In some cases, not individuals but a group of people was granted a legal status similar to that of the

nobility; e.g., the Hajd people enjoyed the privileges of the nobility not as individuals but as a community.

Beginning in the 14th century, Hungarian nobility was based on a Patent of Nobility with a coat of arms issued by

the monarch and constituted a legal and social class. Privileges of nobilitye.g. no taxation but obligatory military

service at war at own costwere abolished 1848, titles of nobility were abolished in 1947, and the abolishment of

titles of nobility were again confirmed in 1990.Similarly to other countries in Central Europe, the proportion of the nobility in the population of the Kingdom of

Hungary was significantly higher than in the Western countries: by the 18th century, about 5% of its population

qualified a member of the nobility.

The "cardinal liberties" of the nobility were clearly summarized in the Tripartitum (a law book collecting the body of

common laws of the Kingdom of Hungary) in 1514. According to the Tripartitum, the nobles enjoyed personal

freedom, they were submitted exclusively to the authority of the king and they were exempted of taxation but were

required to serve in war at own cost; until 1681, they were also entitled to resist any actions of the monarchs that

would jeopardize their liberties.

The core privileges of the nobility were abolished or expanded to other citizens by the "April laws" in 1848, but the

members of the upper nobility could reserve their special political rights (they were hereditary members of the Upper

House of the Parliament) and the usage of names of the nobles also distinguished them from the commoners. All the

distinctive features of nobility, including titles, were abolished in 1947 following the declaration of the Republic of

Hungary. The abolition of titles of nobility was confirmed by parliamentary legislation in 1990.

The Latin term Natio Hungarica ("Hungarian nation") during the medieval period covered those groups with the

right to representation in the Hungarian Diet: the nobility, the Roman Catholic clergy, and a few enfranchised

burghers.[1][2][3]Natio Hungarica thus came in the eighteenth century to refer to just the privileged group which had

corporate political rights of parliamentary representation, the prelates, the magnates, and the nobles.

Origins (prehistory)In the 9th century, the nomadic Magyar society was composed mostly of freemen who were engaged in regular raids

against the neighboring (mainly Slavic) peoples.[4]Muslim geographers mentioned that the Magyars

exercise dominion over all of the Saqlab [i.e. the Slavs] who are adjacent to them, and they put upon them

heavy burdens, and they are in their hands in the position of captives.

Ahmad ibn Rustah[5]

The freemen were organized into seven (later, after the Kabars had joined their tribal federation, eight) tribes

(Hungarian: trzs, Greek: phyle), and each tribe was made of clans (Hungarian: nemzetsg, Greek: genea).[6]

Although, the Magyars lived in a stratified society, but the legal position of the freemen was still equal. [4]

Around 896, the Magyars invaded the Carpathian Basin and occupied its whole territory by 902.[7] The occupiedterritory had been inhabited by mainly Slavs, Avars and Germans who became subject to the dominion of the

Magyars;[8] on the other hand, the name of Slavic origin of certain leaders of the Magyar armies suggest that some

notabilities of the local population may have integrated themselves into the nomadic society. In the 13th century,

Simon of Kza described in his chronicle that

It came about that when the Magyars took possession of Pannonia they took prisoners of war, both Christian

and non-Christian. Some of these were put to death when they continued to offer resistance, according to the

custom of nations; the more warlike of the remainder they took with them to fight on the battlefield, and gave

them a portion of the spoils; others in turn became their property and were kept around their tents to perform

various servile duties.

Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum
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Following the conquest, the Magyars made several raids to the territories of present-day Italy, Germany, France and

Spain and also to the lands of the Byzantine Empire. [9][10] On one hand, the regular raids contributed to the

differentiation of their society because the leaders of the military actions were entitled to reserve a higher share of

the booty for themselves, but on the other hand, these actions could also ensure that their commoner participants kept

their independent status.[11] These military actions also contributed to the formation of the retinues of the heads of

the tribes and the clans.[12] The regular military actions continued westwards until the Battle of Lechfeld in 955;

while the raids against the Byzantine Empire finished only in 970. [13] After (or even before) the close of the period

of the military raids, the Magyar society underwent a gradual transformation, and several freemen was obliged to

give up their nomadic lifestyle and settle down, because the Carpathian Basin did not provide vast pastures that

could have sustained a numerous nomadic population.[14]

The christianization of the Magyars commenced during the reign of Gza, Grand Prince of the Magyars (before

972-997) who also invited western knights to settle down in his court and granted estates to them. [15]

The Medieval Kingdom

The formation of the nobility - 11-12th centuries

Immigrant knights, tribal leaders and free warriors

King Saint Stephen (1000/1001-1038)

During the reign of Gza's son, King Stephen I (1000/1001-1038),

who established the Kingdom of Hungary, the Hungarian society

was legally divided into two major groups.[16]

The freemen (Hungarian: szabadok, Latin: liberi) or "people of

the realm" (Hungarian: az orszg npe, Latin: gens monarchi)

still enjoyed their "golden liberties" (Hungarian:

aranyszabadsg, Latin: aurea libertas); i.e., they could move

within the kingdom without restrictions and they were involved

into the arrangement of public affairs.[17]

The serfs (Hungarian: szolgk, Latin: servus) were treated as

property of others.

During the regin of King Stephen I., several foreign knights

immigrated to the kingdom and they received estates from the

king; families of the leaders of the Magyar tribes and clans could also reserve a part of their former possessions,

provided that they accepted the king's supremacy.[18]

We inclined towards the unanimous request of the Council that everybody should be the owner both of their

properties and of the king's donations during their lifetime with the exception those belonging to a bishopricor a county. Moreover, following their death, their sons should hold their inheritance under similar

conditions.

Section 35 of the 2nd Decree of King Stephen I[19]

The immigrant knights contributed to the development of the Hungarian army, because most of them were

horse-mounted men-at-arms, while during the previous centuries the Magyar troops had exclusively been made of

horse archers; only the wealthiest members of the Hungarian tribal aristocracy could follow their example, because

the maintenance of their equipment required considerable financial resources.[20] On the other hand, light cavalry

still took a prominent part in the Hungarian military strategy and therefore other "freemen" could also reserve their

independent status provided that earned sufficient revenues from their possessions.

[21]
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The legal differentiation of certain groups of the "freemen" commenced during King Stephens rule and his decrees

contained different rules applicable to the "heads of counties", the "warriors" and the "common freemen"; on the

other hand, the size of the weregild payable by their murderer was still the same according to his decrees which

suggests that in theory, the "freemens" legal status was still equal.

