NO MORE ‘HARMFUL TRADITIONAL PRACTICES’: WORKING EFFECTIVELY WITH FAITH LEADERSSynthesis report of the UK-Government funded project: ‘Working effectively with faith leaders to challenge harmful traditional practices’

DR ELISA BET LE ROUX AND DR BRENDA BARTELINK

October 2017

NO MORE ‘HARMFUL TRADITIONAL PRACTICES’: WORKING EFFECTIVELY WITH FAITH LEADERSSynthesis report of the UK-Government funded project: ‘Working effectively with faith leaders to challenge harmful traditional practices’

AUTHOR DETAILSDr. E. le Roux, Stellenbosch University; eleroux@sunDr B.E. Bartelink, University of Groningen; b.e.bartelink@rug.nl

SUGGESTED CITATION:Le Roux, E. & Bartelink, B.E. 2017. No more ‘harmful traditional practices’: working effectively with faith leaders. Research report.

Published by Tearfund (2017).

Cover photo: This photograph is used for illustrative purposes only; while harmful practices discussed in this report are commonly practised in Niger, the individuals featured have not necessarily been affected by the practices addressed in this paper. Richard Hanson/Tearfund

This report and accompanying documents can be accessed online at: http://gender-based-violence.jliflc.com/htp-study

WE WISH TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF

a

AcknowledgementsTheUKGovernmentforfundingthestudythroughUKaid.Tearfundforleadingtheconsortiumandforparticipatingin,andsupporting,theresearchprocess.

The organisations which participated in the Case Studies: ABAAD; Christian Aid; Islamic ReliefWorldwide;TearfundandWorldVisionInternational.Additionally,theorganisationswhichcompletedtheselectionquestionnaire:ABAAD;AWEC;theCanadianCouncilofMuslimWomen;ChristianAid;IslamicReliefWorldwide;TearfundandWorldVisionUK.SelinaPalmandNeilKramm,fromtheUnitforReligionandDevelopmentResearchatStellenboschUniversity,aswellasWouterLevinga,fromtheCentreforReligion,ConflictandGlobalisationattheUniversityofGroningen–fortheirexcellentworkonthisresearchproject.The Joint Learning Initiative for Local and Faith Communities (JLI), the Sexual Violence ResearchInitiative (SVRI), the Africa Regional Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Network, and the GBVPreventionNetwork-forallowingustodisseminatesurveyinvitationstotheirnetworkmembers.ElizabethDartnall (SVRI),DianaArangoandJocelynKelly (TheWorldBank)andShereenEl-Feki fortheir input, and Veena O’Sullivan, Maarten Fontein and Natalia Lester-Bush (Tearfund) for theirsupportinco-ordinatingthisprocess.Allof theparticipantswhovolunteeredtobe interviewedandtheanonymoussurveyrespondentswhocompletedtheonlinesurvey.AudiencemembersandrespondentstopresentationsattheSVRIForum2017inRiodeJaneiro,theIPSARC07&RC19Conference2017 inStellenbosch,andtheEASRConference2017 inLeuven, fortheirinputandfeedbacktopreliminaryfindingsfromthestudy.

Executivesummary

IntroductionIn2017aconsortiumofmembersoftheJointLearningInitiativeonFaithandLocalCommunities(JLI)undertook a study funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID), entitled‘Workingeffectivelywithfaithleaderstochallengeharmfultraditionalpractices.TheUnitedNationshasdefinedharmfultraditionalpractices(HTPs)asfollows:

Traditionalculturalpracticesreflectvaluesandbeliefsheldbymembersofacommunityforperiodsoftenspanninggenerations.Everysocialgroupingintheworldhasspecifictraditionalculturalpracticesandbeliefs,someofwhicharebeneficialtoallmembers,whileothersareharmfultoaspecificgroup,suchaswomen.Theseharmfultraditionalpracticesincludefemalegenitalmutilation (FGM); forced feeding ofwomen; earlymarriage; the various taboos orpracticeswhich preventwomen from controlling their own fertility; nutritional taboos andtraditionalbirthpractices;sonpreferenceanditsimplicationsforthestatusofthegirlchild;femaleinfanticide;earlypregnancy;anddowryprice.Despitetheirharmfulnatureandtheirviolation of international human rights laws, such practices persist because they are notquestionedandtakeonanauraofmoralityintheeyesofthosepracticingthem.1

Faithleadersaremenandwomenrecognisedbytheirfaithcommunity,bothformallyorinformally,asplayingauthoritativeand influential leadershiproleswithinfaith institutionstoguide, inspireorlead others (of faith). This may be within a formal religious hierarchy of accountability, but alsoincludesinformalmovements.Thisreportservesasasynthesisofthestudyfindings.

MethodologyThestudyincludedaliteraturereview,onlinesurvey,andfivecasestudies,eachindividualcasestudyfocusingonanorganisation’sworkonHTPsandwithfaithleaders.Consortiummemberscontributedto the study by a) offering their organisations as potential case study settings; b) conducting theresearch;orc)reviewingtheresearchtools,documentsandreports.EthicalclearancefortheprojectwasobtainedfromStellenboschUniversity,SouthAfrica.Theliteraturereviewfocusedona)HTPprevalencedata;andb)HTPswithinthecontextoffaithandfaithactors.Basedontheliteraturereview,selectioncriteriaandaquestionnaireweredesignedtoidentifythefocusandorganisationsforthefivecasestudies.Theselectionquestionnairewassenttoten organisations, and completed by seven. Drawing on the literature review and completedquestionnaires,thefourHTPsthatthecasestudieswouldfocuson,aswellasthefiveorganisationsthat would serve as case study settings, were selected. The four HTPs were female genitalmutilation/cutting (FGM/C), child and early marriage (CEM), honour-related violence, and sonpreference.Thecasestudyorganisationswere:

• Tearfund–aChristiancharityrespondingtopovertyanddisaster,workingin51countriesinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,Africa,Asia,theMiddleEastandtheUK.

1UNOfficefortheHighCommissionerforHumanRights(OHCHR).1995.‘FactSheetNo.23,HarmfulTraditionalPracticesAffectingtheHealthofWomenandChildren’.http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf.Accessed5October2017.

• IslamicReliefWorldwide(IRW)–aninternationalreliefanddevelopmentagencyinspiredbytheIslamicfaith,thatbelievesthoseinneedhaverightsoverthosewithwealthandpower–regardlessofrace,politicalaffiliation,genderorbelief;workinginover40countriesinAfrica,Asia,EasternEuropeandtheMiddleEast.

• World Vision International (WVI) – a global Christian relief, development and advocacyorganisation dedicated to improving the well-being of children, working with localcommunitiesregardlessoftheirfaithinmorethan100countriesinAsia-Pacific,LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,Europe,theMiddleEastandAfrica.

• ABAAD–anon-profit,non-politicallyaffiliated,non-religiouscivilassociationwiththeaimofpromotingsustainablesocialandeconomicdevelopmentintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA) region, throughpromoting gender equality, protection and the empowerment ofmarginalisedgroups,especiallywomen;basedinLebanonandworkingintheMENAregion.

• ChristianAid(CA)–aChristianorganisationthat insiststheworldcanandmustbeswiftlychangedtoonewhereeveryonecanliveafulllife,freefrompoverty;workingin39countriesacrossAfrica,LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,AsiaandtheMiddleEast.

Thecasestudieswereconductedusingacombinationofdocumentreviewandin-depthinterviews.Ashortonlinesurveywasalsodone,meanttocomplementandbroadentheinformationgatheredthroughthecasestudies.Thesurveywasdistributedviafourinternationalnetworks,witharequiredminimumresponserateof40.However,thesurveywascompletedby65personsworkingonHTPsand/or faith.Themajorityof therespondentsworkfora faith-basedorganisation(FBO),butsomenon-governmental organisation (NGO) practitioners, researchers, members of a faith group orcommunity,civilservants,andinter-governmentagencyworkersalsocompletedthesurvey.Therearesomelimitationstothisstudy.Theseinclude:a)allexceptfourofthecasestudyinterviewswereconductedwithstaffmembersinnationalorinternationaloffices;b)fourofthefivecasestudyorganisationsarelargeinternationalFBOs,thusthestudydoesnotfullyrepresenttheexperiencesofsmall,localorganisations;c)fourofthefiveorganisationsareeitherChristianorMuslimorganisations–noFBOsofotherfaithsarerepresented;d)allfiveoftheorganisationsprefernottousetheterm‘HTP’, and do not identify their programming and projects on HTPs as such; e) informed by themethodologydiscussedearlier,certainHTPswereprivilegedoverothers;f) thesurveydatacarriescertainbiasesduetothenatureofthesurveyrespondents;andg)thereviewofHTPprevalencedataduring the literature review shows that it is almost exclusively focusedon FGM/CandCEM, lackscomparability,and ismostly informedbyasingledatasource.Despitethese limitations,thisstudyrepresents a novel and timely consideration of the role of faith in the perpetuation and/ordiscontinuationofHTPs,withimportantlessonsforpolicymakersanddevelopmentpractitioners.

KeyfindingsThe‘harm’in‘harmfultraditionalpractices’Variousproblemsandissueswereidentifiedwiththeterm‘harmfultraditionalpractices’anditsusewithindevelopmentdiscourse.Thefivecasestudyorganisationsusethetermlittleornotatallatcommunitylevel–mainlybecauseitcreatesresistanceandhinderstheprocessofengagingpeopleinlocalcommunitiestochallengeinjusticeandviolencetopeople,inparticularwomenandgirls.Rather,an integrated approach is preferred, which addresses all of the varied factors – such as genderconstructs,poverty,andpatriarchy–thatleadtoHTPs.Evenwhendirectlyandexclusivelyaddressingaspecificissue,itispreferredtonamethespecificpractice,ratherthanusethegeneralterm‘HTP’.Theliteraturereviewalsoshowedtheproblematicnatureoftheterm,highlightinghowitenforcescolonialistdiscourseandhascertainbiasesaroundreligion.

Theroleoffaith,faithcommunitiesandfaithleadersinHTPsReligion isacontributing factor tomanyHTPs,butgenerallyspeakingnotthecausal factor. In thecontinuedperpetrationandsupportofHTPs,acomplexinteractionofreligionandculture,butalsoclass,race,ethnicity,andeconomicandpoliticaldynamicsisatplay.Casestudyfindingssuggestthatreligion isused invariousways to justifyculturalbeliefsandpractices.While faith leadersmaybeaware that their particular faith does not condone or demand a certain HTP, they remain silentbecauseofthepowerrelationsinwhichculturalexpectationsareembedded.Responding to HTPs requires engagement with faith, faith communities and faith leaders. Butinvolvingfaithleadersisnotjustamatterofengagingtheirinfluenceforthegood,butalsocounteringsomeoftheirexistingbeliefsandpracticesthatmaysupportandfacilitateHTPs.ApproachesTwoapproachesstoodoutascriticallyimportantandeffectiveinworkingwithfaithleadersonHTPs– a public health approach and a theological approach. It is important to share public healthinformationpertainingtoHTPs,becausemany faith leaders lack thebasicsexualandreproductivehealthknowledgerelevanttocertainHTPs.RaisingawarenessofthehealthconsequencesofHTPscreatesasharedconcernwiththehealthandwell-beingofwomenandgirlsandopensupspaceforconversation and reflection. The four FBOs included in this study always combine public healthinformation with a scriptural/theological approach to harmful practices. This allows theseorganisations to engage faith leaders in a discourse and framework which they understand andrespectasauthoritative.Intheprocessofsuchtheologicalengagement,sacredscripturesareusedtorethinkandre-envisioncertainpracticesintermsoftheequalityofGod’screation.Inthisway,sacredscripturecanbeapowerfulandevenindispensabletoolinchallengingandtransformingunequalandunjuststructuresandpractices.Thishighlightsaparticularstrengthoffaith-basedorganisationsworkingonHTPs.Becauseoftheirfaithidentities,theologicalengagementbyFBOsispermittedandtrustedbyfaithleaders.Whilenon-faithorganisationscan (andareadvised to)engagewith faith leaders in theirworkonchallengingHTPs,theylacktheauthoritytoengageontheissuetheologically,unlesstheypartnerwithatrustedfaithactor.Oneshouldnote,however,thatasingleFBOcannotnecessarilyfacilitatesuchengagementwithpeopleofallfaiths,astheorganisationinquestionhastohavethereligiousauthorityandtrusttobeabletoengagetheologicallywithaparticularfaithcommunity.Four additional strategieswere identified to facilitate effective engagementwith faith leaders onHTPs:

• addressingHTPsasexpressionsofbroaderstructuresofinjusticeandviolence–byengagingwiththevariousdriversofHTPs,including(importantly)underlyingstructuresofpatriarchy

• engagingfaith leaders inawaythatempowersthemtopositionthemselvesascommunitychampions

• engagingalllevelsofthefaithhierarchy• formingfaithleadernetworksaroundaparticular,practicalsharedconcern(suchasdomestic

violence),forinsuch(inter-faith)networksfaithleaderscanbuildabroadandcriticalmasstochallengeHTPsinlocalsettings.

ThepracticalitiesofinterventionSmalldiscussiongroups,withthesamepeoplemeetingrepeatedly,werereportedasaneffectivewayofengagingwith faith leadersonHTPs.Thesegroupscanbe formallystructuredand includeasetcurriculumandtraining,orbeinformal,requiringonlyaskilledfacilitator.Thesegroupsshouldbesafespaces, created with sensitivity to the power dynamics between participants, including onlyparticipantswhovolunteertotakepart,usingsensitivelanguageandfacilitatedwithskillandpatiencewithaprimarygoalofbuildingtrust.Suchgroupsbenefitfromcontextualtheologicalengagement,which requires sound resources and materials (e.g. contextual bible studies) that facilitates suchengagement. With male faith leaders, it could be helpful if such groups are managed by men’sorganisations,althoughsuchmen’sgroupsshouldbeguidedandconnectedtowomen’sgroups.InrespondingtoHTPs,itshouldbeaprioritytocreatesafespacesforallpeople.PartneringfaithWhileengagingwithfaith,faithleadersandfaithcommunitiesonHTPsshouldbeacomponentofHTPresponse, all five organisations call for (and practise) doing so within broader, community-basedapproaches.Anexclusivefocusonfaithandfaithleaderscancreatedivisionwithincommunities,thusallfiveorganisationspartnerwithvariousorganisationsandindividuals,onanumberofsocialissues.InterlocutorsarepeoplewhoareabletointroduceandleadconversationsonHTPsincommunities.Boththecasestudiesandthesurveyidentifiedfaithleadersaseffectiveinterlocutors–thoughitwasrecognisedthatnotallfaithleadersare.Identifyingthosewhoare,andincludingdiversetypesoffaithleaders,isimportanttoengagingfaithleadersonHTPs.Traditionalorculturalleaders,women,youth,survivorsandthoseaffectedbyHTPs,localhealthexperts,andvolunteerswereallalsoidentifiedaspotentiallyeffectiveinterlocutors.Theidealinterlocutorissomeonewhoembodiesanumberoftheseidentities.

