DyslexiaEnhancing access to the curriculum at

Key Stages 1 and 2

Aims

To enhance understanding of the reading process.To develop understanding of the nature of dyslexia.To develop awareness of the issues surrounding the assessment of dyslexiaTo raise awareness of appropriate intervention strategies.

Section 1Reading

Reading

The following are important:language skills (word knowledge, structure, meaning)the ability to break spoken words into phonemesthe ability to associate phonemes with our conventional graphic system (ie sound-letter correspondence)

Skilled Reading

Skilled readers rapidly map letter strings onto the most likely pronunciation (decoding).All words in text are individually processed.

The elements within words are processed.

Research (Share,1995; Irwin, 1998)

Skilled Reading

Fluent readers are skilled at processing phonological information and do so in an automatic and unconscious wayAccessing a word’s pronunciation generally precedes accessing its meaning.When decoding is established, then contextual cues help identify new, unfamiliar words & aid comprehension, eg tear (cry or rip) or calf (part of the leg or animal)The poor reader makes greater use of context as s/he seeks clues to word identity within the context to compensate for weak phonic ability.

Research (Folk & Morris,1995)

Language and Literacy

English is one of the most irregular grapheme-phoneme systems

cough, boughItalian/Spanish have regular grapheme-phoneme correspondence

vino, latte, salami, madre, bebidaThere are higher levels of dyslexia in English than in Italian/Spanish.

Text

Sounds (phonological)

Meaning(semantics)

Word recognition(visual)

Structure(syntactic)

Continued Reading Development

The amount, type and breadth of reading undertaken by learners will influence their reading development.

Motivating pupils to read is crucial if they are going to learn to read well

Skilled SpellersHave good phonological processing skillsHave good visual and kinaesthetic (muscle) memory of wordsRemember spelling/grammatical rulesUse knowledge of the derivation of words to spellgood knowledge of the probability of particular letter patterns occurring together.E.G. thr, str, psy, tion - (trh) ,(srt)

Research (Treiman, 1998)

Section 2DYSLEXIA – the theories

DYSLEXIA

The term dyslexia is derived from 2 Greek words :-dys difficultylexia words

The literal meaning of dyslexia is thus,‘difficulty with words’

Theoretical models of dyslexia

There are different theories to try to explain dyslexia. There is debate as to whether these theories are:

• different accounts of the same conditionor• accounts of different types of dyslexia

Models to explain dyslexia

Phonological

Automatisation

Working memory deficit

Syndrome

Intelligence

Difficulty with phonological processing

is integral to most theories of dyslexia

Phonological skills and reading

Two skills were found to parallel what actually happens during reading and therefore generalised most successfully (Solity et al, 2000)Synthesis: blending 2,3,4 sounds to produce a word.Segmentation: naming sounds in different parts of words and all the sounds in a word.

Current research focuses on dyslexia as a

language problem but interest in visual

processing continues and linguistic and visual

explanations are by no means mutually

exclusive.

Visual processing

Eye sight difficulties - an additional contributory factor rather than

the cause of reading difficulties.

Tinted glasses or overlays – may be beneficial for individuals with

eye strain, headaches or photosensitive epilepsy.

Difficulties controlling movement of eyes and fixating on print may

account for children reporting that the letters move around on

the page.

Willows (1993) ‘it is unlikely that there are simple visual memory

differences between good and poor readers.’

Section 3

Definitions of dyslexia

‘Working Definition of Dyslexia,’ produced by the British Psychological Society Division of Educational and Child Psychology

Dyslexia is evident when accurate and fluent word reading and/or spelling develops very incompletely or with great difficulty.This focuses on literacy learning at the word level and implies that the problem is severeand persistent despite appropriate learning opportunities. It provides for a staged process of assessment through teaching.

British Dyslexia Association

Dyslexia is a complex neurological condition which is constitutional in origin. The symptoms may affect many areas of learning and function and may be described as a specific difficulty in reading, spelling and written language. One or more of these areas may be affected. Numeracy, notational skills (music), motor function and organisational skills may also be involved. However, it is particularly related to mastering written language, although oral skills may be affected to some degree.

The Code of Practice

Some children may have significant difficulties in reading, writing, spelling or manipulating numbers, which is not typical of their general level of performance, especially in other areas of the curriculum. They may gain some skills in subjects quickly and demonstrate a high level of ability orally, yet may encounter sustained difficulty in gaining literacy or numeracy skills. Such children can become severely frustrated and may have emotional and/or behavioural difficulties.

ROI definition

Dyslexia is manifested in a continuum of specific learning difficulties related to the acquisition of basic skills in reading, spelling, writing and/or number, such difficulties being unexpected in relation to an individuals other abilities. Dyslexia can be characterised at the neurological, cognitive and behavioural levels. It is typically described by inefficient information processing, including difficulties in phonological processing, working memory, rapid naming and automaticity of basic skills. Difficulties in organisation, sequencing and motor skills may also be present.

Section 4

Assessment

Aims of assessment

To identify the learners general strengths and weaknessesTo gain an accurate assessment of the learners current levels of attainmentsTo gain an understanding of the students learning styleTo gain learners/parents perceptions of difficulties, what helps and emotional impact, e.g. self esteem, anxiety, frustration, confidence, motivation.To assess environment factors (e.g teaching approaches, SEN help, reading scheme)To develop hypotheses about the learner’s lack of progress

Sources of information

School based assessment and screeningPrevious recordsTeachers’ and parents’ observationsLearners’ perceptionsChecklistsInvolvement of outside agencies

Assessment Tools

Criterion referenced:accessing achievement of literacy targets, e.g.

• recognition of letters; phoneme/grapheme correspondence; keywords

• ability to segment words into phonemes

Diagnostic, e.g. miscue analysisNorm referenced (standardised tests):

e.g. of reading - the Neale Analysis of Reading, the New McMillan, NFER.

of cognitive ability – BAS, WISC

Other difficulties

Speech and language difficultiesGlue earCo-morbidity with ADHD/dyspraxia/ASDDifficulties with numeracyPoor organisation/study skillsPoor fine and/or gross motor skillsHigh levels of stress, anxiety and/or frustrationLow self esteem

Section 5

Intervention

Effective education plansGather clear, detailed assessment information to get precise baseline for your intervention.Decide on priority teaching area(s) - focus on 1-2 particular areasAnalyse

What skills does the child already have?What skills do they now need to learn?What factors are affecting progress?

Plan learning steps - SMART TargetsChoose teaching methods and teach – involve parent and childRecord and evaluate progress - involve parent and child

The Early Reading Research

Whole class literacy teaching is most effective when:Daily and distributed rather than massed

practice (3 times per day,10-15 mins each session)Explicitly includes synthesis & segmentation exercises.Recognition work on Basic Sight Vocabulary.Reading good quality stories

(Solidy et al, 2000)

Programmes and strategies for intervention

Individualised programmes, e.g. phonics, reading, spelling.Support approaches and strategies, e.g,

Simultaneous oral spellingCued spellingNeuro-linguistic programmingPaired reading/peer tutoringPastoral careStudy skillsOrganisational skillsMetacognitive skillsSoftware packages