The "heads of counties" (Hungarian: ispn, Latin: comes) lead the administration of the basic administrative

units (Hungarian: vrmegye, Latin: comitatus) of the kingdom; they were appointed and dismissed by the kingand thus their office was not hereditary - in contrast to the practise the western countries had already been

following by that time.[22][23]

The "warriors" (Hungarian: vitz, Latin: miles) owned lands and they provided military service to the kings or to

the "counts" and King Stephen's decrees expressively urged them to join to the ispns' retinue. The foreign

knights who were not appointed to higher offices also increased their number.[24] The size of the weregeld

payable by them suggest that the "warriors'" financial conditions must have been close to that of the "common

freemen".

The "common freemen" (Hungarian: kzrend, Latin: vulgaris) still enjoyed their liberties (e.g., the right to free

movement) and they were invited to occasional assemblies convoked by the kings, but the number of "common

freemen" who were obliged to settle down on the estates of wealthier landowners was increasing during theperiod.[25]

Notabilities, commoners and castle warriors

King Saint Ladislaus (1077-1095)

By the second half of the 11th century, the equal legal status of the

"freemen" had already loosened and the decrees of King Ladislaus

I (10771095) often referred to them as thieves or vagabonds who

were to be punished with serfdom.[26] The decisions of the Synod

of Szabolcs (1092) prove that by that time, many of the "freemen"

had gone into the service of the prelates and the "counts", although

the synod also prescribed that their superiors should respect their

personal freedom. Nevertheless, several "warriors" could reserve

their own possessions and independent status and they became

exempted from taxation according to the decrees of King Coloman

(10951116).[27]

The decrees of King Ladislaus I distinguished two groups of the

freemen:

The "notabilities" (Hungarian: elkelk, Latin: optimates) or

"nobles" (Hungarian: nemesek, Latin: nobilis) held the highest

offices in the Royal Households and the royal administration. Their financial conditions ensured that they couldset up monasteries and grant possessions to them.

The "non-nobles" (Hungarian: nemtelenek, Latin: ignobilis) were composed of the "warriors" and the "common

freemen".
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The ruins of the Earthwork in Szabolcs - a royal

fortress made of soil

A new group of soldiers also appeared in the royal documents;

they were the "castle warriors" (Hungarian: vrjobbgyok, Latin:

iobagio castri) who did not enjoy all the liberties of the "freemen"

and were personally bound to a royal castle, but they had a share

in both the royal estates attached to the castle and the tax paid by

the people who were obliged to provide services to the royalfortress.[28]

King Coloman the Book-lover (1095-1116)

King Gza II (1141-1162)

Before 1104, King Coloman introduced a new principle when

regulating the inheritance of real estates and he differentiated the

lands granted by King Stephen I on one hand, and the possessions

granted by his successors on the other hand: the former wereinherited by all the male descendants of the person who received

the grant, while the latter could only be inherited by the owner's

sons or (in the lack of sons) by his brothers or their sons.[29]

If a possession was granted by King Saint Stephen, it shall

be inherited by all the descendants following the order of

succession. Other kings' grants shall pass from father to

son, and if there is no son, the brother shall come next; but

after his death, his sons shall not be excluded from the

inheritance. However, in the lack of such brothers, the

possession shall pass to the king.

Section 20 of the 1st Decree of King Coloman

Development in the 12th century

In the course of the 12th century, the "freemen" who owned real

estate and thus earned enough revenue to serve in the kings' army

strengthened their position; even their number started to increase

when the kings began to grant freedom to castle warriors and

serfs.[30] The first example of this practise was documented by a

grant made by King Gza II (11411162) to a serf named Botuswho had been serving in a prelate's household before, but who

became absolved from his former duties and received a smaller

portion of land from the monarch. During the period, the

"notabilities" who descended from the same ancestor usually

owned jointly their inherited possessions, but several examples

could already be found when the members of the family divided

their inheritance among themselves.

King Bla III (11721196) was the first monarch who alienated a

whole "county" (Modrus in Croatia) when transferred the ownership of all the royal estates in the "county" toBartolomej who became the ancestor of the Frankopan (Hungarian:Frangepn) family.[31]
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"The century of the Golden Bulls" - 13th century

Nov institutiones

King Andrew II (12051235) radically changed the internal policy his predecessors had been following and he

started to grant enormous domains to his partisans.[32] When he expressed the substance of his "new arrangements"

(Hungarian: j berendezkeds, Latin: nov institutiones) in one of his charters, he mentioned that

Nothing can set bounds to the generosity of the Royal Majesty; and for a monarch, the best measure of grants

is immeasurableness.

King Andrew's charter (1208)

From 1216, the royal charters began to mention the dignitaries of the royal administration and the Royal Households

as the "barons of the realm" (Hungarian: orszgbr, Latin: baron regni) which prove that they wanted to

distinguish themselves from other nobles.[33] They, however, could not form a hereditary aristocracy.[34][33]

The king's nov institutiones endangered the liberties of the "freemen" who owned estates in the "counties" the king

had granted to his partisans, because up that time, they had been obliged to render military services only to the kings,

but the new lords of the former royal estates in the "counties" endeavored to expand their supremacy over

them.[35][36] Thus, freemen serving in the kings' army commenced to call themselves "royal servants" (Hungarian:

kirlyi szerviensek, Latin: serviens regis) in order to express that they were linked only to the monarch. [37]

The Golden Bull of 1222

The Golden Bull

In 1222, the "royal servants" led by former "barons of the realm"

who had been dismissed by King Andrew II enforced the king to

issue the Golden Bull in order to confirm their liberties.[38]

Although, the Golden Bull still make a distinction between the

"nobles" and the "royal servants", but it also summarized the

latter's liberties in writing.

[39]

According to the Golden Bull, "royal servants" could not be

arrested without a verdict and they were exempt from several taxes

payable by other freemen; moreover, the Golden Bull also

declared that they were exempt from the jurisdiction of the heads

of the "counties". The privileges of the "royal servants"

summarized in the royal decree established the basis upon which

the "cardinal liberties" of the nobility could be developing during the next centuries.[40][41] The last provision of the

Golden Bull introduced the "right to resist" (Hungarian: ellenllsi jog, Latin: ius resistendi) based on which the

prelates and the "nobles" were authorized to resist any royal measures that could endanger their liberties confirmed

by the Golden Bull.[42]

In 1231, King Andrew II issued a new charter confirming not only the provisions of the Golden Bull, but also the

liberties of the castle warriors whose position had also been endangered by the emerging power of the new owners of

the former royal estates.[43]
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The development of the lesser nobility

A deed issued, in 1232, by the "royal servants" living in Zala county indicated a new step towards the formation of

institutes of their self-government: in the deed, they passed a judgment in a case, which proved that the "counties",

that had been the basic units of the royal administration, commenced to turn into an administrative unit governed by

the developing nobility.[44]

King Bla IV the "Second Founder of our Country"

(1235-1270)

From the 1230s, the terminology used in the royal charters whenthey referred to "royal servants" began to change and finally, the

Decree of 1267 issued by King Bla IV (12351270) identified

them with the nobles.[45] Thenceforward, the former "royal

servants" could enjoy all the privileges of the nobles and if the

kings wanted to advance commoners they rewarded them with

noble status in a charter issued for this specific purpose.[46]

In the second half of the 13th century, the kings ennobled several

castle warriors and thus they got rid of the burden to provide

services to the castle holders.[47] Castle warriors whose estate was

not charged by specific services to be provided to the

castle-holders could reach the status of nobility even without royal

grant, provided that the nobles of the "county" where their estates

were situated received them into their community.