ConclusionTheterm‘harmfultraditionalpractices’ishamperingcommunity-basedresponsetothesepractices.Moregeneralterms,suchas‘violenceagainstwomenandgirls’or‘gender-basedviolence’,andafocuson underlying ideologies, such as ‘patriarchy’ or ‘harmful masculinities’, enables engagement onvariousharmfulpractices intheformthattheytakewithinparticularcontexts– includingWesternsocieties–thusdisruptingthepower-ladenframinginherenttotheterm’suse.Religion is a driver of various practices that are harmful to people, particularly women and girls.Addressingthesepracticeswillrequireengagingwithreligionandfaithcommunities.Thoseheadingfaithinstitutionsarethekeygatekeeperstothesefaithcommunities,andthereforeanyengagementwith religion requires engagement with faith leaders. It is important to note, though, that suchengagementneednotbelimitedtoFBOs.Non-faithinstitutionsandorganisationsshouldengagewithfaithleaders.Butwhensuchengagementistheological,requiringscripturalengagementandreligiousinterpretation,FBOsorotherauthoritativereligiousactorshaveauniqueroletoplay.Thefollowingkeyrecommendationsfromthisstudyareaimedatpolicymakersandpractitioners:

• Donotusetheterm‘harmfultraditionalpractices’whenworkingincommunities.• Ifaspecificpracticeisbeingaddressedandneedstobeidentified,donotgeneralisebutrather

namethespecificpractice,usingtheterminologyconsideredcontextuallyappropriate.• Policy,programmingandprojectsshouldfocusonchallengingviolence(e.g.VAWGorGBV)

andgender inequality, rather thanHTPs.Thisallows for context-appropriateprogramming

andprojects thatacknowledgegender inequalityandviolenceasproblemscommon toallsocieties (and not just non-Western ones). It also does not hide the gendered nature ofviolence.

• Religion is a contributing factor to the continued existence of HTPs, thereforecomprehensivelyaddressingHTPswillrequireengagementwithreligion.

• ApublichealthapproachshouldformpartofengagingfaithleadersonHTPs.Manylackevenbasicsexualandreproductivehealthknowledge–whichishighlypertinenttoHTPssuchasFGM/C.

• EngagingwithfaithleadersonHTPsshouldincludeatheological,scripturalcomponent,asitenables faith leaders to address sensitive and complex issueswhile using a discourse andframeworktheyknowandrespect.

• Engagewith the diversity of faith leaders,while also recognising the leadership hierarchywithincertaintraditions.

• SmallgroupdiscussionsareparticularlyconducivetodiscussingHTPswithfaithleadersandshouldincludecontextualtheologicalmaterials.

• Faith leader engagement is most effective when part of broader community-basedapproaches;anexclusivefocusonfaithleadersisnotrecommended.

Tableofcontents

Executivesummary................................................................................................................................b

TableofTables.......................................................................................................................................g

Listofabbreviations...............................................................................................................................h

1.Introduction.......................................................................................................................................1

2.Natureofthereport...........................................................................................................................3

3.Summaryoftheresearchprocess......................................................................................................3

4.Casestudydescription.......................................................................................................................6

5.Limitations........................................................................................................................................11

6.Keyfindings......................................................................................................................................12

6.1The‘harm’in‘harmfultraditionalpractices’..............................................................................12

6.2Theroleoffaith,faithcommunities,andfaithleadersinHTPs.................................................16

6.3Approaches.................................................................................................................................20

6.4Thepracticalitiesofintervention...............................................................................................24

6.5Partneringfaith..........................................................................................................................26

7.Conclusion........................................................................................................................................28

ListofTables PageTable1 JLIConsortium 1Table2 Researchactivities 5Table3 Researchtools 5Table4 Primarydocumentsproduced 5Table5 Casedescriptions 7

ListofabbreviationsCA ChristianAidCAAGI CollectiveActionforAdolescentGirlsInitiativeCEM childandearlymarriageCoH ChannelsofHopeDFID DepartmentforInternationalDevelopmentDRC DemocraticRepublicofCongoFBO faith-basedorganisationFGM/C femalegenitalmutilation/cuttingGBV gender-basedviolenceHTP harmfultraditionalpracticeIRW IslamicReliefWorldwideJLI JointLearningInitiativeonFaithandLocalCommunitiesMENA MiddleEastandNorthAfricaM&E monitoringandevaluationNGO non-governmentalorganisationSGBV sexualandgender-basedviolenceToR TermsofReferenceVAW violenceagainstwomenVAWG violenceagainstwomenandgirlsWVI WorldVisionInternational

1.IntroductionIn2016,theUKDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID)releasedacallforproposalsforastudyentitled‘Workingeffectivelywithfaithleaderstochallengeharmfultraditionalpractices’.Underthe lead of Tearfund, a small consortiumof organisations and academics undertook this study toinvestigatebestpracticesaroundengagingwithfaithleadersonharmfultraditionalpractices(HTPs).TheconsortiummembersareallpartoftheJointLearningInitiativeonFaithandLocalCommunities(JLI),an internationalallianceexaminingthecontributionof faithgroupstocommunityhealthandwell-being.2Table1:JLIConsortiumTheUNhasdefinedHTPsasfollows:

Traditionalculturalpracticesreflectvaluesandbeliefsheldbymembersofacommunityforperiodsoftenspanninggenerations.Everysocialgroupingintheworldhasspecifictraditionalculturalpracticesandbeliefs,someofwhicharebeneficialtoallmembers,whileothersareharmfultoaspecificgroup,suchaswomen.Theseharmfultraditionalpracticesincludefemalegenitalmutilation (FGM); forced feeding ofwomen; earlymarriage; the various taboos orpracticeswhich preventwomen from controlling their own fertility; nutritional taboos andtraditionalbirthpractices;sonpreferenceanditsimplicationsforthestatusofthegirlchild;femaleinfanticide;earlypregnancy;anddowryprice.Despitetheirharmfulnatureandtheir

2FormoreinformationonJLI,visithttps://jliflc.com/.

Consortiumlead

VeenaO'Sullivan

Researchteam

ElisabetleRoux,BrendaBartelink,ShereenElFeki,ElizabethDartnall,DianaJ.

Arango,StacyNamFBOs

CAFOD,ChristianAid,WorldVisionUK,LutheranWorldFederation,IslamicRelief

Worldwide,EpiscopalReliefandDevelopment,IMAWorldHealth,US

JLIConsortium

violation of international human rights laws, such practices persist because they are notquestionedandtakeonanauraofmoralityintheeyesofthosepracticingthem.3

Thisdefinitionhasinfluencedcontemporaryframingofparticularpracticesthataredetrimentaltotherightsofwomenandgirlsasharmfulculturalpractices,and influencedparticularprogrammesandmethodologiesdesignedbydevelopmentandhumanrightsactorsoverpastdecades.4Forthepurposesofthisstudy,faithleaders5aremenandwomenrecognisedbytheirfaithcommunity,both formally or informally, as playing authoritative and influential leadership roles within faithinstitutions to guide, inspire or lead others (of faith). Thismay often bewithin a formal religioushierarchy of accountability, with specialised training required. But it also includes informalmovements,whereleadersemergefrombelowasendorsedbyinstitutionalfollowers,andmaynotinvolve formal training. Lastly, it includes the leaders of faith traditionswhomay not be seen asnarrowly‘religious’bycurrentdefinitions,suchasindigenousspiritualguides.The research project included a literature review, online survey, and five case studies, with eachindividualcasestudyfocusingononeoffiveorganisations(fourofwhicharefaith-based),6andtheirworkonHTPsandwithfaithleaders.7

3UNOfficefortheHighCommissionerforHumanRights(OHCHR).1995.‘FactSheetNo.23,HarmfulTraditionalPracticesAffectingtheHealthofWomenandChildren’.http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf.Accessed5October2017.4Longman,C.&Bradley,T.2015.InterrogatingHarmfulCulturalPractices:Gender,CultureandCoercion.Farnham:Routledge.5UNDPdefines‘religiousleaders’asmenandwomenwithaformalaffiliationtoareligionorspiritualpathwhoplayinfluentialroleswithintheircommunitiesandthebroadercivilsociety.Thisstudyseekstoemphasisetheinstitutionalandauthority-ladenaspectsoftheroleaswellasthis.UNDP.2014.‘GuidelinesonEngagingwithFaith-basedOrganizationsandReligiousLeaders’.http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/documents/partners/2014_UNDP_Guidelines-on-Engaging-with-FBOs-and-Religious-Leaders_EN.pdf.Accessed2October2017.6Faith-basedorganisations(FBOs)canbedefinedashavingoneormoreofthefollowing:‘affiliationwithareligiousbody;amissionstatementwithexplicitreferencetoreligiousvalues;financialsupportfromreligioussources;and/oragovernancestructurewhereselectionofboardmembersorstaffisbasedonreligiousbeliefsoraffiliationand/ordecision-makingprocessesbasedonreligiousvalues’.(Ferris,E.2005.‘Faith-basedandSecularHumanitarianOrganizations’.InternationalReviewoftheRedCross87(858):311–325).7Somescholarsprefertousetheterm‘religion’ratherthan‘faith’becausethelatterisfocusedoninwardreligiosity.Otherspreferfaithasabroaderandmoreinclusivecategorybecausereligionistoooftenassociatedwithorganisedreligion.Acknowledgingthatmostofthesetermsarecontested,thisreportusestheterm‘faith’asabroadcategorycomprisinginnerconvictionsaswellaspracticesthathavereligiousorspiritualmeaningstopeople.Onusing‘religion’ratherthan‘faith’,seeTomalin,E.2015.TheRoutledgeHandbookofReligionsandGlobalDevelopment.LondonandNewYork:Routledge;Fountain,P.,Bush,R.,&Feener,M.(eds.).2015.ReligionandthePoliticsofDevelopment.UK:PalgraveMacmillan;Bartelink,B.2016.CulturalEncountersoftheSecularKind:ReligiousandSecularDynamicsintheDevelopmentResponsetoHIV/AIDS.PhDthesis,UniversityofGroningen.http://www.rug.nl/research/portal/publications/cultural-encounters-of-the-secular-kind(1ef17ccc-0beb-44ad-b962-f26d0126dbd8).html.Accessed3October2017.Oninwardreligiosity,seeAsad,T.2001.‘ReadingaModernClassic:W.C.Smith's“TheMeaningandEndofReligion”’.HistoryofReligions40(3):205–222.Onfaithasabroadercategory,seeLeRoux,E.2014.TheRoleofAfricanChristianChurchesinDealingwithSexualViolenceAgainstWomen:TheCaseoftheDemocraticRepublicofCongo,RwandaandLiberia.Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation,StellenboschUniversity;Clarke,G.2007.‘Faith-BasedOrganizationsandInternationalDevelopment.AnOverview’.InG.Clarke&M.Jennings(eds.).Development,CivilSocietyandFaith-basedOrganizations:BridgingtheSacredandtheSecular.BasingstokeUK:Palgrave;Hefferan,T.2007.TwinningFaithandDevelopment:CatholicParishPartneringintheUSandHaiti.Hartford,CT:KumarianPress.Onreligionbeingassociatedwithorganisedreligion,seeMarshall,K.2014.‘Faith,Religion,

2.NatureofthereportThisreportservesasanintegratedpresentationofthestudy’skeyfindings,bydrawingonthevariousreportsproducedoverthepastsixmonths,includingaliteraturereview,fivecasestudyreports,anda survey report. It organises these findings around five key themes, namely a) the conceptualchallengesoftheterm'harmfultraditionalpractices’;b)theroleoffaith,faithcommunitiesandfaithleaders in HTPs; c) approaches that are being usedwhenworking with faith leaders on HTPs; d)practical pointers forplanningand implementing interventions; ande)partneringwith faith.Witheachsectionanumberofrecommendations,forpolicymakersandpractitioners,areincluded.Itshouldbenotedthattheindividualcasestudyreports,theliteraturereview,andthesurveyreportarestand-alonedocumentswhichoffermorein-depthinformation.8

3.SummaryoftheresearchprocessTheconsortiummemberscontributedtotheprojectinoneofthreeways:

• Byofferingtheirorganisationsaspotentialcasestudysettings(ABAAD,CAFOD,ChristianAid,Episcopal Relief and Development, IMAWorld Health, Islamic ReliefWorldwide, LutheranWorldFederation,Tearfund,USandWorldVisionInternational)

• By conducting the research (Elisabet le Roux and Brenda Bartelink,with Selina Palm,NeilKrammandWouterLevinga)

• Byreviewing the research tools,documentsandreportsproducedby the leadresearchers(ShereenElFeki,ElizabethDartnall,DianaJ.ArangoandStacyNam).

International ethical clearance for the research project was obtained on 16 May 2017 fromStellenboschUniversity’sResearchEthicsCommittee:HumanResearch(Humanities).9ThefirststepintheresearchprocesswasaliteraturereviewonHTPs,focusingparticularlyonHTPprevalencedata.A secondary focusof the reviewwason the literature framing thephenomenonwithin thecontextof faithand faithactors.This literature reviewwasacrucial step indevelopingcriteriaandaquestionnairetoidentifyboththeHTPsthatwouldformthefocusofthisstudyandtheorganisationswithinwhichthecasestudieswouldbedone.Basedontheliteraturereview,aselectionquestionnairewasdesignedanddistributedamongsttheconsortium’smemberorganisations, aswell as someof theirpartnerorganisations.A totalof tenorganisations received the questionnaire, and seven organisations completed it. Results fromcompleted questionnaires were used to select five organisations most suitable as case studies.Selectioncriteriaincludedthattheorganisationhasa)programmingandprojectswithfaithleadersonHTPs;b)documenteditsengagementonHTPsandwithfaithleaders;c)beenworkingonvariousHTPs;d)beenworkingindifferentgeographicallocations,aswellasvariousfaithcontexts.ThecasestudyorganisationsselectedwereTearfund,IslamicReliefWorldwide(IRW),WorldVisionInternational(WVI),ABAAD,andChristianAid(CA).

andInternationalDevelopment’.InP.Oslington(ed.).TheOxfordHandbookofChristianityandEconomics.OxfordHandbooks.8Theseareavailableathttps://jliflc.com/.9ProposalnumberSU-HSD-004364,NationalHealthResearchEthicsCommittee(NHREC)registrationnumberREC-050411-032.

