Nobel Nobel LaureatesLaureates

Shikha Yashveer1, Jayanti Tokas2, Shalini Jain3 and Hariom Yadav4

1Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 2Department of Biochemistry, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana, India

3Department of Biochemistry, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India4National Agri-Food Biotechnology, Mohali, Punjab, India

Email: yadavhariom@gmail.com

Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers.engineers.

He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel,

the inventor of dynamite, established the the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895. In 1888, Alfred was astonished prizes in 1895. In 1888, Alfred was astonished to read his own obituary, titled ‘The merchant to read his own obituary, titled ‘The merchant of death is dead’, in a French newspaper.of death is dead’, in a French newspaper.

Alfred Nobel

MEDAL FOR THE NOBEL PRIZE MEDAL FOR THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINEIN PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE

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The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1902 was awarded to Emil Fischer “in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his work on sugar and purine syntheses’’ (1898).

HERMANN EMIL FISCHER

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908 was awarded jointly to Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov was awarded jointly to Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Paul Ehrlich and Paul Ehrlich in recognition of their work on in recognition of their work on immunity (1882).immunity (1882).

Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov Paul Ehrlich

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1910 was awarded to Albrecht Kossel 1910 was awarded to Albrecht Kossel "in "in recognition of the contributions to our recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"substances" (1896). (1896).

Albrecht Kossel

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923 was The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923 was awarded jointly to Frederick Grant Banting and John awarded jointly to Frederick Grant Banting and John James Rickard Macleod James Rickard Macleod "for the discovery of insulin” "for the discovery of insulin” (1916).(1916).

Frederick Grant Banting

John James Rickard Macleod

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1924 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1924 was awarded to Willem Einthoven was awarded to Willem Einthoven for his for his discovery of the mechanism of the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram electrocardiogram (1903). (1903).

Father of electrocardiographyFather of electrocardiography

Willem Einthoven

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930 was awarded to Karl Landsteiner 1930 was awarded to Karl Landsteiner "for his "for his discovery of human blood groups”discovery of human blood groups” (1900). (1900).

Karl Landsteiner

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933 was awarded to Thomas H. Morgan 1933 was awarded to Thomas H. Morgan "for "for his discoveries concerning the role played by his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity"the chromosome in heredity"  (1910).  (1910).

Thomas Hunt Morgan

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946 was awarded to Hermann J. Muller 1946 was awarded to Hermann J. Muller "for "for the discovery of the production of mutations the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation” by means of X-ray irradiation” (1926).(1926).

MULLER

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953 was divided equally between Hans 1953 was divided equally between Hans Adolf Krebs Adolf Krebs "for his discovery of the citric "for his discovery of the citric acid cycle"acid cycle" and Fritz Albert Lipmann and Fritz Albert Lipmann "for his "for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism” (for intermediary metabolism” (1930).1930).

Hans Adolf Krebs Fritz Albert Lipmann

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1957 was awarded to The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1957 was awarded to Lord Todd Lord Todd "for his work on nucleotides and "for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes”nucleotide co-enzymes” (1949 (1949).).

Lord(Alexander R.)Todd

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958 was awarded The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958 was awarded to Frederick Sanger to Frederick Sanger "for his work on the "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin"structure of proteins, especially that of insulin" (1945).(1945).

Frederick Sanger

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958 was divided, one half jointly to George Wells was divided, one half jointly to George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum "for their "for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"chemical events" and the other half to Joshua and the other half to Joshua Lederberg Lederberg "for his discoveries concerning "for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria"the genetic material of bacteria". (1951). (1951)

George Wells Beadle Edward Lawrie Tatum Joshua Lederberg

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959 was The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959 was awarded jointly to Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg awarded jointly to Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg "for their discovery of the mechanisms in the "for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid (1956).deoxyribonucleic acid (1956).