The emerging power of the barons

The ruins of Csejte Castle (today achtice in Slovakia) - a fortress built in the

middle of the 13th century

Following the Mongol invasion of the

kingdom in 1241-42, King Bla IV

endeavoured the landowners to build

strongholds in their domains and therefore,

he often granted lands to his partisans with

the obligation that they should build a

fortress there.[48]

The wealthier members of the landed

nobility endeavored to strengthen their

position and they often rebelled against the

kings.[49] They began to employ the

members of the lesser nobility in their

households and thus the latter (mentioned as

familiaris in the deeds) became subordinate

to them.[50] On the other hand, a familiaris

kept the ownership of his former estates and

in this regard, he still reserved his liberties

and fell under the jurisdiction of the royal courts of justice.

[51]
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The last member of the rpd dynasty, King Andrew III (12901301) tried to restore the royal power and thus he

strengthened the position of the lesser nobility against the "barons of the realm": he prescribed the involvement of

"noble judges" (Hungarian: szolgabr, Latin: iudex nobilium) in judicial proceedings in assize courts (Hungarian:

vrmegyei trvnyszk, Latin: sedes iudiciaria) and he also encouraged the nobles to take part in the law-making

process by convoking assemblies for this purpose.[52]

(...) the heads of the counties shall not dare to decide the verdict or pass a judgement without the four electednobles."

(...) once in each year, all the barons and nobles of our kingdom shall come to the assembly in Szkesfehrvr

in order to discuss the state of affairs in the kingdom and examine the barons' actions (...)

Articles 5 and 25 of the Decree of 1291

King Andrew III, however, could not hinder the strengthening of the most powerful barons who commenced to

govern their domains de facto independently of the monarch and they usurped the royal prerogatives on their

territories.[53] Following the king's death, the largest part of the kingdom became subject to the de facto rule of

oligarchs like Matthew III Csk, Amade Aba and Ladislaus Kn.[54]

The age of chivalry - 14th century

At the time when the House of rpd became extinct, a regional symbolism, [55]Natio Hungarica was developing

during the late medieval centuries,[56] which originated its own historical legitimacy from the Hungarian warrior

tribes that allegedly founded the Kingdom.[57] This expression referred only to the nobility, henceNobilis Hungarus

was a member of the aristocracy.[58]Natio Nobillium became synonymous to Natio Hungarica in the 16th

century.[59]

Changes in the administration and in the Royal Households

King Charles I Robert (1308-1342)

King Charles I Robert (13081342), who was a matrilineal

descendant of the rpd dynasty, could strengthen his position onthe throne only following a long period of internal struggles

(13011323) against his opponents and the most powerful

oligarchs.[60] Based on the estates he had acquired by force from

the rebellious oligarchs, the king introduced a new system in the

royal administration: when he appointed his followers to an office,

he also granted them the possession of one or more royal castles

and the royal domains attached to them, but he reserved the

ownership of the castle and its belongings for himself and thus his

dignitaries could only enjoy the revenues of their possessions

while they held the office.[61]

King Charles I endeavoured the implementation of the ideas of

chivalry; in 1318, he established the Order of Saint George.[62] He

also set up the body of "knights-at-the-court" (Hungarian: udvari

lovag, Latin: aule regi miles) who acted as his personal delegates

on an ad hoc basis.[63] King Charles I was the first king of

Hungary who granted crests to his followers.

In 1324, in order to reward the nobles of Transylvania for their aid

in suppressing the Saxons' rebellion, King Charles abolished the
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tax they had been obliged to pay, which contributed to the unification of the nobility of the whole realm.[64] On the

other hand, during his reign, the holders of the 20 highest offices in the public administration and the Royal

Households obtained the honorific magnificus vir that distinguished them from other nobles.[65]

In 1332, King Charles I declaredin one of his charters issued to Margaret de genere Ndasd, whose male relatives

had been murdered in 1316 during the internal struggles, that she was entitled to inherit her father's possessions. [66]

Although this privilege contradicted the customs of the kingdom that prescribed that daughters can only inheritone-fourth of their father's estates, it set a precedent for future cases and thenceforward "putting her into a son's

place" (Hungarian:fiusts, Latin:prfectio) became a royal prerogative and both King Charles I and his successors

exercised it occasionally in spite of the sharp opposition of the nobility. [67]

The Act of 1351

King Louis I the Great (1342-1382)

Following the unsuccessful campaigns against the Kingdom of

Naples (13471350) and the ravages of the Black Death

(13471349) in the kingdom, King Louis I (13421382) convoked

the assembly of the "barons, notabilities and nobles" in 1351 and

at their request, he reissued the Golden Bull of 1222 with onemodification.[68] The Act also declared the principle of "one and

the same liberty" of the nobility when prescribed that

(...) all the true nobles who live within the borders of our

realm, even including those who live in the duke's provinces

within the borders of our realm, shall enjoy the same

liberties.

Article 11 of the Act of 1351

The modification of the Golden Bull introduced the entail system

(Hungarian: sisg, Latin: aviticitas) when regulating theinheritance of the nobles' estates; according to the new system, the

nobles' real property could not be devised by will, but it passed by

operation of law to the owner's heirs upon his death. The Act of

1351 introduced a new tax called "ninth" (Hungarian: kilenced,

Latin: nona) that was payable by all the villeins to their lords; and

the Act also prescribed, in order to prevent the wealthier land-owners from enticing the villeins working on the

smaller nobles' estate, that all the land-owners were obliged to assess the nex tax otherwise it was payable to the

king.[69] On the other hand, King Louis I abolished the taxes the nobles living in Slavonia had been obliged to pay

thus ensuring that thenceforward they enjoyed all the liberties of the nobility of the kingdom.