ThefourHTPsthatthecasestudiesfocusedonarefemalegenitalmutilation/cutting(FGM/C),childandearlymarriage(CEM),honour-relatedviolence,andsonpreference.TheseHTPswereselectedbasedontheliteraturereview,whichidentifiedthesepracticesashavingthehighestprevalence,aswellasbyreflectingontheHTPsthatthecasestudyorganisationsareaddressing.Thecasestudieswereconductedthroughdocumentreviewandin-depth interviews(usingSkype).The documents reviewed were unique to each organisation and the particular programming andprojectsthatthecasestudyfocusedon,butincludedinternalandexternalmonitoringandevaluation(M&E) and research reports, case studies, policy documents, information brochures, and internalguidelines.Furthermore,ashortonlinesurveywasdesigned,reviewed,andpiloted.Thesurveywasmeanttocomplementandbroadentheinformationgatheredduringthecasestudies,asthecasestudieswouldprovideinsightsfromonlyfiveorganisations.Thedecisionwasmadetokeepthesurveyshort,soastoencourageparticipation,thus14ofthe23questionsweremultiplechoice,withonlynineopen-endedquestions.Thesurvey focusedon fourareas,namelya)gatheringbasic informationontherespondent, includingthetypeoforganisationtheyworkforandinwhichareasoftheworld;b)therespondent’sunderstandingoftheterm‘HTP’;c) the respondent’s opinion on working with faith leaders; and d) the respondent’s opinion onaddressingHTPs,particularlywithincommunities.Thesurveywasdistributedviafourinternationalnetworks,10whoinvitedtheirmemberstocompletethesurveyviadirectemail,socialmedia,andthenetworks’websites.Thesurveywaslaunchedon19July2017,andclosedon6August2017.Thesurvey invitationstatedthat individuals thatworkonHTPsand/orfaithshouldcompletethesurvey,andthesurveyitselffollowedaskip-logicthatwouldallow participation from those active within only one of these areas. The minimum number ofrespondents thatwas requiredwas40,buta totalof65 individualsworkingonHTPsand/or faithcompletedthesurvey.ThemajorityoftherespondentsworkforanFBO,butsomenon-governmentalorganisation(NGO)practitioners,researchers,membersofafaithgrouporcommunity,civilservants,andinter-governmentagencyworkersalsocompletedthesurvey.Thefollowingtabledetailstheresearchactivitieschronologically.Table2:ResearchactivitiesDate Activity6March–30April2017 Literaturereview1–10April2017 Developmentandreviewofselectionquestionnaire11–25April2017 Distributionandcompletionofselectionquestionnaire1–15May2017 Developmentandreviewofrevisedresearchquestionsandcasestudy

guidelines15May2017 DeliverytoDFIDofliteraturereview,revisedresearchquestions,case

studyguidelines16May2017 Ethicalclearancereceived17–22May2017 Developmentandreviewofcasestudyinterviewguides25May–31August2017 ConductingTearfundcasestudy

10TheSexualViolenceResearchInitiative(globalmembership);JLI(globalmembership);TheAfricaRegionalSexualandGender-BasedViolenceNetwork(regionalnetwork);andtheGBVPreventionNetwork(regionalnetwork).

25May–31August2017 ConductingIRWcasestudy25May–31August2017 ConductingWVIcasestudy25May–31August2017 ConductingABAADcasestudy25May–31August2017 ConductingCAcasestudy1–10July2017 Developmentandreviewofonlinesurvey19July–6August2017 Onlinesurvey15–22August2017 Reviewoffivecasestudyreportsandsurveyreport31August2017 DeliverytoDFIDofcasestudyreportsandsurveyreport1September–15October2017

Developmentandreviewofsynthesisreport

1–30October2017 Developmentandreviewofthreepolicybriefs22October2017 DeliverytoDFIDofsynthesisreport30October2017 DeliverytoDFIDofpolicybriefs

Thefollowingresearchtoolsweredesignedbytheresearchleadandco-leadspecificallyforuseinthisstudy.Table3:ResearchtoolsTool PurposeSelectionquestionnaire Tobecompletedbypotentialcasestudyorganisations,toassistin

selectingthefivemostappropriateorganisationsCasestudyguidelines Overview of case study strategy, including selected HTPs and

organisationsKIIinterviewguidetemplate Interviewguide template for virtual interviews conductedduring

casestudiesRevisedresearchquestions Researchquestions guiding theoverall study (revisionof original

researchquestionsincludedwithDFIDToR)Templatecasestudyframework

Templateforcompilingthefivecasestudyreports

Onlinesurvey OnlineanonymoussurveyonHTPsandfaith

Thefollowingprimarydocumentswereproducedintheprocessofconductingthestudy.Table4:PrimarydocumentsproducedPrimarydocument ReferenceInterviewtranscripts 6withTearfund 8withIRW 7withWVI 5withABAAD 9withCA Literaturereview Bartelink,B.E.,LeRoux,E.2017.Harmfultraditional

practicesinthecontextoffaith:aliteraturereview.Tearfundcasestudy LeRoux,E.&Bartelink,B.E.2017.Tearfund:Case

studyaspartofUKaid-fundedWorkingeffectivelywithfaith leaderstochallengeharmfultraditionalpractices.

IRWcasestudy Le Roux, E. & Bartelink, B.E. 2017. Islamic ReliefWorldwide: Case study as part of UK aid-fundedWorkingeffectivelywithfaithleaderstochallengeharmfultraditionalpractices.

WVIcasestudy Bartelink, B.E. & Le Roux, E. 2017. World VisionInternational:CasestudyaspartofUKaid-fundedWorkingeffectivelywithfaithleaderstochallengeharmfultraditionalpractices.

ABAADcasestudy Bartelink, B.E., Le Roux, E., & Levinga, W. 2017.ABAAD: Case study as part of UK aid-fundedWorkingeffectivelywithfaithleaderstochallengeharmfultraditionalpractices.

CAcasestudy Palm, S., Le Roux, E., & Bartelink, B.E. 2017.ChristianAid:CasestudyaspartofUKaid-fundedWorkingeffectivelywithfaithleaderstochallengeharmfultraditionalpractices.

Surveyreport Le Roux, E., Kramm, N., & Bartelink, B.E. 2017.Workingeffectivelywithfaithleaderstochallengeharmful traditional practices: Results from anonlinesurvey.

Synthesisreport LeRoux,E.&Bartelink,B.E.2017.Nomore‘harmfultraditionalpractices’:workingeffectivelywithfaithleaders.Researchreport.

Policybrief1 LeRoux,E.,Bartelink,B.E.,&Palm,S.2017.Whatistheharmin‘harmfultraditionalpractices’?11

Policybrief2 Bartelink,B.E.,LeRoux,E.,&Palm,S.2017.SleepyGiants: Mobilising faith leaders as agents ofchange.12

Policybrief3 Palm, S., Le Roux, E., Bartelink, B.E., 2017.Amplifyingdevelopment:Partneringwithfaith.13

4.CasestudydescriptionWhilethisstudyincludedaliteraturereviewandonlinesurvey,thefivecasestudieswerethemainformofdatacollectiononwhichtheoverallstudyrelies.Thefollowingtableoffersabriefoverviewofthefivecasestudies.14

11LeRoux,E.,Bartelink,B.E.,&Palm,S.2017.Whatistheharmin‘harmfultraditionalpractices’?12Bartelink,B.E.,LeRoux,E.,&Palm,S.2017.SleepyGiants:Mobilisingfaithleadersasagentsofchange.13Palm,S.,LeRoux,E.,&Bartelink,B.E.2017.Amplifyingdevelopment:Partneringwithfaith.14Moredetailcanbefoundintheindividualcasestudyreports.

Table5:CasedescriptionsOrganisation Faithorientation Countries where

activeInternalevidencebuilding Key projects and programmes

includedincasestudyNumber ofcase studyinterviews

Tearfund Christiancharityrespondingtopovertyanddisaster.

51countriesinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,Africa,Asia,theMiddleEastandtheUK.

• AllTearfundprojectsandprogrammingundergocontinuousinternalM&E.

• TearfundonlyrecentlystartedfocusingonHTPs(FGM/CandCEMinparticular),buthasahistoryofengagingwithfaithleadersandcommunitiesonSGBVandharmfulmasculinities.Twooftheseprojectsarecurrentlyundergoingextensiveexternalevaluation.

• Tearfund’spracticeistoundertakeastandardscopingperiod(includingresearchconductedbyconsultant/s),consultationandactionplanning,priortoprogrammedevelopmentandroll-out.

• TheChurchandCommunityMobilisationProcess/FGMPrograminTanzania,inpartnershipwiththeAfricaInlandChurch.

• TheMasculinité,Famille,etFoiprogrammeinKinshasa,DemocraticRepublicofCongo(DRC),inpartnershipwiththeEgliseduChristauCongo,inurbanKinshasa.

• TheEngagingwithFaithGroupstoPreventViolenceAgainstWomenandGirlsinConflict-affectedCommunitiesprojectin15targetcommunitiesnearRethy,intheIturiProvinceoftheDRC,inpartnershipwithHEALAfrica.

• AnumberofresearchprojectsonFGM/Cinspecificcountries,suchasSierraLeone,MaliandTanzania.

6

IRW AninternationalreliefanddevelopmentagencyinspiredbyIslamthatbelieves

Over40countriesinAfrica,Asia,EasternEurope,andtheMiddleEast.

• IRWtracksallprogrammeandprojectactivitiesandconductsinternalevaluations.

• CombatingGBVofwomenandgirlsinDekasuftuWoredaSomariRegionalStateofEthiopiapilotproject.

8

thoseinneedhaverightsoverthosewithwealthandpower–regardlessofrace,politicalaffiliation,genderorbelief.

• Conductscountry-andissue-specificresearchprojectsonanadhocbasis.

• OrphanSponsorshipprogramminginBangladeshandIndonesia.

• TheForumSydGender/EnvironmentprojectinKenya.

• TheIntegratedApproachtoGBVandChildProtectioninHumanitarianActioninMali,NigerandPakistanthree-countrypilotproject.

WVI AglobalChristianrelief,developmentandadvocacyorganisationdedicatedtoimprovingthewell-beingofchildren,workingwithlocalcommunitiesregardlessoftheirfaith.

Morethan100countriesinAsia-Pacific,LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,Europe,theMiddleEastandAfrica.

• WVImonitorsandevaluatesallitsprogrammingandprojects.

• IthasinvestedconsiderablyintheevaluationofitsChannelsofHope(CoH)methodology–19studiesonvariousversionsofthemodelhavebeendonethusfar,whichincludeseightevaluationstudiesintwoormorecountries.

• TheCoHmethodology,whichfocusesonengagingfaithleadersintacklingsensitiveandchallengingissuesinlocalcommunities.

• Acommunityadvocacytool,CitizensVoiceandAction,whichisusedtomobilisecommunitiestoimprovecitizenshiprights.

• TheChildProtectionandAdvocacyprojectmodelforengagingwithkeycommunitystakeholders(includingfaithleaders)toaddresstherootcausesofviolenceagainstchildren.

7

ABAAD Anon-profit,non-politicallyaffiliated,non-religiouscivilassociationwiththeaimofpromotingsustainablesocialandeconomic

BasedinLebanon,workingacrosstheMENAregion.

• ABAADconductsinternalM&Eofitsprogramming.

• IthasnospecificresearchavailablethatcontributestoabroaderevidencebaseforworkingwithfaithleadersinchallengingHTPs,althoughitregularlyassistsotherorganisationsinconducting

• ABAAD’sadvocacyworkhasbeenfocusedontheabolitionofArticle522oftheLebanesePenalCode.

• Theorganisation’sMasculinitiesProgramme,whichisacross-cuttingprogrammeacrossallitsactivities,facilitatedaseriesofroundtabledialoguesunderthe

5

developmentintheMENAregion,throughthepromotionofgenderequality,protectionandtheempowermentofmarginalisedgroups,especiallywomen.

evaluationsandresearchprojectsonvariousgender-relatedissuesandprogramming.

title‘ABAADdialogueswithReligiousleaderstoendGBVintheMENARegion’.

• AmediacampaignwithvariousprominentfaithleadersexplicitlydistancingthemselvesfromVAWandrejectingvariousHTPs.

• TheMenEngagementNetwork.InpartnershipwiththeMenEngageGlobalNetwork,SonkeGenderJusticeNetwork,andtheInternationalMedicalCorps,ABAADlaunchedtheMenEngageLebanonCountryNetwork.

CA AChristianorganisationthatinsiststheworldcanandmustbeswiftlychangedtoonewhereeveryonecanliveafulllife,freefrompoverty.

39countriesacrossAfrica,LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,AsiaandtheMiddleEast

• NocurrentprogrammingorresearchsolelyfocusedonHTPsthatalsotargetsfaithleaders,buthasexternallyandinternallyevaluatedprogrammingwithfaithleadersandcommunitiesonarangeofcommunityhealthissues(withHTPsascross-cuttingissues).

• M&Eofallprojectsandprogrammingisdone,andCAsupportslocalpartnersinconductingcontextualmappingstudies.CAhastendedtodocumentitsprojectsuccessesonacase-by-casebasis,ratherthansynthesisingevidenceofsuccessacrossmultipleregions.

• TheCollectiveActionforAdolescentGirls’Initiative(CAAGI)pilotprojectinKaduna,northernNigeria.PartneringwithInterfaithMediationCentre,WomenInterfaithCouncil,FederationofMuslimWomenAssociationofNigeria,GenderAwarenessTrustandDevelopment&PeaceInitiative.

• TheSupportingFaith-BasedOrganisationstoaddressGender-BasedViolencepilotprojectinZimbabwe,inpartnershipwithPadareEnkundleniMen’sForumandtheZimbabweCouncilofChurches.

9

• TheFaithinAction:PromotingGenderJusticeinSaoPaulo,Brazil,withlocalpartnerKoinonia.

• TheChurchestacklinggenderinequalityandpromotingrightsprojectworksacrossnineBraziliandioceses(areas)inpartnershipwiththeAnglicanServiceofDiakoniaandDevelopment.

5.LimitationsThisstudycarrieswithitseverallimitations:

• Almostall of the case study interviewswere conductedwith staffmembers innationalorinternationaloffices.Onlyfourinterviewswerenotwithsuchhigh-levelstaff(threewithfaithleadersthatarepartoftheorganisation’sprogramming,andonewithastaffmemberfromapartnerorganisation).ThislimitationwasaddressedbyreviewingM&Edocumentsproducedbycountry-levelandcommunity-levelstaffmembers,aswellasreviewsproducedbyexternalconsultants.

• Fourofthefiveorganisationsstudiedherearewell-known,well-fundedinternationalentities.The fifth,while smaller and focusingmainly ononenational context, functionswithin thesame international development sphere. Thus the study is limited in its reflection on theexperiences and opinions of small, local organisations operatingwith limited budget on asmall scale. To counter this limitation, an effort was made to include organisations thatoperatewiththehelpoflocalpartners,therebyallowingforreflectionfromthesepartners.ABAADwasalsoincludedtoallowaconsiderationoffaith-basedinvolvementonHTPsfromanon-faithorganisation.

• TheFBOsareallChristianorMuslimorganisations,althoughtheyoffertheirservicestoallpeopleregardlessoffaithaffiliation.Whilethestudytriedtoincludeorganisationsfromotherfaithgroups,nonon-Christian/MuslimFBOsthataddressHTPs,andareactiveinternationally,respondedtoinvitationstotakepart.

• Aswillbediscussedaspartofthekeyfindings,allfiveoftheorganisationsprefernottousethe term ‘harmful traditional practices’ in their work with communities. Therefore, theirprogrammingandprojectsonHTPsandfaithleadersarenotidentifiedassuch,butratheras,for example, focusing more generally on GBV or gender justice. Nevertheless, theprogramming and projects do address certain HTPs, aswell as the underlying beliefs andideologies(forexample,patriarchyandgenderinequality)thatsupportvariousHTPs.

• ThecasestudiesfocusonfourHTPs,namelyFGM/C,CEM,honour-relatedviolence,andsonpreference.Thisbiasisalsopresentinscholarlyliterature,includingHTPprevalencedata.

• Global prevalence data is only available on FGM/C and CEM. In the literature review thecomparabilityofstudieswasfurthermoremadedifficultasdatawascollectedusingdifferentresearchandstatisticalmethods,andusingdifferentperiodsandcohorts.Furthermore,thevariousgreyandacademicpapersavailableontheprevalenceofFGM/CandCEMisinformedbythesamedatasources(namelyUNICEFandUNFPAstudies).Whilethereisthusthemostliterature on FGM/C and CEMprevalence globally, there has actually not been thatmanydifferentempiricalstudiesonit.Furthermore,thefocusonaparticularHTPmeansthat itsrelationtocontextualculturalpracticesandtheirlocalmeaningislost.