A scientist shouldn't be asked to judge the economic A scientist shouldn't be asked to judge the economic and moral value of his work. All we should ask the and moral value of his work. All we should ask the scientist to do is find the truth-and then not keep it scientist to do is find the truth-and then not keep it from anyone. Arthur Kornberg quotesfrom anyone. Arthur Kornberg quotes  

Severo Ochoa Arthur Kornberg

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 was The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 was awarded jointly to Francis Harry Compton Crick, awarded jointly to Francis Harry Compton Crick, James Dewey Watson and Maurice Hugh Frederick James Dewey Watson and Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins Wilkins "for their discoveries concerning the "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living significance for information transfer in living material” (1953).material” (1953).

Francis Harry Compton Crick

James Dewey Watson Maurice HughFrederick Wilkins

The 1962 Nobel prize in Chemistry was divided The 1962 Nobel prize in Chemistry was divided equally between: Perutz and Kendrew, Great equally between: Perutz and Kendrew, Great Britain, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Britain, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge "for their studies of the structures Cambridge "for their studies of the structures of globular proteins".of globular proteins".

PERUTZ MAX FERDINAND

KENDREW

The 1964 Nobel prize in Chemistry was The 1964 Nobel prize in Chemistry was awarded to HODGKIN, DOROTHY awarded to HODGKIN, DOROTHY CROWFOOT, "for her determinations by CROWFOOT, "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances".important biochemical substances".

DOROTHY DOROTHY HODGKINHODGKIN

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965 was awarded jointly to François Jacob, André Lwoff was awarded jointly to François Jacob, André Lwoff and Jacques Monod and Jacques Monod "for their discoveries "for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"synthesis" (1961). (1961).

François Jacob André Lwoff Jacques Monod

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968 was awarded jointly to Robert W. 1968 was awarded jointly to Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana and Marshall W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana and Marshall W. Nirenberg Nirenberg "for their interpretation of the "for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein genetic code and its function in protein synthesis’’synthesis’’ (1961) (1961)

Robert W. Holley Har Gobind Khorana Marshall W. Nirenberg

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969 was awarded jointly to Max Delbrück, Alfred D. was awarded jointly to Max Delbrück, Alfred D. Hershey and Salvador E. Luria Hershey and Salvador E. Luria "for their "for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses“(and the genetic structure of viruses“(1952).1952).

Max Delbrück Alfred D. Hershey Salvador E. Luria

The Nobel Peace Prize 1970 was The Nobel Peace Prize 1970 was awarded to Norman Borlaug.awarded to Norman Borlaug. Developed semi-dwarf, high-yield, Developed semi-dwarf, high-yield, disease-resistant wheat disease-resistant wheat varieties in varieties in Mexico.Mexico. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest India's second highest civilian civilian honor. honor. World Food Prize (1986).

Norman E. Norman E. BorlaugBorlaug

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1971 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1971 was awarded to Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. was awarded to Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. "for his "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones“action of hormones“(1953).(1953).

Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1972 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1972 was awarded jointly to Gerald M. Edelman and Rodney R. Gerald M. Edelman and Rodney R. Porter Porter "for their discoveries "for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of concerning the chemical structure of antibodies“ (1960).antibodies“ (1960).

Gerald M. Edelman Rodney R. Porter

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1972 was divided, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1972 was divided, one half awarded to Christian B. Anfinsen one half awarded to Christian B. Anfinsen "for his "for his work on ribonuclease, especially concerning the work on ribonuclease, especially concerning the connection between the amino acid sequence and connection between the amino acid sequence and the biologically active conformation"the biologically active conformation", the other , the other half jointly to Stanford Moore and William H. Stein half jointly to Stanford Moore and William H. Stein "for their contribution to the understanding of the "for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the active centre of the catalytic activity of the active centre of the ribonuclease molecule"ribonuclease molecule". (1962). (1962)

Christian B. Anfinsen Stanford Moore William H. Stein

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1974 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1974 was awarded jointly to Albert Claude, Christian de Duve and Albert Claude, Christian de Duve and George E. Palade George E. Palade "for their discoveries "for their discoveries concerning the structural and concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"functional organization of the cell"..

Albert Claude Christian de Duve George E. Palade

George Emil PaladeGeorge Emil Palade (November 19, 1912 – October  (November 19, 1912 – October 8, 2008) was a Romanian cell biologist. Described 8, 2008) was a Romanian cell biologist. Described as "the most influential cell biologist ever”.as "the most influential cell biologist ever”.