Groups of "conditional nobles"

Although the Act of 1351 declared the principle of a uniform nobility, but in reality, the legal status of some other

groups of people in the kingdom was close to that of the "real nobles of the realm", but they were burdened with

defined services linked to their estates and thus their liberties were limited. [70]

The "nobles of the Church" (Hungarian: egyhzi nemesek, predilis nemesek; Latin: nobilis ecclesi, prdiales)

possessed estates on some wealthier prelates' domains and served as horsemen in their lord's retinue. [71][72] In

contrast to the "real nobles of the realm", they fell under the jurisdiction of the prelates, but they also set up their

own organization of self-government called "seat" (Hungarian: szk; Latin: sedes).[73][74] The special legal status

of the "nobles of the Church" disappeared only in 1853.[75]

The "nobles with ten lances" (Hungarian: tzlndzssok; Latin: nobiles sub decem lanceis constituti) lived in

Szepes county (today Spi in Slovakia).[76] They were exempted from the jurisdiction of the head of the county
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and they were organized into an autonomous "seat".[77] At the beginning, each of them were liable to military

service, but from 1243, they had to arm only ten lance-bearers for the kings' army. The "nobles with ten lances"

could reserve their autonomy until 1804 when their "seat" was merged into Szepes county.[78]

The "noblecnezes and voivodes" (Hungarian: nemes kenz, nemes vajda; Latin: nobilis kenezius, nobilis voivoda)

were the leaders of the Romanians and Ruthenians who immigrated into the kingdom and settled down there in

the course of the 13-15th centuries.[79][80][81] The kings rewarded some voivodes and cnezes for their military

service with noble status, but, initially, that status was circumscribed: they remained obligated to pay taxes in kind

for their estates, andto provide precisely-defined military services. In the 14th century, judicial affairs in the

Htszeg (todayHaeg in Romania) district were dealt by the cnez "seats", chaired by the Htszeg castellan. The

bishops of Vrad (today Oradea in Romania) and Transylvania rewarded Romanian voivodes who served in their

military escorts with the "nobility of the Church". The bishops' semi-noble voivodes remained in this state of

dependence until the early modern period, when the Reformation did away with church estates. In contrast, the

crown's semi-noble voivodes and cnezes soon rose to the ranks of "true nobles of the realm". After the cnezes

were ennobled, their "seat" in the Htszeg district merged with the nobiliary court of Hunyad (today Hunedoara

in Romania) county.

The rule of the barons' leagues

King Sigismund (1387-1437)

Following the death of King Louis I, his daughter Queen Mary I

(13821385, 13861395) acceded to the throne, but the majority

of the nobles opposed her rule. In 1385, the young queen had to

abdicate in favor of his distant cousin, King Charles II

(13851386), but her partisans murdered the new king soon and

thus she could ascend the throne again.[82] However, the followers

of her murdered opponent's son, King Ladislaus of Naples rose up

in open rebellion and captured her; thus the realm stayed without a

monarch.[83]

In 1386, when the young Queen Mary I (13821385, 13861395)

had been captured by rebellious nobles, the prelates and the

"barons of the realm" set up a council and they commenced to

issue decrees in the name of the "prelates, barons, notabilities and

all nobles of the realm".[84] Shortly afterwards, the members of the

council entered into a contract with Queen Mary's fianc and

elected him king; in the contract, King Sigismund (13871437)

accepted that his

counsillors shall be the prelates, the barons, theiroffsprings and heirs, of those who used to be the

counsillors of the kings of Hungary[85]

The contract also recorded that the king and his counsillors would form a league and the king could not dismiss his

counsillors without the consent of the other members of the Royal Council. [86] In 1401, King Sigismund who had

been imprisoned by the discontent members of the Royal Council, concluded a new agreement with some members

of the upper nobility who set him free.

The public law of the kingdom also started to differentiate the descendants of the "barons of the realm", even if they

did not held any higher offices, from other nobles: the Act of 1397 referred to them as the "barons' sons" (Hungarian:

brfi, Latin:filii baronum) while later documents called them "magnates" (Hungarian: mgns, Latin: magnates).
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The emerging power of the Estates - 15-16th centuries

King Sigismund's rule

Reconstruction of the insignia of the Order of the

Dragon

During his reign, King Sigismund granted several royal castles and

the royal domains attached to them to the members of the barons'

leagues.

[87]

The king, however, wanted to strengthen his positionand for this purpose, in 1408, he founded the Order of the

Dragon.[88] In contrast to the promises he had made, King

Sigismund involved foreigners and members of the lesser nobility

in the royal administration who were mentioned as his "special

counsillors" (Hungarian: klns tancsos, Latin: consiliarius

specialis) in his documents.[89]

The king expanded the jurisdiction of the assize courts when

abolished the exemptions he or his predecessors had granted to

several bodies corporate and individuals.[90] He tried to exempt the

poorest nobles from the obligation to serve personally in hisarmies, but the Estates of the realm refused his proposal, probably because exactly those who were concerned

thought that this releaf could lead to the abolishment of their personal tax-exemption.

And the other nobles who do not have villains (with the exception of those whose exemption seems reasonable

because of being advanced in age, widowed or orphaned or being in a similar state of helplessness) shall join

the armies themselves alone; namely, those who have a lord and fight under his name and at his expense, shall

join together with their lord; while those without a lord, shall join together with the head of their county at

their own expense (financed from their estate or house), but also properly armed and supplied in accordance

with their capacity.

Article 3 of the Act I of 1435

Groups within the nobility

Following the death of King Louis I (1382), the distribution of landed property underwent a significant change in the

kingdom: in parallel with a radical decrease of the size of the royal domains, the importance of private estates

increased considerably.[91] In 1382, less than 50% of the territory of the country was owned by nobles, but by 1437,

about 65% of its territory had already been owned by them.

The unequal distribution of the landed property enabled the formation of several major groups within the nobility.

The Castle of Vajdahunyad (today Castelul Huniazilor

in Romania) - built in the 15th century and became the

centre of the Hunyadi domains

The size of the domains of the "magnates" (about 40 families)

exceeded the 60,000 hectares (600 km2), but some of them

owned landed properties whose territory exceeded even the

300,000 hectares (3,000 km2). Their lands were cultivated by

about 1,000-3,500 villeins and they organized their domains

into smaller units centered around their castles. The "magnates"

employed "lesser nobles" in their households; thus their seats

turned into social and political centers in the countryside.[92]

The "wealthier nobles" (about 200-300 families) employed

200-1,000 families of landed villeins on their estates whose size

ranged from 5,000 to 60,000 hectares (from 50 to 600 km2).

Most of them descended from the members of the wealthier
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clans of the 13th century who did not hold higher offices. [93] They were rich enough not to enter into the service

of the magnates; therefore, they preferred to retire to their manors.

The "nobles of the counties" (about 3,000-5,000 families) owned about 20-200 villein's parcels; the size of their

estates ranged from 500 to 5,000 hectares (from 5 to 50 km2 respectively) They were employed by the "magnates"

and held the highest offices in their households. Several of them held offices in the "counties'" administration and

thus became the leaders of the local "lesser nobility". It is important to note that the boundary between this group

and the "nobles with one parcel" was constantly in flux, which created the particular dynamic of Hungarian lesser

nobility.