• As60%ofthesurveyrespondentsworkwithinAfrica(excludingNorthAfrica),onecanexpectthesurveydatatoreflectanunderstandingoffaithandHTPsthatisparticularlyrelevantinthis region. Furthermore, as almost 48% of the respondents work for FBOs, this sector’sparticularpositioningintermsoffaithanddevelopmentarguablyalsoinfluencedthesurveydata.Thirdly, justovertwo-thirdsoftherespondentsworkwithChristianityandChristians.Whiletheyallworkwithotherfaithsaswell,onecanexpectexperienceswithChristianityandChristianstocolourthesurveydata.Lastly,sexualviolenceagainstwomen,CEM,andFGM/CaretheHTPsthatthemajorityoftherespondentsworkon.Thus,theirunderstandingofHTPs,asreflectedinthesurveyresults,willbeinfluencedbytheirexperiencesofworkingwiththeseparticularHTPs.

6.KeyfindingsThefollowingsectionsummarisesthekeyfindingsthatemergedduringtheresearch.Thein-depthdescriptive and explanatorymaterial is intentionally kept to aminimum in this document, as it isprovidedinthestand-aloneliteraturereview,casestudyreportsandsurveyreport.Thekeyfindingsincludedhereprovideafocuseddiscussionofthe issuesthatemerged,clusteredaroundfivemainareas.6.1The‘harm’in‘harmfultraditionalpractices’In conducting this study, various problems and issues were discovered with the term ‘harmfultraditionalpractices’anditsusewithinadevelopmentcontext.Thereexistssubstantialliteratureonsome of these issues,15 therefore this section relies on both existing literature and practitionerexperiencesasdocumentedinthecasestudiesandsurvey.Thefivecasestudyorganisationseitherrarelyorneverusetheterm‘harmfultraditionalpractices’.Somedonotuseitastheydonotseeitasveryuseful,beingvagueandill-defined.Thebiggestproblemwiththeterm,however, isthatitcreatesresistanceandhinderstheprocessofengagingpeopleinlocalcommunitiestochallengeinjusticeandviolencetopeople,inparticularwomenandgirls.ThisexperienceofaCAseniorprogrammeofficerexemplifiestheexperiencesofalltheorganisations:

Andwereallyhadapushbackfromthetraditionalleadersfromthatcommunitywhentheyheardustalkingtothenumberofharmfultraditionalpractices.Andyouknow,theybasicallymadeanargumentthatthereisnosuchthingasaharmfultraditionalpractice:‘Whatitis,isfirstofallyoupeoplefromtheoutside,youarenon-Tsongapeople.Youcomeinandyouvilifyourtraditionalpracticesbecauseyoudon’tunderstandthem.Sodon’ttalktousaboutharmfultraditionalpractice.’Inasensebecausethatexperiencereallymadeanimpressiononme,westoppedusingthatterminologybecausewerealised itwasshuttingdoors forus insteadofopeningdoors.16

Usingthetermimmediatelypositionstheseorganisationsascriticalofcultureandreligion.Sincetheyallattempttoworkholisticallyandengageconstructivelywithreligiousandculturaldimensionsofdevelopment,thisisnotonlyunhelpfulbutalsoseenascontrarytotheprinciplesandapproachesoftheseorganisations.Atbest,then,someoftheorganisationsusethetermifrequiredwhenengagingwithpolicymakers,funders,andinthedevelopmentsector–butneverwhendoingactualgrassrootsworkincommunities.All five organisations prefer using an integrated approach that allows them to address the variedfactors–suchasgenderconstructs,poverty,andpatriarchy–thatleadtoHTPsinthefirstplace.Thisresonateswithwhat various scholars have highlighted, namely the need for better historical andcontemporaryinsightsintowhatsupportsandsustainsharmfulpracticeswithinaparticularcontextorcommunity.17Whenthecasestudyorganisationsdoaddressaparticularpractice,theynamethespecificpractice,usingtheterminologythatisacceptedwithinthecommunity(forexample,insomesettings the term ‘female genitalmutilation or cutting’will be unacceptable, as the term ‘female

15See,forexample:Longman&Bradley,2015;Winter,B.,Thompson,D.,&Jeffreys,S.2002.‘TheUNApproachtoHarmfulTraditionalPractices’.InternationalFeministJournalofPolitics4(1):72–94;Carpenter,R.C.2004.SomeOtherConceptualProblems:AReplytoWinter,ThompsonandJeffreys’CritiqueoftheUN’sApproachtoHTPs.InternationalFeministJournalofPolitics6(2):308–313.16CA,Sandra,23June2017.Pseudonymsareusedthroughoutthereportwhenreferringtointerviewparticipants.17Bradley,T.2015.‘Dowry,ActivismandGlobalisation’.InC.Longman&T.Bradley(eds.).InterrogatingHarmfulCulturalPractices:Gender,CultureandCoercion.Farnham:Routledge.

circumcision’isused),ratherthanusethegeneralterm‘HTP’.ButallfiveorganisationsrarelyaddressHTPsexclusively,choosingrathertointegrateitintobroaderprogrammes.WVI,forexample,haschildprotectionprogrammingwherethe issueofCEM isaddressed invariousprojectssuchasgirl-childeducation, income-generation activities, child sponsorship and advocacy on marriage laws.Furthermore, these organisations prefer engaging more generally on underlying issues such as‘harmful masculinities’ or ‘discrimination’. This allows them to address a wider variety of causalfactors,someofwhichmayunderlievariousHTPs,ratherthanjustonespecificpractice.Muchoftheliteraturereviewedatthestartofthisstudyalsoreflectsontheproblematicnatureofthe term. While the literature review should be consulted for a more in-depth discussion, it isimportanttohighlighttwopointshere,especiallyconsideringthatthefourFBOs(notethatABAADisnotanFBO)arebasedinWesterncountries,butworkalmostexclusivelyinnon-Westernsettings.18Firstly,thetermitselfenforcescolonialistdiscourse.Whenthetermfirstemergedinthe1950s, itwas ‘harmful traditionalpractices’, whichwas also the casewith the 1995UN Fact Sheet No. 23(‘HarmfulTraditionalPracticesAffectingtheHealthofWomenandChildren’).19By2002,‘tradition’hadbeenscrappedbytheUNandreferenceisonlymadeto‘harmfulculturalpractices’.Nevertheless,bothtermsarestillusedinpolicydocumentsacrosstheglobe.20Theuseoftheterm‘traditional’,asitwasfirstintroducedbytheUN,leadstotheseharmfulpracticesautomaticallybeingjuxtaposedwiththe ‘modern’. 21 The implication is that these harmful practiceswill disappear once the society isproperly modernised.22 Religion and secularism are similarly implicated, as part of the broadersecular/faithbinarywithindevelopmentdiscourses,23withthemodern,Western,liberatedindividualseen as secular,24whereas the traditional, non-Western, oppressed individual is religious. As ChiaLongman and Tamsin Bradley argue in their edited volume on HTPs:

…the modern body is also very much envisaged as secular; the liberal emancipated andautonomous conception of body is posed against the religious body as coerced andoppressed.25

Partoftheproblemistheoverwhelmingfocusonnon-WesternHTPs.TheUN,whichfirstintroducedthetermontotheinternationalstageandhasbeeninstrumental inkeeping itontheinternationaldevelopmenttable,reinforcesthisnon-Westernfocus26,asittooemphasisesalmostexclusivelynon-WesternHTPs.27AlmostalltheliteratureavailableonHTPsfocusesonpracticesthatarefoundinnon-Westernsocieties.28CriticshavelongbeendecryinghowHTPsareconceptualisedasonlyoccurringwithin non-Western cultures,29 identifyingmany practiceswithinWestern cultures that should be 18Inthisreporttheterms‘Western’and‘non-Western’areused,ratherthan‘GlobalNorth’and‘GlobalSouth’.ThisistorecognisethatWesternnationsandculturesarealsopresentwithintheGlobalSouth,andnon-WesternnationsandcultureswithintheGlobalNorth.19UNOfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights(OHCHR).1995.FactSheetNo.23,‘HarmfulTraditionalPracticesAffectingtheHealthofWomenandChildren’.http://www.ohchr.org/documents/publications/factsheet23en.pdf.Accessed3October2017.20Longman&Bradley,2015.21Longman&Bradley,2015;Long,N.,AlbertoA.,&Ong,K.1999.Anthropology,Development,andModernities:ExploringDiscourses,Counter-tendencies,andViolence.Routledge.22Winteretal,2002.23LeRoux,E.&Loots,L.2017.‘TheUnhealthyDivide:HowtheSecular–FaithBinaryPotentiallyLimitsGBVPreventionandResponse’.DevelopmentinPractice27(5):733–744.24Bartelink,2016.25Longman&Bradley,2015:24.26Longman&Bradley,2015.27Winteretal.,2002.28Bartelink,B.E.,LeRoux,E.2017.‘HarmfulTraditionalPracticesintheContextofFaith:aliteraturereview’.29Longman&Bradley,2015;Winteretal.,2002.

identifiedasHTPs,includingcosmeticsurgery,make-up,depilation,reproductivetechnologies,highheels,degradingorrestrictingclothing,pornography,andbeautypageants.30ThefourFBOs,albeitindirectly,alsocontributetothenarrativeofHTPsbeinganon-Westernproblem.TheseFBOsarefounded,fundedandheadquarteredintheWest,butworkingwithinnon-Westerncountriesandworkingonnon-WesternHTPs.However,thereisawarenessofanddiscomfortwiththisrole,as illustratedwhensomeof theconsortiummembersquestionedthenatureofandfocusonHTPs in the study and their participation in it. One consortiumpartner, seeing the focus on non-WesternHTPs,askedtobeexcluded:

I note you have tried hard to make it more palatable, but the term 'harmful traditionalpractices'isjusttooloaded.Ican'tswallowitmyself,andIcouldnotbringmyselftotrytouseitwithpartners.IfIthoughtweweregoingtolookatbingedrinkingathennightsandstagnightsandadolescentover-dieting,aswellasFGM[thenwecould’vetakenpart]…31

Informed by their experiences of working with the terms in local communities, those who didparticipateinthestudywerescepticaloftheterm‘HTP’foritsperceivedlinkswithcolonialdiscoursesandWesternimperialistagendas.Asmentionedearlier,mostoftheorganisationsonlyusedthetermwhenengagingwithinternationaldevelopmentactors,becauseitisseenasthe‘vernacular’inthatparticularcontext.32ForsomeFBOsitraisedthequestionoftowhatextentFBOsshouldadvocateformoreinclusivelanguageonaninternationallevel.Academicresearchandscholarlyanalysisindicatethattheseshouldnotbeseenasmereperceptionsthatneedtobenavigated,buttakenseriouslyascritiquefromthegrassrootsthatisbackedupbyhistorical,ethicalandanthropologicalresearch.33Secondly, inpublic,policyandacademicdiscoursesonHTPs,certainbiasesaroundreligioncanbeobserved.34ThefocustendstobeonIslam,withadditional interest inChristianity.35ReferencestoHinduism,Buddhismorotherfaithsorworldviewswereabsentfromtheliteraturereviewedforthisstudy.36 Despite the prevalence of a number of the practices (such as CEM, son preference andhonour-relatedviolence)incontextswherethesefaithsarewidelypractised,thefocusseemstobeon Islamand/orChristianitywhenfaith isconsidered inrelationtoHTPs.Unfortunately, thisstudycontributestothisexclusivefocus.Whiletheyworkwithdifferentfaithgroupsincertainsettings,allfourFBOsareeitherChristianorMuslim,theyworkmostlywithChristiansandMuslims,andtheirreflectionandprogrammingonHTPsandfaitharecolouredbythispositioning.Whatthisstudyhasdone,though,istoreflectontheseChristianandMuslimorganisationswithinthesameframeworkusingthesamelens.Thisappearstobeasomewhatnovelapproach,forinexisting 30Jeffreys,S.2015.BeautyandMisogyny:HarmfulCulturalPracticesintheWest.2ndEdition.LondonandNewYork:Routledge;Bradley,T.&Longman,C.2015.‘HarmfulCulturalPractices:TowardsaResearchFrame’.InC.Longman&T.Bradley(eds.).InterrogatingHarmfulCulturalPractices:Gender,CultureandCoercion.Farnham:Routledge.31Magda,personalcommunication,5May2017.32WVI,Judy,10July2017.33Longman&Bradley,2015;Abu-Lughod,L.2016.‘TheCross-PublicsofEthnography:TheCaseof“theMuslimwoman”’.AmericanEthnologist43(4);Abu-Lughod,L.2013.DoMuslimWomenNeedSaving?Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress;Earp,B.D.2016.‘BetweenMoralRelativismandMoralHypocrisy:ReframingtheDebateon“FGM”’.KennedyInstituteofEthicsJournal26(2):105–144;Mwangi,P.M.2002.‘TheSong-NarrativeConstructionofOralHistorythroughtheGikuyuMuthiriguandMwomboko’.Fabula43(1);Murray,J.1976.‘TheChurchMissionarySocietyandthe“FemaleCircumcision”IssueinKenya1929–1932’.JournalofReligioninAfrica8(2):92–104.34Bradley,T.2011.ReligionandGenderintheDevelopingWorld:Faith-basedOrganizationsandFeminisminIndia.London:I.B.Tauris;Longman&Bradley,2015;Ergas,Y.2016.‘RegulatingReligionBeyondBorders:TheCaseofFGM/C’.InJ.L.Cohen&C.Laborde(eds.).Religion,Secularism,andConstitutionalDemocracy,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,66–88.35Longman&Bradley,2015.36Bartelink&LeRoux,2017.

literatureIslamandChristianitytendtobediscussedandrepresenteddifferently.37ArguablyatleastpartlyaresultoftheconcernwithviolentreligiousextremismandthegrowingIslamophobiawithinmanyWesterncountries,Islamismostextensivelydiscussedasasourceoflegitimisationofharmfulpractices.38Whilethisissometimessupportedbyprevalencedata,andwhileinterpretationsofIslamhaveinsomecontextsbecomeasourceoflegitimisationofcertainculturalpracticesinresponsetocolonialconcernswiththesepractices,inmostcasesitisnotclearhowIslamandaparticularpracticearerelatedinaparticularcontext.39Forexample,FGM/Cisthemostfocused-onHTPintheWest,withmanycampaigns,mediacoverageandpopularaccounts in thepress.40But it isunderstoodby thegeneralpublicintheWestasbeinganIslamicpractice,whereasresearchonFGM/Cinnowaysupportsthisview.41TherecurrentreferencetoIslamasasourceoflegitimisationofHTPsproblematisesIslamandMuslim cultures, and is particularly deleterious toMuslimwomenwho tend tobe treated asvoicelessvictims,ratherthanasagents,intheseconversations.42Ontheotherhand,whileChristianityisinsomecasesalsoidentifiedaslegitimisingcertainpractices,therolesofChristianleadersintacklingorovercomingHTPsinlocalcontextsisgenerallydiscussedmorepositivelyinacademicliterature.43ButoneshouldnotviewChristianeffortstoeradicatecertainHTPs outside the context of colonial agendas and their influence in postcolonial politics.44 TheChristian dominance in the field of development in the postcolonial world has shaped intensiveinteractions and partnerships between Christian institutions and leaders and internationaldevelopmentactors.45Onecanconcludethatthere isno levelplaying fieldwhen itcomesto faithactors’engagementinchallengingHTPs.ConcernswithIslaminthecontextofcontemporarypoliticalandpublicdebatesareoftennotneutral,buthighlighthowMuslimsarepositionedasaculturalorreligious‘other’.46