The prize was granted for his innovations The prize was granted for his innovations in electron microscopy and cell fractionation in electron microscopy and cell fractionation which together laid the foundations of modern which together laid the foundations of modern molecular cell biology, the most notable discovery molecular cell biology, the most notable discovery being the ribosomes of the endoplasmic being the ribosomes of the endoplasmic reticulum – which he first described in 1955.reticulum – which he first described in 1955.

Palade also received the Palade also received the U.S. National Medal of U.S. National Medal of ScienceScience in Biological Sciences for "pioneering  in Biological Sciences for "pioneering discoveries of a host of fundamental, highly discoveries of a host of fundamental, highly organized structures in living cells" in 1986, and organized structures in living cells" in 1986, and was previously elected a was previously elected a Member of the Member of the US National Academy of ScienceUS National Academy of Science in 1961. in 1961.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1975 was The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1975 was awarded jointly to David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco awarded jointly to David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin and Howard Martin Temin "for their discoveries "for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"and the genetic material of the cell". (1968). (1968)

David Baltimore Renato Dulbecco Howard Martin Temin

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977 was The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977 was divided, one half jointly to Roger Guillemin and divided, one half jointly to Roger Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally Andrew V. Schally "for their discoveries concerning "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain"the peptide hormone production of the brain" and and the other half to Rosalyn Yalow the other half to Rosalyn Yalow "for the "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"hormones". (1950). (1950)

Roger Guillemin Andrew V. Schally Rosalyn Yalow

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1978 was awarded jointly to Werner 1978 was awarded jointly to Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O. Arber, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O. Smith Smith "for the discovery of restriction "for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"of molecular genetics".1970.1970

Werner Arber Daniel Nathans Hamilton O. Smith

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980 was divided, one half The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980 was divided, one half awarded to Paul Berg awarded to Paul Berg "for his fundamental studies of the "for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA"recombinant-DNA", the other half jointly to Walter Gilbert , the other half jointly to Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger and Frederick Sanger "for their contributions concerning "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids“ the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids“ ((1972).1972).

Paul Berg Walter Gilbert Frederick Sanger

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982 was The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982 was awarded to Aaron Klug awarded to Aaron Klug "for his "for his development of crystallographic electron development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes"nucleic acid-protein complexes". (1978). (1978)

Aaron Klug

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1983 was awarded to Medicine 1983 was awarded to Barbara McClintock Barbara McClintock "for her "for her discovery of mobile genetic discovery of mobile genetic elements"elements". 1948. 1948

Barbara McClintock

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1984 was awarded jointly to Niels K. 1984 was awarded jointly to Niels K. Jerne, Georges J.F. Köhler and César Jerne, Georges J.F. Köhler and César Milstein Milstein "for theories concerning the "for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies"monoclonal antibodies". 1975. 1975

Niels K. Jerne Georges

J.F. Köhler César Milstein

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986 was awarded jointly Medicine 1986 was awarded jointly to Stanley Cohen and Rita Levi-to Stanley Cohen and Rita Levi-Montalcini Montalcini "for their discoveries of "for their discoveries of growth factorsgrowth factors""

Stanley Cohen Rita Levi-Montalcini

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1989 was awarded jointly to J. Michael 1989 was awarded jointly to J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus Bishop and Harold E. Varmus "for their "for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes“ 1976oncogenes“ 1976

J. Michael Bishop Harold E. Varmus

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1989 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1989 was awarded jointly to Sidney was awarded jointly to Sidney Altman and Thomas R. Cech Altman and Thomas R. Cech "for "for their discovery of catalytic their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA”1980.properties of RNA”1980.

Sidney Altman Thomas R. Cech

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1990 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1990 was awarded jointly to Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas "for their discoveries concerning organ "for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease"treatment of human disease"

Joseph E. Murray E. Donnall Thomas

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1991 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1991 was awarded jointly to Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann "for "for their discoveries concerning the their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells“ function of single ion channels in cells“ 19701970

Erwin Neher Bert Sakmann

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1991 was The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1991 was

awarded to Richard R. Ernst awarded to Richard R. Ernst "for his "for his contributions to the development of the contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy"magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy"..