The "nobles with one parcel" (about 12,000-16,000 families) formed the most numerous group within the

nobility; the size of their estate typically did not exceed the 3 hectares (0,3 km2) and their parcels were often

cultivated by themselves without the assistance of villeins. They were often employed as mercenaries but they

also preferred the legal career; however, plenty of them worked as tailor, blacksmith, butcher or carried out

similar profession.[94] In fact, they were peasants or craftsmen who enjoyed all the liberties of the nobility. [95] The

majority of the "nobles with one parcel" lived in separate "noble villages", although some of them lived together

with villeins in the same settlements. According to the customary law, brothers each were entitled to an equal

share in their father's inheritance; therefore, the number of the "nobles with one parcel" were increasing during theperiod because even larger estates may have been divided among their owner's descendants from generation to

generation.

The "nobles' in-laws" (Hungarian: agilis, nnemes; Latin: agilis) formed also a specific group within the nobility;

they were commoners who married a noble woman or descended from the marriage of a noble woman and a

commoner.[96] According to the customary law, the daughters of nobles inherited one-quarter of their father's estates

but their inheritance was to be delivered in cash; however, a noble's daughter was entitled to receive her inheritance

in-kind, if she married to a commoner.[97] In this case, she and her husband became the owners of one or more noble

estates and under the customary law, her husband and their children were regarded nobles.[98] From the 16th century,

a noble woman's commoner husband was not counted among the nobles and only their children could reach the

status of nobility provided that they inherited landed property from their mother.

The triumph of the Estates

When King Albert I (14371439) was proclaimed king, he had to take a solemn oath that he would exercise his

prerogative powers only with the consent of the Royal Council.[99] The Diet convoked in 1439 enacted that even the

nobles who did not have villeins be exempted from the payment of the tithe.

(...) as their ancient liberties have required, nobles do not have to pay tithe whether they have villeins or not.

Article 28 of the Act of 1439

Following King Albert's death, a civil war broke out between the followers of his posthumous son, King Ladislaus V

(1440

1457) and the partisans of his opponent, King Vladislaus I (1440

1444).

[100]

Although the infant king wascrowned by the Holy Crown, but the assembly of the Estates declared his coronation void [101] and the Diet

formulated the principle that

(...) the monarchs' coronation always depends on the will of the people of the realm, and the efficacy

and the powers of the crown originate from their consent.[102]
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John Hunyadi (?-1456)

Between 1440 and 1458, the Diet was convoked in each year (with

the exception of 1443 and 1449), and its functions changed

radically: previously, the assemblies of the Estates functioned

mainly as a consultative body and the monarch passed his decrees

in the Royal Council, but thenceforward, the Diet was involved in

the legislative process of law-making and the bills were to bepassed by the Diet before receiving the Royal Assent.[103]

The monarch (or the regent) sent a personal invitation to the

prelates, "barons of the realm" and "magnates" when he convoked

a Diet and they attended in person at the assembly; other nobles

were represented by their deputies elected at their assemblies held

in each county. Occasionally (e.g., in 1441, 1446, 1456), all the

nobles were invited to attend in person at the Diet.[104] The

constitution of the Diets ensured the predominance of the nobility,

because the "magnates" and the "counties'" deputies had an

overwhelming majority over the prelates and the towns'representatives.[105]

In 1446, the assembly of the Estates proclaimed John Hunyadi to Regent and he was to govern the realm in

cooperation with the Estates until 1453 when King Ladislaus V returned to the kingdom. [106] John Hunyadi was the

first "magnate" who received a hereditary title from a king of Hungary.[107]

King Matthias I the Just (1458-1490)

King Matthias I (14431490) rewarded his partisans with

hereditary titles and appointed them[108] hereditary heads of

"counties" and he also entitled them to use the red sealing

wax.[109][110] During his reign, all the members of the wealthier

families descending from the "barons of the realm" received thehonorific magnificus which was a next step towards their

separation from other nobles.[111]

In 1487, a new expression appeared in a deed of armistice signed

by King Matthias: 18 families were mentioned as "natural barons

of Hungary" (Hungarian:Magyarorszg termszetes bri, Latin:

barones natureles in Hungaria) in contrast to the "barons of the

realm" who were still the holders of the highest offices in the

public administration and the Royal Households.[112]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armisticehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMatei_Corvin_Johannes_de_Thurocz_f137.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Hunyadihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Assenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ATucrcoczy_Janos_Iancu_de_Hunedoara_Brunnner_Ausgabe.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Hunyadi


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King Vladislaus II the "Dobe" (1490-1516)

During the reign of King Vladislaus II (14901516), the Diet

unambiguosly expressed[113] that certain noble families were in a

distinguished position and mentioned them as barons

irrespectively of the office they held which prove that by that time,

public law had acknowledged their special legal status and their

privilege to use distinctive titles.

Early Modern Period

Conflicts within the nobility and the Great Peasants'

War of 1514

The period following the death of King Matthias (1490) was

characterized by conflicts among the several "parties" of the

nobility, although the independence of the kingdom became more

and more jeopardized by the emerging power of the OttomanEmpire.[114]

One of the two major political groupings (the "national party") was

led by duke John Corvin (the illegitimate son of King Matthias I)

and later, by count John Szapolyai and it was followed by the

majority of the "lesser nobles"; they wanted to establish a

"national kingdom", i.e., they wanted to proclaim one of the

barons to king.[115] The "court party" was composed mainly of the barons and theirfamiliaris and it preferred a close

alliance with the Habsburgs. On the other hand, the conflict between the "upper nobility" (the "magnates") and the

"lesser nobility" also existed, because the former endeavoured to develop their special privileges, while the latter

wanted to reserve the ideology of "one and the same liberty".

In 1514, the great rebellion of the peasants led by Gyrgy Dzsa broke out, and their troops occupied and burgled

several manors, murdered many landowners and raped noble women.[116] The peasants' troops were defeated by the

combined forces of the nobility led by count John Szapolyai.

The acts of revenge against the peasants were enacted by the legislation of 1514: according to the new legal

provisions, thenceforward, villeins had to work one day of each week on their lords' demesne without

remuneration[117] and their right to free movement became abolished.[118][119]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demesnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gy%C3%B6rgy_D%C3%B3zsahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Habsburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%A1nos_Szapolyaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illegitimatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%A1nos_Corvinushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_partyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladislaus_II_of_Bohemia_and_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AVladislaus_II._of_Bohemia_and_Hungary.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladislaus_II_of_Bohemia_and_Hungary


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The "cardinal liberties" of the nobility - The Tripartitum

The first Hungarian translation of the Tripartitum

(printed in 1565)

At the Diet of 1514, Istvn Werbczy, who had been a member of

the Royal Court, presented his work collecting the costumary law

of the realm to the Estates. Although the Diet passed a decision

confirming Werbczy's work and his work also received the Royal

Assent, but it was never promulgated, probably because it wasobviously biased towards the intresests of the "lesser nobility".