37Longman&Bradley,2015;Bartelink&LeRoux,2017.38Abu-Lughod,2013;Longman&Bradley,2015.39VanRaemdonck,A.2016.FemaleGenitalCuttingandthePoliticsofIslamicatePracticesinEgypt.DebatingDevelopmentandReligious/SecularDivide.UnpublishedPhDthesis,UniversityofGhent.40Longman&Bradley,2015;Longman,C.&Coene,G.2015.‘HarmfulCulturalPracticesandMinorityWomeninEurope:FromHeadscarfBanstoForcedMarriagesandHonourRelatedViolence’.InC.Longman&T.Bradley(eds.).InterrogatingHarmfulCulturalPractices:Gender,CultureandCoercion.Farnham:Routledge;Gruenbaum,E.2006.‘SexualityIssuesintheMovementtoAbolishFemaleGenitalCuttinginSudan’.MedicalAnthropologyQuarterly20(1):121–138.41Bartelink&LeRoux,2017;Boddy,J.2016.‘TheNormalandtheAberrantinFemaleGenitalCutting:ShiftingParadigms.HAU:JournalofEthnographicTheory6(2):41–69;Roth,R.2013.‘FemaleGenitalMutilation’.InJ.A.Sigal&F.L.Denmark(eds.).ViolenceagainstGirlsandWomen.InternationalPerspectives.SantaBarbara:ABC-CLIO;Shell-Duncan,B.&Hernlund,Y.2006.‘AreThere“StagesofChange”inthePracticeofFemaleGenitalCutting?QualitativeResearchFindingsfromSenegalandtheGambia’.AfricanJournalofReproductiveHealth10(2):57–71;Gruenbaum,2006.42Abu-Lughod,2016;Longman&Coene,2015;Abu-Lughod,2013;Mahmood,S.2005.PoliticsofPiety:theIslamicRevivalandtheFeministSubject.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.43El-Damanhoury,I.2013.‘TheJewishandChristianViewonFemaleGenitalMutilation’.AfricanJournalofUrology19(3):127–129;Roth,2013.44Boddy,2016;Wanjiku-Kamashi,J.2015.‘TranscendingFemaleCircumcision:ACallforCollectiveUnmasking’.InC.Longman&T.Bradley(eds.).InterrogatingHarmfulCulturalPractices:Gender,CultureandCoercion.Farnham:Routledge;El-Damanhoury,2013.;Schafroth,V.2009.‘FemaleGenitalMutilationinAfrica–anAnalysisoftheChurch’sResponseandProposalsforChange’.Missiology37(4):527.West,G.O.&Dube,M.W.(eds.).2000.TheBibleinAfrica:Transactions,Trajectories,andTrends.Leiden,Netherlands:Brill;Murray,1976.45Bartelink,2016;VanderVeer,P.(ed).1996.ConversiontoModernities:TheGlobalizationofChristianity.NewYork&London:Routledge;Comaroff,J.L.&Comaroff,J.2006.‘ColonizationofConsciousness.EthnographyandtheHistoricalImagination’.ReprintedinLambek,M.(ed.).AReaderintheAnthropologyofReligion.NewYork:Wiley;VanHarskamp,A.2004.‘Introduction’.InO.Salemnink,A.VanHarskamp,&A.K.Giri(eds.).TheDevelopmentofReligion/TheReligionofDevelopment.Delft:Eburon;Pieterse,J.N.2001.DevelopmentTheory:Deconstructions/Reconstructions.London:SagePublications;Brinkman,I.2007.‘Beyondthe“Developmentera”:DebatesonColonialism,theChristianMissionsandDevelopment’.InP.Hoebink(ed.).TheNetherlandsYearBookonInternationalCooperation.Assen:KoninklijkevanGorcum;Lewis,D.2009.‘InternationalDevelopmentandthePerpetualPresent:AnthropologicalApproachestotheRe-historicizationofPolicy’.EuropeanJournalofDevelopmentResearch21(1).46Longman&Bradley,2015;Abu-Lughod,2013.Fadil,N.&Fernando,M.2015.‘Rediscoveringthe“Everyday”Muslim.NotesonanAnthropologicalDivide’.HAUJournalofEthnographicTheory2:59–88.

Itshouldbenotedthat,whilethisstudyiscriticaloftheterm‘HTP’andstronglydiscouragesitsuse,thisstudy’sTermsofReference(ToR)andimplementationwasframedbyusingtheterm.Therefore,thediscussionoffindingswillcontinueusingtheterm.

6.2Theroleoffaith,faithcommunities,andfaithleadersinHTPsHTPsaredrivenbyacomplexinterplayoffactors.Thesedriversincludegenderconstructs,patriarchalstructures,ethnicity,socio-economiccircumstances,andpowerrelations.47Academicliteraturealsoidentifiesfaith,andfaithleaders,asoneofthedriversofHTPs.Forexample,faithleaderscanplayacriticalroleinsupportingorwithholdingpeoplefrompractisingCEM–simplythroughtheirwillingnessorrefusaltoperformthefaith-basedritualsassociatedwithmarriage.48AllfiveorganisationsfocusedoninthisstudyidentifyreligionasacontributingfactortoHTPs,butnotthecausalone.Inotherwords,whiletheseorganisationsacknowledgetherolereligionplaysinthelegitimisationofHTPs,theydonotconsideritthemainorsolereasonwhyHTPspersist.Instead,thecasestudiessuggestthattheorganisationsseeinthecontinuedperpetrationandsupportofHTPsatplayacomplexentanglementofreligionandculture,withreligionusedinvariouswaystojustifyculturalbeliefsandpractices.49Itwasargued,forexample,thatreligiousbeliefssupportingFGM/C 47Gemignani,R.&Wodon,Q.2015.‘ChildMarriageandFaithAffiliationinSub-SaharanAfrica:StylizedFactsandHeterogeneity’.TheReviewofFaith&InternationalAffairs13(3):41–47;Kogacioglu,D.2004.‘TheTraditionEffect:FramingHonorCrimesinTurkey’.Differences:AJournalofFeministCulturalStudies15(2):119–151;Kulczycki,A.&Windle,S.2011.‘HonorKillingsintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica’.ViolenceAgainstWomen17(11):1442–1446;Kitti,A.,Kumar,P.,&Yodav,R.2011.‘TheFaceofHonourBasedCrimes:GlobalConcernsandSolutions’.InternationalJournalofCriminalJusticeStudies6:1.48Blackburn,S.&Bessell,S.1997.‘MarriageableAge:PoliticalDebatesonEarlyMarriageinTwentieth-CenturyIndonesia’.Indonesia63:107–141.49Thisresonateswithfindingsintheliterature.Cf.VanRaemdonck,2016;Boddy,2016;JohnsonM.2007.‘MakingMandingaorMakingMuslims?DebatingFemaleCircumcision,Ethnicity,andIslaminGuinea-BissauandPortugal’.InHernlund,Y.&Shell-Duncan,B.(eds.).TransculturalBodies:FemaleGenitalCuttinginGlobalContext.NewBrunswick,RutgersUniversityPress:202−223;Gruenbaum,E.2015.‘Epilogue:HarmandWell-Being:CulturalPracticesandHarmful

Recommendations

• Donotusetheterm‘harmfultraditionalpractices’whenworkingincommunities.• Ifaspecificpracticeisbeingaddressedandneedstobeidentified,donot

generalisebutrathernamethespecificpractice,usingtheterminologyconsideredcontextuallyappropriate.

• Policy,programmingandprojectsshouldfocusonchallengingviolence(e.g.VAWGorGBV)andgenderinequality,ratherthanHTPs.Thisallowsforcontext-appropriateprogrammingandprojectsthatacknowledgegenderinequalityandinjusticeasproblemscommontoallsocieties(andnotjustnon-Westernones).Italsodoesnothidethegenderednatureofviolence.

• ReframethelanguageusedwhenrespondingtoHTPs,tolanguagethatfocusesonsolutionsandthedesiredsituationratherthanproblems.Forexample,frameandcommunicateprogrammingfocusingonCEMas‘increasingeducationforadolescentgirls’,ratherthan‘childandearlymarriage’.

andCEM tend to revolve around the sanctificationof sexual purity and chastity, and theneed tocontrolwomen’ssexualdesireandactivity.50However,itwasalsoarguedbytheFBOstaffandfaithleaders interviewed during the study that these religious justifications for specific practices areactuallyduetoaconflationofcultureandreligion.Theyarguethat,whiledominantdiscourseswithinChristianityandIslamdoprioritisesexualpurityandfidelity,therearenoreligioustenetsthatrequireFGM/CorCEM.Inotherwords,thereligioustenetssupportingHTPsareactuallyculturalnormsthathavebeencouchedinreligiousterminology,whichissomethingfaithleadershavetobeguidedtorealise–asthefollowingquoteillustrates:

[I]fyoucometohelp[faithleaders]understandthatno,thesepracticesarenotrightbutareharmful,thesepracticescannotbeboundbyscripture, itwill takea longtime…[W]ewalkwithreligiousleadersbyhelpingthemimprovetheircapacitysothattheychangefromwhattheythoughtwasrightbefore,tosomethingthattheycannowsee.51

ItisimportanttonoteadifferencebetweentheperspectivesofthemajorityoftheliteratureonHTPs,versustheorganisationalperspectives(asrepresentedinthecasestudies)onhowHTPsrelatetofaith.ScholarlyliteraturearguesthatHTPsareduetotheinterplaybetweenmultipledrivers,includingfaith,culture,ethnicity,gender,raceandclass.However,whilethecasestudyorganisationsrecognisethemultipledriversofHTPs,theyprioritisefaithandculture.Furthermore,they(especiallyparticipantsfromthefourFBOs)emphasisetheimportanceofdisentanglingfaithandculture,arguingthattruefaith(thatisnotinfluencedbyculture)willnotsupportorfacilitateHTPs.Therethusappearstobethebeliefthatfaith,whencleansedfromculturalinfluence,isnotadriverofHTPs.Inaddition,thecasestudiesalsoindicatethatHTPsarenotonlytheresultofwhatisseenasamistakenconflationofcultureandreligion,butalsoassomefaithleadersconsidersilenceasthesaferoreasieroption. Study findings show that people are at times aware that their particular faith does notcondoneordemandacertainHTP–yettheycontinueitallthesameduetotheneedtoconformtoculturalorsocietalexpectations.A reflectionontheresponseofChristians inMali toFGM/C isanexampleofthis:

[F]orinstance,theChristiansthatwe’vespokentoinMali,theysaythat‘ourBibledoesn’tsay,youknow, thatwe shouldbedoingFGM,but ifwedon’tdo it thenactuallyweare calledcertainnames…So ifwedon’tdo it thenourgirls,wewillbeunclean, youknow.WeareChristians,weknowwhattheBiblesays.ItsaysthebodywhatGodhascreated,weshouldnotchangeit,youknow,ourbodyisatempleofGod,youknow,allthosethings.[But]Ifwedon’tdoitthenourgirlsarecalled[unclean].Wedon’twantourgirlstobe[unclean],wedon’twantthemnottobeabletohaveaccesstocommunitylife…’52

Navigatingculturalandtraditionalsensitivitiesinthecontextofbroaderpowerstructuresoftenmakessilence the safer or easier option for faith leaders. Verena Schafrot, for example, observes howchurchesremainsilentonFGM/Cas,asduetothedominantpatriarchalstructureofmanyChristianinstitutions,thelivesandbodiesofwomenareseenasprivateand/orirrelevanttothefaithpractice.53WhenfaithleadersdecidetospeakoutonanHTPtheydonotonlychallengeaparticularpractice,butthebroaderpatriarchalstructuresoftheirfaith,faithcommunityandthebroadercommunity.This

GlobalPractices’.InC.Longman&T.Bradley(eds.).InterrogatingHarmfulCulturalPractices:Gender,CultureandCoercion.Farnham:Routledge.50Foracademicliteratureonthispoint,cf.VanRaemdonck,2016;El-Damanhoury,2013;LeRoux,E.2012.‘WhySexualViolence?TheSocialRealityofanAbsentChurch.InH.J.Hendriks,E.Mouton,L.Hansen,&E.LeRoux(eds.).MeninthePulpit,WomeninthePews?AddressingGenderInequalityinAfrica.Stellenbosch:SUNPRESS.51WVI,Joseph,30June2017.52Tearfund,Francoise,30June2017.53Schafroth,2009.ThisisalsoobservedinrelationtosexualviolencebyLeRoux,2012.

requiresnotonlyanawarenessofpatriarchy,butalsothewillingnesstoopposeit.Manyfaithleaderssimplydonothavethecouragetodoso.Literaturealsoindicatesthatsomefaithleaders’supportforHTPsmightbeduetoaparticularpoliticalorculturalposition.Withincertaincontexts,faith-basedlegitimisationofsomeHTPshaveemergedorbeen promoted in reaction to colonialism, or in reaction to what is experienced as Westernimperialism in postcolonial contexts. For faith leaders to challenge such HTPsmeans taking on aparticularpoliticalorculturalposition.54AnexampleofthisisFGM/CinEgypt,wheretheinfluenceofWesternactorsinanti-FGM/Ccampaignsinthecountrycontributedtoconservativefaithactors(re-)claimingFGM/CasanIslamicpractice.55ThefourFBOsincludedinthisstudyallprioritiseworkingwithfaithcommunities,56astheyseefaithcommunitiesasspaceswherebeliefs,behavioursandsocialnorms–bothpositiveandnegative–arecreatedandreinforced(andcanbechallenged).Thussuchengagementisneeded,tocounternegativesocialnorms,butalsotoencourageandsupportpositivenorms.TheFBOsemphasisethattoengagewithfaithcommunities,onehastoworkthroughfaithleaders.InthevariouscommunitiesacrosstheworldthatTearfund,IRW,WVIandCAwork,theyhavefoundthatfaithleadersareveryinfluential,asfaith is integral topeople’s lives,especially in ruralareas.Recent researchbyTearfund in theDRCillustratesthis,where95%ofrespondentsinabaselinehouseholdsurveyidentifiedwithareligion,andfaith leaderswere identifiedastheonlysocialreferentwhoseopinionpeoplefeltsignificantlymotivatedtocomplywith.57Allfiveorganisations(ABAADincluded,aspartofitsstrategyofholisticGBVresponse)workdirectlywith faith leaders on HTPs, as they recognise these individuals as crucial gatekeepers. See, forexample,howWVIexplainstheroleoffaithleadersinrelationtoHTPs:

Faithcommunities,faithleadersandcommunityleadersplayacrucialgate-keepingroleinthecommunity.Theycaneitherblockorallowmessages/approachestobedistributedwithinthecommunities. In some cases, they might even obstruct messages when they feel themessages/approachesareinoppositiontotheirfaithandvalues.Theremayalsoexistculturaland religious practices, which contribute to or exacerbate the issues that limit CWB[communitywell-being].Thecombinedeffectofthegate-keepersblockingmessages,togetherwiththeharmfulcultural/religiouspractices,actasfilterswhichlimittheeffectivenessoftheeffortsfromthegovernmentandWVIandotherNGOs.58

54Zwemer,S.M.1915.ChildhoodintheMoslemWorld.FlemingH.RevellCompany;Ali,A.A.2000.‘ChildMarriageinIslamicLaw’.UnpublishedMAThesis,InstituteofIslamicStudies,McGillUniversity;Prettitore,P.S.2015.‘FamilyLawReform,GenderEquality,andUnderageMarriage:AViewfromMoroccoandJordan’.TheReviewofFaith&InternationalAffairs13(3):32–40.55VanRaemdonck,2016.56‘Faithcommunities’areunderstoodtorefertoasinglegroupofregularcongregantsfocusedaroundameetingplace,areligiousdenomination,oracollectivetermforpeoplewhoprofesswidelyvaryingbeliefsandpracticesbutarelinkedbyacommonidentificationasbelievers.Cf.Karam,A.,Clague,J.,Marshall,K.,&Olivier,J.2015.“TheViewfromAbove:FaithandHealth’.TheLancet386(10005):22–24.57Sandilands,M.,Jewkes,R.,BagumaLeleU.,&Scott,N.2017.‘DoesFaithMatter?FaithEngagement,GenderNormsandViolenceagainstWomenandGirlsinConflict-affectedCommunities:BaselineResearchinIturiProvince,DemocraticRepublicofCongo’.Tearfund,UK.58WorldVision.2014.ChannelsofHopeTheoryofChange.https://jliflc.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Add2-Doc1-ToC-FINAL.pdf.Accessed24July2017.