Richard R. Ernst

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1992 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1992 was awarded jointly to Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs "for their discoveries concerning "for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism"biological regulatory mechanism"

Edmond H. Fischer Edwin G. Krebs

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1993 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1993 was awarded jointly to Richard J. Roberts and Phillip A. Sharp Richard J. Roberts and Phillip A. Sharp "for their discoveries of split genes. "for their discoveries of split genes. 19781978

Richard J. Roberts Phillip A. Sharp

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1993 was awarded The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1993 was awarded "for "for contributions to the developments of methods within contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry"DNA-based chemistry" jointly with one half to Kary B. jointly with one half to Kary B. Mullis Mullis "for his invention of the polymerase chain "for his invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method"reaction (PCR) method" and with one half to Michael and with one half to Michael Smith Smith "for his fundamental contributions to the "for his fundamental contributions to the establishment of oligonucleotide-based, site-directed establishment of oligonucleotide-based, site-directed mutagenesis and its development for protein mutagenesis and its development for protein studies"studies"..

Kary B. Mullis Michael Smith

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1994 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1994 was awarded jointly to Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell "for "for their discovery of G-proteins and the their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"transduction in cells"

Alfred G. Gilman Martin Rodbell

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1995 was awarded jointly to Medicine 1995 was awarded jointly to Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric F. Wieschaus Volhard and Eric F. Wieschaus "for their "for their discoveries concerning the genetic discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"control of early embryonic development"..

Edward B. Lewis Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard

Eric F. Wieschaus

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997 was awarded to Stanley B. Prusiner 1997 was awarded to Stanley B. Prusiner "for his discovery of Prions - a new "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection"biological principle of infection". 1982.. 1982.

Stanley B. PrusinerStanley B. Prusiner

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998 was awarded jointly to Robert F. Furchgott, was awarded jointly to Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad "for their "for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"system"..

Robert F. Furchgott Louis J. Ignarro Ferid Murad

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1999 was awarded to Gunter Medicine 1999 was awarded to Gunter Blobel Blobel "for the discovery that proteins "for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the transport and localization in the cell"cell".1990.1990

Gunter Blobel

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000 was awarded jointly to Arvid 2000 was awarded jointly to Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard and Eric R. Carlsson, Paul Greengard and Eric R. Kandel Kandel "for their discoveries concerning "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system signal transduction in the nervous system and dopamine"and dopamine"..

Arvid Carlsson Paul Greengard Eric R. Kandel

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2001 was awarded jointly to Leland H. 2001 was awarded jointly to Leland H. Hartwell, Tim Hunt and Sir Paul M. Nurse Hartwell, Tim Hunt and Sir Paul M. Nurse "for their discoveries of key regulators of "for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"the cell cycle"..

Leland H. Hartwell Tim Hunt Sir Paul M. Nurse

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002 was awarded jointly to Sydney 2002 was awarded jointly to Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John E. Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John E. Sulston Sulston "for their discoveries concerning "for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"and programmed cell death'"..

Sydney Brenner H. Robert Horvitz

John E. Sulston

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2002 was awarded The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2002 was awarded "for "for the development of methods for identification and the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules"structure analyses of biological macromolecules" with with one half jointly to John B. Fenn and Koichi Tanaka one half jointly to John B. Fenn and Koichi Tanaka "for "for their development of soft desorption ionisation their development of soft desorption ionisation methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules"macromolecules" and the other half to Kurt Wüthrich and the other half to Kurt Wüthrich "for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance "for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution"structure of biological macromolecules in solution"..

John B. Fenn Koichi Tanaka Kurt Wuthrich

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2003 was awarded jointly to Paul C. 2003 was awarded jointly to Paul C. Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield "for "for their discoveries concerning magnetic their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"resonance imaging"

Paul C. Lauterbur Sir Peter Mansfield

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006 was awarded jointly to Andrew Z. 2006 was awarded jointly to Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello Fire and Craig C. Mello "for their "for their discovery of RNA interference - gene discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA“ 1998silencing by double-stranded RNA“ 1998

Andrew Z. Fire Craig C. Mello

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2006 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2006 was awarded to Roger D. Kornberg was awarded to Roger D. Kornberg "for his studies of the molecular "for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription"basis of eukaryotic transcription"..