Nevertheless, Istvn Werbczy published his work under the title

The customary law of the renowned Kingdom of Hungary: a work

in three parts (Hungarian: Tekintetes Magyarorszg

szoksjognak hrmasknyve, Latin: Tripartitum opus iuris

consuetudinarii Inclyti Regni Hungari) and his book would be

followed by the courts of justice in the Kingdom of Hungary

during the next centuries.[120] The Tripartitum, in contrast to the

development of the public law during the 15th century, declared

the principle of "one and the same liberty" of the nobility, although

it also referred to some distinctive privileges of the barons (e.g.,

the size of their weregeld was higher).

The Tripartitums Prim Nonus' (i.e., the Ninth Title of its First

Part) summarized the "cardinal liberties" of the nobility:

a noble could not be arrested without having been summonsed

to appear before a court of justize and judged guilty;

a noble was subordinate only to the power of the monarch legally crowned;

a noble was exempt from any taxes and obligatory services with the exemption of military service in case of an

attack on the realm;

nobles were entitled to resist any act of the monarchs that could jeopardize their liberties.[121]

The Ottoman conquest

The Battle of Mohcs (August 29, 1526)

On 29 August 1526, the military forces of the Kingdom

of Hungary led by King Louis II (15161526) suffered

a catastrophic defeat from the Ottoman armies led by

the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (15201566) at

the Battle of Mohcs.[122] When the young king left the

battlefield, he was thrown from his horse in a river anddied, weighed down by his armor. Following their

victory, the Ottoman troops entered Buda and pillaged

the castle and the surroundings, but they retreated soon

afterwards.[123]

The "national party" of the nobility proclaimed its

leader to king, but his opponents did not accept his rule,

and shortly afterwards, they elected the Habsburg

claimant to king; thus a civil war broke out among the followers of King John I (15261540) and King Ferdinand I

(15261564). When King John I died, his followers proclaimed his infant son to king, but in 1541, the Sultan
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ferdinand_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%A1nos_Szapolyaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Budahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suleiman_the_Magnificenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_II_of_Hungary_and_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABattle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_Turkish_miniature.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Promulgationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Istv%C3%A1n_Werb%C5%91czyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ATripartitum-1565.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tripartitum


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Suleiman invaded the kingdom and occupied its central parts. However, by the Sultan's grace, the infant King John II

Sigismund (15401570) could reserve the government in the eastern parts of the kingdom which led to the formation

of a semi-independent polity on those territories.[124]

Thenceforward, the medieval Kingdom of Hungary became divided into three parts:

the western and northern territories of the kingdom were ruled by kings from the Habsburg dynasty (Royal

Hungary); the central territories of the kingdom became parts of the Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Hungary);

Transylvania and other eastern territories of the kingdom turned into a semi-independent principality under

Ottoman suzerainty (Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, Principality of Transylvania).[125]

New groups within the nobility

The Ottoman conquest of the central territories of the kingdom enforced several nobles to leave their estates and they

had to move to the territories that had not become subject to the Ottoman rule.[126] Several of them received a parcel

on the domains of the "magnates", but their parcels did not turn into noble estates and therefore, they had to pay

remuneration for the use of their parcels which loosened the principle of the personal tax-exemption of the nobility.

The lack of landed property that the kings could have granted led to the practise that the monarchs commenced to

ennoble communers without granting them estates; consequently, the "nobles with only letters patent" (Hungarian:

armlis nemesek, armalistk; Latin: nobiles armales, armalist) could not serve personally in the kings' army in the

lack of proper revenues. Similarly to them, the "nobles with one parcel" neither could finance the expenses of their

personal military service.[127]

The siege of Komrom (today Komrno in Slovakia) in

1594

However, the permanent state of war on the borders of the Royal

Hungary required the maintenance of permanent military forces;

therefore, the Estates accepted the idea that the nobles who did not

owne estates cultivated by villeins (who were obliged to pay taxes)

should contribute to the expenses of the wars and in 1595, theyordered[128] that the "nobles with only letters patent" and the

"nobles with one parcel" should pay a military contribution.

Shortly afterwards, the same nobles became subject to the tax

payable for the "counties". Thenceforward, the nobles who became

subject to taxation were referred to as "nobles paying tax"

(Hungarian: takss nemesek).

The Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary

Martin Luther's first adherents in the Kingdom of Hungary appeared around 1521 among the (mainly)

German-speaking citizens of the towns of Transdanubia, Upper Hungary (today Slovakia) and (from the 1530s)

Transylvania (today in Romania).[129] Moreover, some members of German origin of the court of Mary of Austria,

the queen of King Louis II also became the follower of the church reformer's ideas. The nobility, however,

endeavoured to hinder the spreading of the ideas of the Reformation during the first half of the 16th century and the

Diets of 1523, 1524 and 1525 enacted specific provisions[130] against its followers.[131]

The Lutheran position changed when King Ferdinand I entrusted the defence of the royal fortresses to mercenaries

whose majority had become the adherent of Martin Luther and they were followed by Lutheran preachers.[132] From

the 1530s, more and more "magnates" converted to the Lutheran ideas and the members of the lesser nobility also

followed their example.[133]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Preacherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lutheranismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercenaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protestant_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protestant_Reformershttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_of_Austria_%281505%E2%80%931558%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transylvaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slovakiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Upper_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transdanubiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_Lutherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perpetual_warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AKomarno1594.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kom%C3%A1rnohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principality_of_Transylvania_%281571%E2%80%931711%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Hungarian_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_II_Sigismund_Z%C3%A1polyahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_II_Sigismund_Z%C3%A1polya


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The Modern Age

After the obscure kuruc age and the relative quiet of Maria Theresa's era, Joseph II (178090) brought important

alterations for the Hungarian nobles. He was a dynamic leader who was influenced by the Enlightenment. He

decreed that German replaces Latin as the empire's official language and granted peasants the freedom to leave their

holdings, to marry, and to place their children in trades. Hungary, Slavonia, Croatia, the Military Frontier and

Transylvania became a single imperial territory under one administration, called the Kingdom of Hungary or "Landsof the Crown of St. Stephen" (before Royal Hungary form was used). When the Hungarian nobles again refused to

waive their exemption from taxation, Joseph banned imports of Hungarian manufactured goods into Austria and

began a survey to prepare for imposition of a general land tax. Joseph II.'s reforms outraged nobles and clergy of

Hungary. Hungarians perceived Joseph's language reform as German cultural hegemony, and they reacted by

insisting on the right to use their own tongue. As a result, Hungarian lesser nobles sparked a renaissance of the

Hungarian language and culture, and a cult of national dance and costume flourished. The lesser nobles questioned

the loyalty of the magnates, of whom less than half were ethnic Hungarians, and even those had become French- and

German-speaking courtiers. The Hungarian national reawakening subsequently triggered national revivals among the

Slovak, Romanian, Serbian, and Croatian minorities within Hungary and Transylvania, who felt threatened by both

German and Hungarian cultural hegemony.