Theseorganisationsengagewithfaithleadersnotonlytoutilisetheirinfluenceforthegood,butalsotounderstandandcounterexistingnegativegenderpractices.59ThecasestudiesshowthatmanyfaithleadersstruggletodifferentiatebetweenculturalandreligiousimperativesandthusactivelysupportHTPs; in some communities, faith leaders are also traditional leaders, reinforcing a conflation ofcultureandreligion;andsomefaith leadersstaysilent,refusingtoeithersupportoropposeHTPs.Nevertheless,allfiveoftheorganisationsseethepotentialoffaithleadersinbeingpositiveagentsforchange.See,forexample,howIRWprioritisesthisasastrategyintheirFGM/Cpolicy:

IslamicReliefwillmobiliselocalscholars,religiousbodiesandotherinfluentialagents–maleand female – to publicly de-link FGM/C from Islam.Where appropriate, this may involvetraining programmes for imams and community leaders. Islamic Reliefwill alsoworkwithreligiousbodies,academicinstitutionsandgovernmentstoconductresearchthatwillprovidegreater insight into the practice, as well as help develop policy positions and fatwas thatsupportitsabandonment.60

All of the organisations report working with faith leaders – WVI has, for example, designed amethodology forengagingwith faith leadersondifficult social issues (inwhichHTPssuchasCEM,FGM/C, son preference and honour-related violence is addressed, depending on the communitycontext).However,suchengagementisnotwithoutitschallenges.Religiousandsectariandifferences,aswellasbroaderpowerrelations,meanthatfaithleaderengagementcaneasilyleadtodisputes.61For example, ABAAD decided to facilitate roundtable discussions on SGBV between civil societyorganisations and faith leaders, as the polarisation between the groupswas seen as unhelpful inadvancing gender equality. Faith leader engagement needs to be donewith care andwith soundknowledge about the power relations within faith and local contexts, so as to avoid furtherpolarisation.Thenextsectiondiscusses inmoredetailhowtheseorganisationsapproachengagingfaithleadersonchallengingHTPs,includingengagementwiththeologicalandscripturalsources.

59Haddad,B.2002.‘GenderViolenceandHIV/AIDS:ADeadlySilenceintheChurch’.JournalforTheologyforSouthernAfrica114:96–106;Solarsh,B.&Frankel,J.2004.‘DomesticViolenceintheSouthAfricanJewishCommunity:AModelforServiceDelivery’.JournalofReligionandAbuse6(3/4):113–128;Tomkins,A.,Duff,J.,Fitzgibbon,A.,Karam,A.,Mills,E.J.,Munnings,K.,&Smith,S.2015.‘ControversiesinFaithandHealthCare’.TheLancet386(10005):1776–1785;Thomson,J.2014.‘LocalFaithActorsandProtectioninComplexandInsecureEnvironments’.ForcedMigrationReview48:5–6.60LethomeI.&FitzGibbon,A.2016.‘OneCutTooMany–PolicyBriefofFemaleGenitalMutilation’.Internalandexternalpolicybrief,IslamicReliefWorldwide.file:///C:/Users/eleroux/Downloads/pol2.pdf.Accessed31July2017.61Østebø,M.T.&Østebø,T.2014.‘AreReligiousLeadersaMagicBulletforSocial/SocietalChange?:ACriticalLookatAnti-FGMInterventionsinEthiopia’.AfricaToday60(3):82–101.

Recommendations

• ReligionisacontributingfactortothecontinuedexistenceofHTPs,thereforecomprehensivelyaddressingHTPswillrequireengagementwithreligion.

• Workwithandthroughfaithleaders,soastoengagewiththereligiousdriversofHTPs.• Toengagefaithleaderssuccessfully,contextualknowledgeisofkeyimportance,as

faithleadersareahugelydiversecategorycharacterisedbydifferencesinfaithandpower.

6.3ApproachesThefivecasestudies,literaturereviewandsurveyprovidedanoverviewofsuccessfulapproachestoengagingwithfaithleadersonHTPs.TwoapproachesstoodoutascriticallyimportantandeffectiveinworkingwithfaithleadersonHTPs–apublichealthapproachandatheologicalapproach.Allfivecasestudyorganisationsreportedtheimportanceofsharingpublichealthinformationinsuchawaythatfaithleaderscanaccessandunderstandit.Theliteratureoninterventionsalsosuggeststhatpublichealthinformationispartofsuccessfulfaithleaderengagement.62Tounderstandhowandwhythesharingofpublichealthknowledgecanbeimportantinchangingfaithleaders’understandingofandattitudetowardsHTPs,itisimportanttorealisethat,whilesomefaithleadersareeducated,manyarenot.Inaddition,eventhosewhoaretheologicallytrainedoftenlackbasicknowledgeaboutsexualandreproductivehealthandrights.TheirunderstandingofhowcertainHTPsphysicallyaffectthebody(forexample,whatisdoneduringFGM/Candhowitimpactsthefemalebody)isextremelylimitedorevenentirelyabsent.Theseorganisationshavefoundthatprovidinginsightintothehealthconsequences of particular practices can even sometimes be enough for a faith leader to startopposingthepractice.AnIRWstaffmemberexplainedtheirexperienceofsharingwithfaithleadersthepublichealthinformationrelevanttoFGM/C:‘SoparticularlyincountrieslikeEgypt,youknow,it’slikeanobrainer, “Oh, it’sharmful, it shouldn’tbedone then”.Because [in] Islam, fundamentally,protectionofhealthandlifeisprimary.’63Inthecontextofinternationaldevelopment,HTPsareemphasisedasaviolationofhumanrights,andthe organisations in this study have adopted a human rights-based approach to development.However,intheirengagementwithfaithleadersonHTPs,theyfindapublichealthapproachtobeagoodentrypoint.AsaWVIstaffmemberexplained:‘Myexperienceisthatcomingtoreligiousleaderswitharights-basedapproachfirst,theywillrejectyou.[Theyfeelthata]rights-basedapproachwillforce them to become secular.’64 All five organisations use a public health approach to createawarenessandtobuildrapport,aspublichealthinformationoftenservesasawayofstartingsensitiveand difficult conversations on specific practices. For ABAAD, the use of a public health approach,placinganemphasisonmedicalfacts,preventsadiscussionfrombecominganargumentaboutvalues:‘Thereisagreaterattentionwhenitcomestomedicine.It’susuallytakentoheartwhenyou’retalkingmedicine.Andsoittendstobeabitmorepositiveorabiteasiertodiscussitfromthisapproach.’65Tearfund, WVI and IRW have also (in certain settings) made the public health information lessacademicbyhavingasurvivorcomeandspeakwiththegroup,discussinghowithasaffectedhim/her.However,suchmeetingscanonlyoccur ifasurvivor iswillingandcomfortable todoso,andifthesafetyandconfidentialityofthemeetingspacecanbeensured.In the case of the four FBOs in this study, a public health approach is always combined with ascriptural/theologicalapproachtoaddressingharmfulpractices.Mostoftensacredscripturesarethebasis of an intervention, because it is a way of engaging faith leaders in terms that they arecomfortablewith,thattheytrust,andonwhichtheyseethemselvesasexpert.Sacredscripturesareusedtorethinkandre-envisioncertainpracticesintermsoftheequalityofGod’screation.Inthisway,sacred scripture can be a powerful weapon in challenging and transforming unequal and unjuststructuresandpractices.Inthesurvey,anumberofrespondentsalsoemphasisedtheimportanceofthisapproach.Forexample:

62Kirmani,N.,andPhillips,I.2011.‘EngagingwithIslamtoPromoteWomen'sRights:ExploringOpportunitiesandChallengingAssumptions’.ProgressinDevelopmentStudies11(2):87–99.63IRW,Mabad,22June2017.64WVI,Judy,10July2017.65ABAAD,Farah,20June2017.

Starting with their faith perspective in mind, rather than a rights based approach [is aneffectiveapproach]. I'vefoundthatbacking intotherightsfromafaithperspective ismoretransformational,lessconfrontational,andmoresustainable.ThewayIdescribeitisthatweask: What does God say about you/women/men/violence/protection/value of children?[versus]whatdoestheUNsayintheseareas?Fromthefaithstartingpoint,youmeetfaithleaderswherethey'reatandspeaktheirlanguage.66

AkeyfactorholdingfaithleadersbackfrombeingpositivecatalyststhatcounterandtransformHTPsandnegativegendernormsisthefactthatmanyhavehadverylimitedtheologicaleducation,andaregenerallyoflowliteracy.Thismeansthattheypreachandinterpretsacredscripturebasedonlittleknowledgeandnarrowexperience.Waysinwhichtheseorganisationshaveovercomethischallengeincludedevelopingtoolkits,liturgicalbookletsandcontextualbiblestudiesthatguidefaithleadersinreinterpretingsacredscripture,particularlyinrelationtogender.However,suchengagementisnotwithout its challenges. Developing a theological grounding for interventions demands theologicalexpertiseandintensiveeffort,andischallengedbythedifferentcontextsinwhichtheseorganisationsimplementtheirprogramming.ThefourFBOsincludedascasestudiesreportcombiningatheologicalapproachwithpublichealthinformationasbestpractice.Thiscombinationallowsfaithleaderstoaddresssensitiveandcomplexissuesthroughadiscoursethattheyarefamiliarwithanditbuildsargumentsonwhattheyviewastheultimateauthoritativesource,whilealsochallengingthemtomaketheirfaithandministryasfaithleaders relevant to their broader community. All four organisations have developed particularresourcesandmethodologiesthatprovideandguidescripturalreflectiononharmfulpracticesandGBVmorebroadly.Indevelopingthesematerials,theyhavenotonlyreliedonin-houseexpertise,buthave also engaged clergy and scriptural scholars to develop such materials. The effort theseorganisationshaveputintodevelopingresources,andintocontinuouslyrevisingandimprovingthem,isindicativeofhowcentrallyimportanttheyhavefoundtheologicalengagementtobe.67ABAAD, in its work with faith leaders, chooses not to engage theologically, stating that it is notequippedtodoso.Whileitsengagementwithfaithleadersmaysparktheologicalreflection,thisisnotsomethingABAADcultivatesorfacilitates.Whileitishardtogeneralisefromonecasestudy,itdoes suggest that engaging theologically is not something an NGO can do without a faith-basedpartner,asnon-faithorganisationslacktheknowledgeandauthoritywithinaparticularfaithcontext.Therefore,whilethisstudysuggestthatallorganisationscanengagewithfaithleadersintheirworkon HTPs, it also suggests that FBOs are uniquely able to engage theologically. This highlights theimportanceofhavingfaith-basedorganisationsworkingonHTPs,astheyhavetheskillsandauthoritytofacilitatefaith-basedinvestigationofthesepractices.Yetsuchengagementisnot‘onesizefitsall’.AnFBOhastohavetheauthorityandtrusttobeabletoengagetheologicallywithaparticularfaithcommunity–andtheycannotdothisforallfaithsandforallfaithgroups.WhenengagingtheologicallyonsuchsensitiveissuessuchasHTPs,itisofgreatbenefitiftheorganisationthatdoessoisseenasauthenticandauthoritativewithintheparticularfaith.Ifitisanon-faithorganisationfacilitatingsuchtheologicalengagement,oranFBOnotseenbycommunitymembersastrulyreligious(accordingtotheirunderstandingofreligion),itcouldresultindistrustofthealternativetheologicalinterpretationsbeingoffered.AnIRWparticipant’sexplanationillustrates 66Female,workinginAfrica(excludingNorthAfrica)andMiddleEast,workingforaFBO;notethatthesurveywascompletedanonymouslyandthatthiswastheextentoftheinformationgatheredabouteachrespondent.67Forexample:WorldVision.2017.‘ChannelsofHopeforChildProtection.Christian&MuslimReferenceIndex’.WorldVisioninternaldocument;OftheSameFlesh:ExploringaTheologyofGender,2014.Externalpolicydocument,ChristianAid.https://www.christianaid.org.uk/images/of-the-same-flesh-gender-theology-report.pdf.Accessed13July2017;West,G.&Zondi-Mabezele,P.2004.‘TheBibleStorythatBecameaCampaign.TheTamarCampaigninSouthAfrica(andbeyond)’.MinisterialFormation.

theimportanceofanorganisationbeingReligious,credibleandauthoritative.InIndonesia,IRWisabletoopposeFGM/Candengageininterventionworkwithfaithleadersandfaithcommunitiesonthisissue,evenwhilethemainMuslimclericalbodiessupportFGM/C:

[B]asedonmyexperienceandunderstanding,[the]IslamicReliefbrandornameinIndonesiaisstillbeingwell-acceptedbyanyMuslimorganisation…andbyanyreligiousleaders.[IRW]...isstillbeingrespected,becauseitclearlystatesIslamic[inthenameoftheorganisation].68