Roger D. Kornberg

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2007 was awarded jointly to Mario R. 2007 was awarded jointly to Mario R. Capecchi, Sir Martin J. Evans and Oliver Capecchi, Sir Martin J. Evans and Oliver Smithies Smithies "for their discoveries of principles "for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells"in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells"..

Mario R. Capecchi Sir Martin J. Evans Oliver Smithies

The Nobel Peace Prize 2007 was awarded jointly to The Nobel Peace Prize 2007 was awarded jointly to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr. and Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr. "for their efforts to "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change"counteract such change" . .

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr.

The The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a is a scientific intergovernmental body first established in 1988 scientific intergovernmental body first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the by two United Nations organizations, the World World Meteorological Organization (WMO)Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the  and the United Nations United Nations Environment Programme (UNEPEnvironment Programme (UNEP), and later endorsed by ), and later endorsed by the the United Nations General AssemblyUnited Nations General Assembly. .

mission is to provide comprehensive scientific assessments mission is to provide comprehensive scientific assessments of current scientific, technical and socio-economic of current scientific, technical and socio-economic information worldwide about the risk of climate change information worldwide about the risk of climate change caused by human activity, its potential environmental and caused by human activity, its potential environmental and socio-economic consequences, and possible options for socio-economic consequences, and possible options for adapting to these consequences or mitigating the effects.adapting to these consequences or mitigating the effects.

It is chaired by It is chaired by Rajendra K. PachauriRajendra K. Pachauri. this involves the . this involves the governments of more than 120 countries.governments of more than 120 countries.

A main activity of the IPCC is publishing special reports on A main activity of the IPCC is publishing special reports on topics relevant to the implementation of the topics relevant to the implementation of the United Nations United Nations Framework Framework ConventionConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an ), an international treaty that acknowledges the possibility of international treaty that acknowledges the possibility of harmful climate changeharmful climate change. .

Website Website www.ipcc.chwww.ipcc.ch

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008 was divided, one half awarded to Harald zur was divided, one half awarded to Harald zur Hausen Hausen "for his discovery of human papilloma "for his discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer"viruses causing cervical cancer", the other half , the other half jointly to Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc jointly to Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier Montagnier "for their discovery of human "for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virusimmunodeficiency virus""..

Harald zur Hausen Françoise Barré-Sinoussi

Luc Montagnier

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2008 was The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2008 was awarded jointly to Osamu Shimomura, awarded jointly to Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie and Roger Y. Tsien Martin Chalfie and Roger Y. Tsien "for "for the discovery and development of the the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"green fluorescent protein, GFP". 1996.. 1996.

Osamu Shimomura Martin Chalfie Roger Y. Tsien

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009 was awarded jointly to Elizabeth H. 2009 was awarded jointly to Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak Szostak "for the discovery of how "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"and the enzyme telomerase"..

Carol W. Greider Elizabeth H. Blackburn

Jack W. Szostak

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009 was awarded The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009 was awarded jointly to Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas jointly to Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath "for studies of the "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome"structure and function of the ribosome"..

Venkatraman Ramakrishnan

Thomas A. Steit Ada E. Yonath

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2010 was awarded to Robert G. Edwards 2010 was awarded to Robert G. Edwards "for "for the development of in vitro fertilization"the development of in vitro fertilization"..

British physiologist and pioneer British physiologist and pioneer in reproductive medicine and in-vitro in reproductive medicine and in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) .fertilisation (IVF) .

Robert G. Edwards

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011 was divided, one half jointly to Bruce A. 2011 was divided, one half jointly to Bruce A. Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann "for their "for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity"immunity" and the other half to Ralph M. and the other half to Ralph M. Steinman Steinman "for his discovery of the dendritic "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity"cell and its role in adaptive immunity"..

Bruce A. Beutler Jules A. Hoffmann Ralph M. Steinman

Sir John B. Gurdon Shinya Yamanaka

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 was awarded jointly to Sir John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka "for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"

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