Natio Hungarica came to refer to the privileged group that had corporate political rights of parliamentary

representation, i.e. the prelates, the magnates and the nobles. This conception was accepted in Szatmar Treaty of

1711 and in the Pragmatic Sanction of 1722; it remained valid until 1848.

Abolition of nobility and development of ethnic nationalism

The old concept ofNatio Hungarica came to play a role in the development of early nationalism based on the French

model.Wikipedia:Please clarifyWikipedia:Verifiability[134] udovt tr indirectly demanded that all people

(including peasants) living in the Kingdom of Hungary have their own representatives in the Diet. He indicated

thenew constitutional subject that is all the peoples in the Kingdom of Hungary should become the NatioHungarica. This involved the amendment of the meaning of the traditional class concept Natio Hungarica and the

extension of its frame to all the peoples in the Hungarian Kingdom. His attempt at the transformation of all the

peoples in kingdom into Natio Hungarica constituted an attempt at the transformation of all ethnic groups in

Hungarian Kingdom intoNatio Hungarica. Only with the abolition of nobility and the development of Hungarian

nationalism did natio Hungarica begin to develop an ethnic sense. Lajos Kossuth identified the historical-political

rights of king and corporations in the Kingdom of Hungary with the national rights of the Magyars. [135]

Notes

[1] John M. Merriman, J. M. Winter,Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire; Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006; page

140; ISBN 978-0-684-31359-7.[2][2] Nakazawa 2007, p. 158.

[3] Katerina Zacharia,Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity; Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008; page 237; ISBN

978-0-7546-6525-0.

[4][4] Krist 1998, p. 47.

[5][5] Lszl 1996, p. 195.

[6] Tth 1998, pp. 7889.

[7][7] Tth 1998, p. 189.

[8][8] Krist 1998, p. 28.

[9] Krist 1998, pp. 6768.

[10] Bna 1998, pp. 2965.

[11][11] Krist 1998, p. 67.

[12][12] Krist 1998, p. 66.[13] Bna 1998, pp. 6265.

[14][14] Krist 1998, p. 70.
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lajos_Kossuthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_nationalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_nationalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnic_groupshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C4%BDudov%C3%ADt_%C5%A0t%C3%BArhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verifiabilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Please_clarifyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_French_Republichttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_French_Republichttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_nationalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pragmatic_Sanctionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Szatm%C3%A1rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renaissancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cultural_hegemonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clergyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Austriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lands_of_the_Crown_of_St._Stephenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lands_of_the_Crown_of_St._Stephenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transylvaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Croatiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavoniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maria_Theresahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuruc


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[15] Krist 1998, pp. 8589.

[16][16] Krist 1998, p. 154.

[17][17] Krist 1998, p. 155.

[18] Fgedi 1986, pp. 1127.

[19] Corpus Juris Hungarici, mek.oszk.hu (http://mek. oszk.hu/01300/01396/html/01.htm#1)

[20] Fgedi 1986, pp. 4041.

[21] Krist 1994, pp. 213214.

[22][22] Krist 1998, p. 107.[23] Fgedi 1986, pp. 5455.

[24] Krist 1994, pp. 457458.

[25] Krist 1998, pp. 155156.

[26][26] Krist 1998, p. 156.

[27][27] Krist 1998, p. 157.

[28][28] Krist 1994, p. 715.

[29] Fgedi 1986, pp. 4345.

[30][30] Krist 1998, p. 193.

[31][31] Krist 1998, p. 180.

[32][32] Krist 1998, p. 203.

[33][33] Bn 1989a, p. 43.

[34][34] Krist 1994, p. 83.[35] Krist 1998, pp. 209210.

[36] Fgedi 1986, pp. 7477.

[37] Krist 1998, pp. 210211.

[38] Engel, Krist & Kubinyi 1998, p. 102.

[39] Krist 1998, pp. 212213.

[40][40] Bn 1989a, p. 34.

[41][41] Bn 1989b, p. 53.

[42][42] Krist 1994, p. 55.

[43][43] Krist 1994, p. 56.

[44][44] Krist 1998, p. 221.

[45][45] Krist 1998, p. 256.

[46][46] Krist 1994, pp. 377, 484.

[47][47] Krist 1994, p. 377.


[49] Krist 1998, pp. 263269.

[50] Fgedi 1986, pp. 132133.


[52] Krist 1998, pp. 269271.

[53] Krist 1998, pp. 273276.

[54] Engel, Krist & Kubinyi 1998, pp. 4145.

[55] Tgil & Gerner 1999.

[56] Fgedi & Karbi 1998, p. 2 (http://books. google.com/books?id=6pXe-vrY5rsC&pg=PA2).

[57] Tgil & Gerner 1999, p. 130.

[58] Klein & Reban 1981, p. 131.

[59] Csaba Lvai, Vasile Vese, Tolerance and intolerance in historical perspective (http:/

/

books.

google.

co.

uk/books?ei=kyBdTv3DKMGp8AOKpLSlAw&ct=result&id=IsDZAAAAMAAJ&dq="natio+hungarica"+15th+century&q=synonymous+

#search_anchor), PLUS, 2003, ISBN 978-88-8492-139-0



[62][62] Fgedi 1986, p. 220.

[63] Fgedi 1986, pp. 192193.

[64] Corpus Juris Hungarici, mek.oszk.hu (http://mek. oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/78.html)

[65][65] Fgedi 1986, p. 188.

[66][66] Fgedi 1986, p. 250.

[67][67] Fgedi 1986, p. 251.



[70][70] Krist 1994, p. 556.

[71][71] Krist 1994, p. 181.
http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/78.htmlhttp://books.google.co.uk/books?ei=kyBdTv3DKMGp8AOKpLSlAw&ct=result&id=IsDZAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22natio+hungarica%22+15th+century&q=synonymous+#search_anchorhttp://books.google.co.uk/books?ei=kyBdTv3DKMGp8AOKpLSlAw&ct=result&id=IsDZAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22natio+hungarica%22+15th+century&q=synonymous+#search_anchorhttp://books.google.co.uk/books?ei=kyBdTv3DKMGp8AOKpLSlAw&ct=result&id=IsDZAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22natio+hungarica%22+15th+century&q=synonymous+#search_anchorhttp://books.google.com/books?id=6pXe-vrY5rsC&pg=PA2http://mek.oszk.hu/01300/01396/html/01.htm#1


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[72][72] Bnis 2003, pp. 147, 154, 157.

[73][73] Krist 1994, p. 182.

[74][74] Bnis 2003, pp. 159, 162.

[75] lexikon.katolikus.hu (http://lexikon.katolikus.hu/LINKEK/LINKEEEE/16EGYHIJ.HTML)

[76][76] Krist 1994, p. 393.

[77][77] Bnis 2003, p. 269.