ThepartnershipbetweenWVIand IRWaround theCoHmethodology illustrateshowa singleFBOcannot necessarily facilitate theological engagement with people of all faiths. In WVI and IRW’spartnership,IRWistakingresponsibilityfordevelopingtheIslamicversionofCoH.Bothorganisationssaw this as necessary, as IRW (and notWVI) are the experts on the Islamic faith and its sacredscriptures.Thisobservationalsospeaksmoregenerallyoftheimportanceofadaptinginterventionstotheparticularcontextandsettinginwhichitisimplemented.TheologicalengagementthuschallengestheextenttowhichaparticularFBOcanworkwithpeopleofallfaiths.Adherencetohumanitarianprinciplesofgivingassistancetopeopleregardlessoftheirfaithidentities(whichguideshumanitarianandservicedeliverywork)remainsunchallenged–andissomethingthatallfourFBOsstrictlyuphold.Butthecasestudiesshowthattheologicalengagement,asaparticularapproachtoaddressingHTPswithfaithleaders,appearstobesomethingthatcallsforan FBO of a particular faith to work with people of that faith. Working interfaith or addressingcommunities of other faiths should therefore be done through interfaith partnerships. ThepartnershipbetweenIRWandWVI,toworkwithMuslimandChristianfaithleaders,canthusbeseenasabestpractice.InterviewswiththecasestudyorganisationsindicatethatFBOstoeafinelinewhenadvocatingforalternativetheologicalinterpretations:ontheonehand,theystrivetochangecommunitybeliefsandperceptions, but on the other, they need to do so in a way that they are not rejected as beingreligiouslyfalse.Thisemphasisesthe importanceof long-termengagement incommunities,asthisprocessisevenmoredifficult(evenimpossible)ifithastobedoneinahurry.Theneedforlong-termengagement is also apparent in that all four FBOs have spent considerable time and resources indevelopingtheologicalandscripturalmaterialswithwhichtofacilitateengagementonHTPswithfaithleaders.Ineachnewsettingwhereitisused,thesematerialsalsoneedtobeadaptedinordertobecontextuallyrelevantandappropriate.Theologicalengagementwithfaithleadersarethereforenotstand-aloneevents,butembeddedinlong-termengagement.Asidefromthesetwokeyapproaches,intermsofthecontentofinterventions,thecasestudiesandsurvey identifiedanumberof strategies that facilitateeffectiveengagementwith faith leadersonHTPs.AddressingHTPsholisticallyisseenasaconstructiveapproach,notonlybecausethedriversofHTPsaremultipleandinterrelated,butbecausesuchengagementgenerateslessresistance.HTPsareembeddedinbroaderstructuresofinjusticeandviolence,shapedbyeconomicandpoliticalfactorsaswellasclass,race,ethnicityandgender.ThecasestudiesdemonstratethatapproachestochallengingHTPsshouldacknowledgethisandthereforenotfocusexclusivelyonfaithorfaithleaders.IRW,forexample,addressesHTPsholisticallyasapoverty-relatedproblem,whileCAaddressesthemaspartofgenderinjustice.Furthermore, the FBO case studies highlight how important it is to address faith leaders in aconstructive and positive way, acknowledging the (potential) roles they can play in challengingviolence and injustice in their communities, rather than focusing on how theymight promote orlegitimiseHTPs.ThisisdonebyemphasisinghowchallengingHTPsandthereligiousdriversofHTPs 68IRW,Aazim,22June2017.

offer opportunities for faith leaders to expand and deepen their ministries. The importance ofempowering faith leaders should also be seen against the background of the limitations in(theological)educationthatwasnotedabove.Theprogrammesofferedbyfaith-baseddevelopmentorganisationsareoftenappreciatedaseducationalopportunities.Furthermore, the same constructive approach should be part of how engagement on HTPs ispresented.Thisallowsfaith leaderstoseethemselvesaschampionsforpeople’srightsandsafety,ratherthanasopposingtheircultureorfaith.Whileitwillremainchallengingforfaithleaderstotakeonthisroleintheircommunities,giventhesensitivitiesoutlinedabove,ithelpsiftheycanacquireapositiveidentitywhilechallengingHTPs.Thismeansthattheymustalsobetaughtthepossibilitiesofactingaschampions,aswellasthenecessaryskills,suchasadvocacyandcommunityengagement.An example of such positive engagement is mobilising faith leaders around alternative initiationrituals.LiteratureonFGM/Csuggeststhatfaithleaderengagementinalternativeinitiationritualsissuccessful,because itoffersamiddlewaybetweencondemningFGM/Candrespecting local ritualpractices.69 Faith leader engagement gives the alternative initiation a certain authority and,whencombinedwiththeengagementofotherleadership,forgesabroadsupportbaseforeradicatingtheHTP inacommunity. Inaddition, thepracticeofpublicandcommunalpledges inwhich local faithleadersparticipatehasalsobeenreportedaseffectiveinchallengingFGM/CandCEM.70Basedonwhatwaslearntfromthecasestudies,itisstrategicallyadvisabletoengagewithalllevelsofthefaithhierarchy.71Thisisparticularlyimportantforfaithgroupswithextensivedenominationalleadershipstructures,suchasAnglicanandCatholicgroups.Theworkof local faith leaderscanbehaltedorevencounteredwhenitisnotsupportedbythefaithleadershipatdistrict,regional,nationaland/orinternationallevels,whiletheencouragementandsupportofthosehigherupwithinthefaithhierarchy can serve tomotivate local faith leader activity. Thus it is important to havemultilevelengagementwiththefaithhierarchy,asaninterviewwithaCAparticipantillustrates:‘Therecanbequitelocalisedinterpretationsoffaith…youcan’tjustconvertseniorfaithleaders[tothecauseofaddressing GBV] and then thatwill automatically trickle down.’72 Sometimes senior faith leaders’promotionofalternativepracticescanevenleadtonon-uptakebyfaithleadersatcommunity-level.73Acknowledgingtheimportanceofengagingonmultiplelevels,thefourFBOsinthisstudyallaimtoengagemorewithseminariesandschoolsthatoffertheologicaltraining.

69See,forexample,theapproachdevelopedbyTostaninSenegal(andwidelyreplicatedbyotherorganisations),whichcombinescommunalpledgestostopFGM/CorCEMwithalternativeinitiationritualsthatdonotinvolveanypracticesthatareharmfultowomenandgirls.Faithleadersareengagedtogiveauthorityandlegitimacytosuchalternativerituals.Cf.Klugman,J.,Hanmer,L.,Twigg,S.,Hasan,T.,McCleary-Sills,J.,&Santamaria,J.2014.VoiceandAgency:EmpoweringWomenandGirlsforSharedProsperity.WorldBankPublications;McCleary-Sills,J.,Hanmer,L.,Parsons,J.,&Klugman,J.2015.‘ChildMarriage:ACriticalBarriertoGirls’SchoolingandGenderEqualityinEducation’.TheReviewofFaith&InternationalAffairs13(3):69–80;Abusharaf,R.M.2006.FemaleCircumcision:MulticulturalPerspectives.PennsylvaniaStudiesinHumanRights,Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress;Shell-Duncan,B.&Hernlund,Y.2006.‘Arethere“StagesofChange”inthePracticeofFemaleGenitalCutting?:QualitativeResearchFindingsfromSenegalandtheGambia’.AfricanJournalofReproductiveHealth10(2):57–71.70Gruenbaum,2015;Walker,J.-A.2015.‘EngagingIslamicOpinionLeadersonChildMarriage:PreliminaryResultsfromPilotProjectsinNigeria’.TheReviewofFaith&InternationalAffairs13(3):48–58;Haile,H.B.,Bock,B.,&Folmer,H.2012.‘MicrofinanceandFemaleEmpowerment:DoInstitutionsMatter?’Women’sStudiesInternationalForum35(4):256–265;Klugmanetal,2014.71LeRoux,E.,Kramm,N.,Scott,N.,Sandilands,M.,Loots,L.,Olivier,J.,Arango,D.J.,&O’Sullivan,V.2016.‘GettingDirty:WorkingwithFaithLeaderstoPreventandRespondtoGenderBasedViolence.TheReviewofFaith&InternationalAffairs14(3):22–35;Kamanga,G.2014.‘ChannelsofHopeforGender:UgandaCaseStudy’.CA:WorldVision.Accessed13October2017.http://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/CoH4G_Uganda%20Case%20Study.pdf.72CA,Cheryl,29June2017.73VanRaemdonck,2016

Theimportanceofencouragingpositivepeergrouppressureamongstfaithleadersisalsowhyfaithleadernetworksaroundaparticular,practicalconcernareseenasastrategicapproach.Forexample,CAhasidentifiedthebuildingofnationalandregionalfaithleadernetworksongenderasaneffectiveandsafewayofengagingfaithleadersataseniorlevel.Dialogueforumssuchasthe(inter)FaithActorsDialogueForuminNigeria,the(inter)FaithNetworkinBrazil,andtheGenderFaithNetworkinZimbabwe,wereallseenashavingmobilisingandscalingimpactforchange.74Theseforumsenableengagedfaithleaderstobuildsharedmomentumandcredibility,develop

rootedadvocacystrategies,influenceconservativepeers,andengagewithpolicyatcommunity,stateand regional levels. ABAAD reported similar experiences with building a network of faith leadersaroundtheissueofdomesticandgender-basedviolence.Furthermore,ABAADfoundthatcreatingnetworksthatincludebothfaithleadersandcivilsocietyorganisationshelpedinbuildingabroadandprogressivecoalitionforgenderjusticeandtransformationinLebanon–wherebefore,civilsocietyorganisationsmistrustedfaithleaders.6.4ThepracticalitiesofinterventionItisnoteworthythatalltheorganisations’mainmethodofinterveningonHTPswithfaithleadersisthroughsmall(oftensegregatedbasedonageandgender)discussiongroupsthatmeetrepeatedly.Withsomeorganisations,thesegroupsaremoreformalandstructured,includingasetcurriculumandtraining(forexampleWVI’sCoH),whileothersarelessformal,requiringonlyafacilitatorskilledatelicitingconversation(forexampleIRW’sEthiopianpilotproject,CombatingGBVofwomenandgirlsinDekasuftuWoredaSomariRegionalStateofEthiopia).Thesediscussiongroupsareexperiencedassafespacesfor/byparticipants–beitfaithleadersorgeneralcommunitymembers–andconducivetobroachingsensitivesubjectmattersuchasHTPs.Basedontheorganisations’experience inmakingsuchdiscussiongroupssafespaces,anumberoffactorsarecrucialtosettingthemup:

• Thegroupsshouldbehostedinaspacewhereparticipantswillfeelsafe–bothphysically,butalsosafefromunexpectedinterruptions.

• Groups must be created with sensitivity to the power dynamics between participants,especially those of gender and age. Gender-segregated and age-segregated groups, withsame-sexfacilitators,haveprovenmosteffective.AtthesametimebothCAandTearfundrecommend that at a later stage in the process (e.g. after eight sessions as a gender-

74See‘GenderFaithNetwork,Zimbabwe’,2015,internalpowerpointpresentation,ChristianAid.

Recommendations

• Sharebasichealthinformationwithfaithleaders,asinsightintothehealthconsequencesofHTPscanbeagreatmotivatortochallengethesepractices.

• Apublichealthapproachshouldbecombinedwiththeologicalengagement,asitenablesfaithleaderstoaddresssensitiveandcomplexissuesusingafamiliarandauthoritativediscourse.

• EngagefaithleadersinawaythatequipsandempowersthemtochallengeHTPs.• Engagewiththefaithleaderhierarchybothbottom-upandtop-down,andpreferably

innetworksaroundasharedconcern(e.g.healthandfamilyrelations).

segregatedgroup),peopleofdifferentgendersandagesarebroughttogetherforfacilitatedconversationand ‘active listening’. Thiswas seenas crucial to the transformationof faithleadersinparticular.

• Groupparticipantsshouldparticipateonavolunteerbasisonly.Asthesegroupstackleverysensitive and loaded subject matter, participants’ willingness to engage is important toensuringtheiractiveparticipationinthegroup.

• Culturallysensitivelanguageshouldbeusedingroups,otherwiseitcandestroytrustandthesafespace.Theterminologybeingused(especiallythetermsforspecificpracticesandbodyparts)shouldbelocallyunderstood.

• Good facilitation is the key to theeffectivenessof discussion groups.A good facilitator issensitive, patient, flexible, responsive, and understands the local context, culture andreligion. He/she should be non-judgemental and non-directional, particularly whenfacilitating discussion onHTPs, to allow participants to openly discuss their thoughts andbeliefs.

• Thecreationandbuildingoftrustiscrucialtothesuccessofthesegroups.Tobuildtrusttakestime–andthisiswhyHTPdiscussiongroupscannotberushed.Closedgroupsalsohelpgrouptrusttoform,thereforeit isadvisedthatnewcomersdonot jointhegroupsafterthefirstsession.Howheatedconversationsarehandled isalso influential inbuildingordestroyingtrust.IRWhasfounditeffectivetostopdiscussionsthatbecometooheatedandthreatenthesafespace,andhavingthefacilitatordoindividualfollow-upconversations.

Basedonthecasestudies’reflectiononthecontentofsuchdiscussions,whensuchgroupsexploreHTPs from the perspective of religion it is very important that they have access to contextualtheologicalengagementandmaterials.Good,contextualtheologicalmaterialsfromcrediblesourcesthat inform these small group discussions are critically important for transforming attitudes.Theologicaltoolkitsofferaccessiblemethodologicaltoolsforsmallgroups,andcontextualbiblestudyapproaches75canallowmultiplevoicestoemergeandbeheard.Thesematerialshelptoshapeasafetheologicalspacethatcanbegintoassistfaithleadersandcommunitiestobreakthesilencearoundtheseissues.Particularlywhenworkingwithmalefaithleaders,CAhasfounditeffectivetoengagemen’sgroupsthatalreadyactivelychallengegenderinequality.Arguably,duetotheirpositionofpowerwithinapatriarchalinstitutionandculture,malefaithleaderscanbedismissiveifinterventioneffortsareledbywomen’sgroups.Somearemorereceptiveto interventionfrommen.Thisapproachdoescarrysomerisks,arguablymost importantlythat,whileall-maleconversationsongender inequalitymaywork to engage men in addressing gender inequality, such conversations may fail to challengeunderlyingpatriarchalnorms.76CAtriestoovercomethischallengebyensuringmen’sgroupsliaisewithwomen’sgroupstoensuresharedmessaging.Arguablyatleastpartlyduetothefocusofthisresearchpiece,thefiveorganisations’discussionsofengaging on HTPs and creating safe spaces centred on engaging with faith leaders and faithcommunitymembersingeneral.ABAAD,however,emphasisedthatcreatingsafespacesshouldbeaprioritywhenengagingpeopleinchallengingHTPs.Inthesesafespaces,freediscussionofHTPsshouldbepossible,forallpeople,andnotonlyforsurvivors,oronlyforwomen,oronlyforthosebelongingtoafaithcommunity.Apartfromtheirsurvivorshelters(orsafehouses),theyhavegender-segregatedcentres wheremen andwomen can go during the day for a range of activities (including raisingawarenessofGBVandprovidingcounselling).Theseactivitiesareintentionallydesignedfordifferentagegroups,thuscreatingsafespacesforall.

75West&Zondi-Mabezele,2004.76Flood,M.2015.‘WorkwithMentoEndViolenceagainstWomen:ACriticalStocktake’.Culture,Health&Sexuality17(supp2):159–176.