[79] Bnis 2003, pp. 275279.[80] Corpus Juris Hungarici, mek.oszk.hu (http://mek. oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/73.html)

[81] Corpus Juris Hungarici, mek.oszk.hu (http://mek. oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/81.html)



[84] Fgedi 1986, pp. 285286.

[85][85] Fgedi 1986, p. 288.

[86][86] Fgedi 1986, p. 289.

[87][87] Fgedi 1986, p. 322.

[88][88] Fgedi 1986, p. 309.



[91] Engel, Krist & Kubinyi 1998, p. 171.[92] Engel, Krist & Kubinyi 1998, p. 172.


[94] Engel, Krist & Kubinyi 1998, pp. 173, 315.


[96][96] Bn 1989a, p. 15.





[101][101] Benda 1981, p. 260.





[106][106] Benda 1981.

[107][107] Benda 1981, p. 270.

[108] John Vitovec (1463: Zagorje county); Emeric Szapolyai (1465: Szepes county); Nicholas Csupor de Monoszl (1467: Verce county);

John Ernuszt (1467: Turc county); Nicholas Bnffy de Alslendva (1485); Peter and Matthias Gerb (1487)Fgedi 1986, pp. 381-382.

[109][109] Fgedi 1986, p. 381.



[112][112] Fgedi 1986, p. 382.

[113][113] Article 22 of the Act of 1498.

[114] Engel, Krist & Kubinyi 1998, p. 356.[115] Engel, Krist & Kubinyi 1998, p. 358.


[117][117] Article 16 of the Act of 1514


[119][119] Article 25 of the Act of 1514

[120][120] Benda 1981, p. 337.

[121][121] Bn 1989b, p. 121.

[122][122] Benda 1981, p. 350.

[123][123] Benda 1982, p. 361.

[124] Benda 1982, pp. 372374.

[125][125] Benda 1982, p. 374.

[126][126] Bn 1989b, p. 36.

[127][127] Bn 1989b, p. 190.

[128][128] Articles 5 and 6 of the Act of 1595
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tur%C3%B3c_%28county%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virovitica_%28former_county%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szepes_countyhttp://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/81.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/73.htmlhttp://lexikon.katolikus.hu/LINKEK/LINKEEEE/16EGYHIJ.HTML


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[130][130] Article 54 of the Act of 1523, Article 4 of the Act of 1525

[131][131] Benda 1981, pp. 344, 346.

[132][132] Karcsony 1985, p. 106.

[133] Karcsony 1985, pp. 109111.

[134] Mikul Teich, Roy Porter, The National question in Europe in historical context (http://books. google.co.uk/

books?id=Hu2SnETtV3kC&pg=PA255& dq=NAtio+Hungarica+national+thinking&hl=en&ei=qldXTvvLK4Wt8QO93ZyrDA&sa=X&

oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=national thinking&f=false), Cambridge University Press,1993, p.255

[135][135] Nakazawa 2007.

References

Sources

Bn, Pter, ed. (1989a).Magyar trtnelmi fogalomtr - I. ktet (A-K) [Dictionary of the Terminology of the

Hungarian History - Volume I /A-K/]. Budapest: Gondolat. ISBN 963-282-203-X.

Bn, Pter, ed. (1989b).Magyar trtnelmi fogalomtr - II. ktet (L-Zs) [Dictionary of the Terminology of the

Hungarian History - Volume II /L-Zs/]. Budapest: Gondolat. ISBN 963-282-204-8.

Benda, Klmn, ed. (1981).Magyarorszg trtneti kronolgija I /A kezdetektl 1526-ig/ [The Chronology of

the History of Hungary - From the beginnings until 1526]. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. ISBN 963-05-2661-1.

Benda, Klmn, ed. (1982).Magyarorszg trtneti kronolgija II /1526-1848/ [The Chronology of the History

of Hungary - 1526-1848]. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. ISBN 963-05-2662-X.

Bna, Istvn (2000).A magyarok s Eurpa a 9-10. szzadban [The Magyars and Europe during the 9-10th

centuries]. Budapest: Histria - MTA Trtnettudomnyi Intzete. ISBN 963-8312-67-X.

Bnis, Gyrgy (2003).Hbrisg s rendisg a kzpkori magyar jogban [Vassalage and Feudality in the

Medieval Hungarian Law]. Budapest: Osiris Kiad. ISBN 963-389-426-3.

Engel, Pl; Krist , Gyula; Kubinyi, Andrs (1998).Magyarorszg trtnete - 1301-1526 [The History of Hungary

- 1301-1526]. Budapest: Osiris Kiad. ISBN 963-379-171-5.

Fgedi, Erik (1986).Ispnok, brk, kiskirlyok [Counts, Barons and Petty Kings]. Budapest: Magvet

Knyvkiad. ISBN 963-14-0582-6.

Fgedi, Erik; Karbi, Damir (1998). The Elefnthy. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-1-122-05842-1.

Karcsony, Jnos (1985).Magyarorszg egyhztrtnete fbb vonsaiban 970-tl 1900-ig [The Major Features

of the Church History of Hungary from 970 until 1900]. Budapest: Knyvrtkest Vllalat.

ISBN 963-02-3434-3.

Klein, George; Reban, Milan Jan (1981). The Politics of ethnicity in Eastern Europe(http://books.google.com/

books?id=HutoAAAAMAAJ). East European Monographs. ISBN 978-0-914710-87-5.

Krist , Gyula, ed. (1994).Korai Magyar Trtneti Lexikon - 9-14. szzad [Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian

History - 9-14th centuries]. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. ISBN 963-05-6722-9.

Krist , Gyula (1998).Magyarorszg trtnete - 895-1301 [The History of Hungary - 895-1301]. Budapest: Osiris

Kiad. ISBN 963-379-442-0.

Lszl , Gyula (1996). The Magyars - Their Life and Civilisation. Corvina. ISBN 963-13-4226-3

Tgil, Sven; Gerner, Kristian (1999).Regions in Central Europe: the legacy of history(http://books.google.co.

uk/books?id=3PF8uGVHGLsC&pg=PA130&dq=NAtio+Hungarica+Magyar+warrior+tribes+that+

founded&hl=en&ei=FlZXTtLMDMGy8gPPzqyuDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&

ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=NAtio Hungarica Magyar warrior tribes that founded& f=false). Purdue

University Press.

Tth, Sndor Lszl (1998).Leveditl a Krpt-medencig [From Levedia to the Carpathian Basin]. Szeged:

Szegedi Kzpkorsz Mhely. ISBN 963-482-175-8.
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/963-482-175-8https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3PF8uGVHGLsC&pg=PA130&dq=NAtio+Hungarica+Magyar+warrior+tribes+that+founded&hl=en&ei=FlZXTtLMDMGy8gPPzqyuDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=NAtio%20Hungarica%20Magyar%20warrior%20tribes%20that%20founded&f=falsehttp

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