6.5PartneringfaithReflectingespeciallyonthecasestudies,aswellasscholarlyliterature,thereemergessomeguidelinesfor how to partner with faith, faith communities and faith leaders in responding to HTPs; forinterventionprogrammesinidentifyingfaith-basedpartnerswithwhichtopartner;andalsoforFBOsinidentifyingnon-faithpartners(bothindividualsandorganisations).Firstly,notoneof the fiveorganisationssee faith leaders, faithcommunitiesorFBOsas theironlypartnerinaddressingHTPs.Whileeachorganisationhasdevelopedparticularapproachesintermsofhow they engage with faith leaders, they are embedded within broader, community-basedapproaches inwhichmultiplepartnershipswithcommunityactorsandleadersareforged.Noneofthese organisations work directly with only faith leaders on only HTPs; they partner with otherorganisationsandinstitutions,theyworkwithvariouscommunityleaders,andtheyworkonanumberofsocialissues.Thecasestudiessuggestthatanexclusivefocusonfaith,faithcommunitiesandfaithleaderscanbeproblematic, as it can create division within communities. It is important, prior to designing andimplementing intervention programming with faith leaders, to gain insight into what theconsequenceswillbeforthepowerdynamicswithinthelocalcontexts,andtoadjustprogrammingaccordingly.77Forexample,WVIhasnowstartedtoalsoincludeculturalandtraditionalleadersintheirprogrammesthatpreviouslyfocusedonlyonfaithleaders,astheirevaluationdatahasshownthatanexclusivefocusonfaithleadershampersinclusivity.Asanotherexample,allfourFBOshaverealisedthat engaging with faith leaders needs to be done critically, lest they reproduce the patriarchalstructuresthatprivilegemalefaithleaders.Therefore,allfourFBOsarequiteintentionalinincludingwomenandyouth(alsowomenandyouthfaithleaders)ininterventionprogramming.

77Østebø&Østebø,2014.

Recommendations

• SmallgroupsareconducivetodiscussingHTPs.Toensurethatsuchgroupsaresafespaceswheretransformativediscussioncanbeopenandconfidential,groupsshould:

o behostedinasafespaceo begender-segregatedandage-segregated,butalsoallowforfacilitated

conversationacrossthesegroupso bevoluntary,withnooneforcedtoparticipateo usefaith-sensitiveandappropriatelanguageandterminologyo befacilitatedbywell-trained,theologicallytrainedandskilledfacilitatorso prioritisethedevelopmentoftrustwithinthegroup,particularlythrough

takingtimeandnotrushingtheprocess.• Groupdiscussionswithfaithleadersshouldengagetheologicallyandusecontextual

theologicalmaterials.• Whenproperlyguidedandconnectedtowomen’sgroups,men’sgroupscanbe

effectiveinworkingwithmalefaithleaders.• Interventionsshouldprioritisethecreationofsafespaces,forthoseaffectedbyHTPs,

butalsofordiscussionofHTPs.

Both thecasestudy interviewsandtheonlinesurveyaskedparticipants/respondents to reflectoneffective interlocutors. ‘Interlocutors’weredefined as peoplewhoare able to introduce and leadconversations on HTPs in communities. Considering the focus of this study, which was clearlycommunicatedtoallparticipantsandrespondentspriortotheirparticipation,aswellasthenatureoftheworkofthemajorityoftheparticipants/respondents,itwasnotsurprisingthatfaithleadersweretheinterlocutorsmostoftenidentifiedanddiscussed.Faithleaders’effectivenessasinterlocutorsonHTPswasarguedbyreferringtotheireffectivenessinresponding to other social problems, such as humanitarian crises, HIV and Ebola. A Tearfundparticipant explained that, in responding to Ebola in Sierra Leone, faith leaders were particularlyimportant:

LookwhathappenedwithEbolahere.WithEbolawehadagamechangewhenfaithleaderscameonboard,itreallychangedthings,itstartedreducing.SothatiswhyIthinkwehavetohavefaithleadersonboardwithFGM/C.Itwillbekey.78

It is apparent, though, that faith leaders are more effective interlocutors in certain geographicalregionsandcommunities,wherefaith isgeneralisedandpartofcommunity life.Notonlyarefaithleadersnotasinfluentialinallcommunities;notallfaithleadersareinfluential.Thefiveorganisationsstudied have developed certain strategies for identifying faith leaders who can be effectiveinterlocutorsinrespondingtosocialissuessuchasHTPs.Firstly,whenstartingtoworkinacommunity,onepossibility isto ‘map’all thedifferentfaith leaders, identifyingthosewhocouldpotentiallybemorereceptivetomessagingaroundHTPs.Inworkingwithsuchfaithleadersfirst,developingthemaschampions,theycangoontobeinfluentialinworkingwithotherfaithleadersinthecommunity.ØstebøandØstebø(2014),however,suggestthatsuchananalysisshouldnotonlyincludeafocusonfaithleaders’theologicalprofiles,butalsoontheirpower,influenceandrelationsinthecommunityandinrelationtooneanother.79TheiranalysisofacasewhereconflictemergedbetweenfaithleadersengagedinchallengingFGM/Candthosewhowerenot, illustratesthatengagingwithcertainfaithleaderswhilenotworkingwithothersmaycausebacklash.Secondly, ‘faith leader’ isabroadcategory,andthisshouldbereflected inengagement.Therearedifferentreligions,aswellasthedifferenttraditions(orschools/denominations)withinareligion–allofwhichshouldbetakenintoaccount.Furthermore,non-clergyfaithleaders,womenfaithleaders,andyouthfaithleadersshouldalsobeincluded.Itisimportanttoensurethatengagementwithfaithleadersisadequatelydiverseintermsofthetypeoffaithleader.Thirdly,faithleadersfromalllevelsofthefaithhierarchyshouldbeincluded.Asthiswasdiscussedearlierinmoredetail,sufficeittosaythatonlyincludinggrassroots-levelfaithleaders,oronlysenior,national-levelleadership,canseriouslyhamperengagementandactivityonHTPs.WVI,forexample,reportedvarioussettingswheresuchmultilevelengagementwiththefaithhierarchyhasproventobe crucially important. For example, in the context of India and Lebanon, given theplural religio-politicalsetting,aswellaswithinCatholiccontextsbecauseofthehierarchicalnatureoftheCatholicChurch,theorganisationemphasisesthatinterventionsshouldworkwithgrassrootsfaithleadersandwithleadersatthetopofthefaithgrouphierarchy.Surveyrespondentsidentifiedtwogroupsofinterlocutorsthattheyfeltarebestpositionedtoleadcommunity conversations on HTPs. The existing leadership within communities emerged as animportantavenueofengagement,asfaithleaders(32%)andtraditionalleaders(20%)wereselectedmostoften. Thementioningof traditionalor cultural leaders is significant regarding the focuson

78Tearfund,Engela,27June2017.79Østebø&Østebø,2014.

HTPs,giventhattherelationshipbetweenreligionandculturehasbeenidentifiedasoneofthefactorscontributingtoHTPperpetration.Ithasbeenarguedthattraditionalleaders,suchasvillagechiefsandelders, shouldbe targetedandengagedmoreexplicitly in interventions;WVI, forexample, isnowspecificallyincludingtraditionalleaders,identifyingtheirpositionsandattitudesinbaselineresearchandengagingwiththemmoreexplicitlyinprogrammeplanning.TakingintoaccountthatHTPsaregenerallymostharmfultowomenandgirls,womenandyouthcanbeexcellent interlocutors.AsFBOshave found in their interventionactivities,survivorsandthoseaffectedbyHTPsarealsoeffective interlocutors.Allof theorganisationsstronglyadvised, though,thatthis isonlydoneas longastheyarefullywillingtoactassuchandcandosowithinsafeandconfidentialspaces.Thecontributionoflocalhealthexpertsiscruciallyimportantgiventhecentralityof public health in theapproachesof theorganisations. Finally,peoplewhovolunteer to supportinterventionschallengingHTPsareseenasverypassionateandthereforeoftenhighlyeffective.The ideal interlocutorwouldbesomeonewhoembodiesmultiple identities; forexample,afemalehealth expertwho is also a survivor and volunteers to participate in activities on HTPs.With theauthority,experience,knowledgeanddrivefromthesemultipleidentities,shebecomesaneffectiveand influential interlocutor. A study on women’s Islamic activism in Burkina Faso illustrates howeffective interlocutorswithmultiple identitiescanbe.80Thestudyarguesthat female faith leadershavedevelopedtheirmessagesonFGM/CandIslambasedonlong-termengagementwithwomeninlocalcommunities.AssuchtheygroundtheirmessaginginIslamicdiscourse,unlockinglocalwomen’sperspectivesincontextswheretheyareoftensilenced,whileatthesametimestrengtheningwomen’svoicesandwomen’sfaithauthority.

7.ConclusionNomore ‘harmful traditional practices’ is at once an aim as well as a critical call to rethink theterminology used to address the violence and injustice affecting women and girls. Informed byliterature review, case study research and a survey, this study has illustrated how especially thedimensionsofgenderandpatriarchyaremadeinvisibleintheterm‘HTP’.Thisisdeeplyproblematic,aswellashamperingtheaimofchallengingVAWG. 80Gomez-Perez,Muriel.2016.‘Women’sIslamicActivisminBurkinaFaso:TowardRenegotiatedSocialNorms?’CanadianJournalofAfricanStudies/Revuecanadiennedesetudesafricaines50(1):45–63.

Recommendations

• Faithleaderengagementismosteffectivewhenpartofbroadercommunity-basedapproaches;anexclusivefocusonfaithleadersisnotrecommended.

• Systematicandcontextualanalysisofthe(wantedandunwanted)consequencesofworkingwithfaithleadersshouldbedone–andinterventionprogrammingadjustedaccordingly.

• Effectiveengagementoffaithleadersrequiresknowledgeontherolesandrelationsoffaithleadersinthefaithandbroadercommunity.

• Includenon-clergyleadersasinterlocutors,inparticularwomenandyouthwhoaremostaffectedbyHTPs.

• Includeculturalandtraditionalleaders,localexperts,passionatevolunteersandsurvivors.

Reflectingon thework thathasbeendonearound theworldwithvarious faith communities, it isnecessarytopayheedtowhatgrassrootspraxisissaying.Theterm‘harmfultraditionalpractices’ishampering community-based response to these practices. It is therefore recommended thatpolicymakersandorganisationsratherusetheterm‘violenceagainstwomenandgirls’or ‘gender-based violence’. Furthermore, a focus on underlying ideologies, such as ‘patriarchy’ or ‘harmfulmasculinities’,enablesmoreproductiveengagementonvariousharmfulpractices intheformthatthey take within particular contexts – including in Western societies. Donors, policymakers andorganisationsbasedintheWestarethepre-eminentleadersinensuringthedominantterminologybecomesmorereflexive,criticalandinclusive.Speakingtotheaimof‘nomoreharmfultraditionalpractices’,thisstudyhasdemonstratedthatfaithleaders are important actors in challenging and eradicating such practices. Religion is one of thedriversofvariouspracticesthatareharmfulmainlytowomenandgirls.Addressingthesepracticesthereforerequiresengagingwithreligioninbothcriticalandconstructiveways.Thosewholeadfaithinstitutions are often the key gatekeepers to faith communities, and engaging faith leaders isthereforeimportantinordertochallengethereligiousdriversofharmfulpractices. Thisstudyhasidentifiedseveralapproaches,strategies,andpracticalguidelinesforworkingwithfaith leadersonpracticesthatareharmfultowomenandgirls.Combiningpublichealthknowledgewithscriptural/theologicalreflectionisemphasisedasabestpractice.Thefindingssuggestthatfaithandfaithleadersarenotmerelyinstrumental,butcanplaytransformationalroleswithregardtoviolentandharmfulpractices.Faith leaders are not the magic bullet in challenging HTPs. Harmful practices emerge and areperformedinparticularlocalcontextsinwhichreligionisintertwinedwithotherelementsofculture,ethnicity, race, and class, as well as economy, politics and broader power relations. Faith leaderengagement should therefore alwaysbepart of broader community approaches andpartnershipsbetweenvariouscommunityactorsandinterlocutors.Suchcommunityapproachescanbefacilitatedbybothfaith-basedandnon-faithorganisations–engagementwithfaithleadersshouldnotbelimitedto FBOs. However, when such engagement is theological, requiring scriptural engagement andreligious interpretation, FBOs prove to be authentic and authoritative within the particular faithtradition.Inconclusion,thefollowingkeyrecommendationsfromthisstudyareoffered,aimedinparticularatpolicymakersandpractitioners:

• Donotusetheterm‘harmfultraditionalpractices’whenworkingincommunities.• Ifaspecificpracticeisbeingaddressedandneedstobeidentified,donotgeneralisebutrather

namethespecificpractice,usingtheterminologyconsideredcontextuallyappropriate.• Policy,programmingandprojectsshouldfocusonchallengingviolence(e.g.VAWGorGBV)

andgender inequality, rather thanHTPs.Thisallows for context-appropriateprogrammingandprojects thatacknowledgegender inequalityandviolenceasproblemscommon toallsocieties (and not just non-Western ones). It also does not hide the gendered nature ofviolence.

• Religion is a contributing factor to the continued existence of HTPs, thereforecomprehensivelyaddressingHTPswillrequireengagementwithreligion.

• ApublichealthapproachshouldformpartofengagingfaithleadersonHTPs.Manylackevenbasicsexualandreproductivehealthknowledge–whichishighlypertinenttoHTPssuchasFGM/C.

• EngagingwithfaithleadersonHTPsshouldincludeatheological,scripturalcomponent,asitenables faith leaders to address sensitive and complex issueswhile using a discourse andframeworktheyknowandrespect.

• Engagewith the diversity of faith leaders,while also recognising the leadership hierarchywithincertaintraditions.

• SmallgroupdiscussionsareparticularlyconducivetodiscussingHTPswithfaithleadersandshouldincludecontextualtheologicalmaterials.

• Faith leader engagement is most effective when part of broader community-basedapproaches;anexclusivefocusonfaithleadersisnotrecommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS OF THE INSTITUTIONS WHICH CONTRIBUTED TO THIS WORKABAADThe Africa Regional Sexual and Gender-Base Violence NetworkThe Centre for Religion, Conflict and GlobalisationChristian AidThe GBV Prevention NetworkIslamic Relief WorldwideThe Joint Learning InitiativeSVRITearfundThe World BankUK AidUniversity of GroningenUniversity of StellanboschWorld Vision International

DISCLAIMER This material has been funded by UK aid from the UK government; however, the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK government’s official policies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The UK Government for funding the study through UK aid.

Tearfund for leading the consortium and for participating in, and supporting, the research process.

The organisations which participated in the Case Studies: ABAAD; Christian Aid; Islamic Relief Worldwide; Tearfund and World Vision International. Additionally, the organisations which completed the selection questionnaire: ABAAD; AWEC; the Canadian Council of Muslim Women; Christian Aid; Islamic Relief Worldwide; Tearfund and WorldVision UK.

Selina Palm and Neil Kramm, from the Unit for Religion and Development Research at Stellenbosch University, as well as Wouter Levinga, from the Centre for Religion, Conflict and Globalisation at the University of Groningen – for their excellent work on this research project.

The Joint Learning Initiative for Local and Faith Communities (JLI), the Sexual Violence Research Initiative (SVRI), the Africa Regional Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Network, and the GBV Prevention Network - for allowing us to disseminate survey invitations to their network members.

Elizabeth Dartnall (SVRI), Diana Arango and Jocelyn Kelly (The World Bank) and Shereen El-Feki for their input, and Veena O’Sullivan, Maarten Fontein and Natalia Lester-Bush (Tearfund) for their support in co-ordinating this process.

All of the participants who volunteered to be interviewed and the anonymous survey respondents who completed the online survey.

Audience members and respondents to presentations at the SVRI Forum 2017 in Rio de Janeiro, the IPSA RC07 & RC19 Conference 2017 in Stellenbosch, and the EASR Conference 2017 in Leuven, for their input and feedback to preliminary findings from the study.

AFRICA REGIONAL SEXUAL AND

GENDER-BASE VIOLENCE NETWORK

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