Nixon Years 1968-1974

The Nixon Years

The Main Idea

Beyond the ongoing turmoil of the Vietnam War, the Nixon administration did enjoy some notable success.

Questions to Consider

• What were the key features of Nixon’s politics and domestic policies?

• How did Nixon carry out his foreign policies with regard to China and the Soviet Union?

• How did trouble in the Middle East affect the Nixon administration?

• What were some of the major social and cultural events at home in the Nixon years?

1968 Election

Nixon, Humphrey, G. Wallace

Nixon appealed to “Silent Majority” “Peace with honor”

Narrow Victory

Vietnam•Like Ike, goes to ‘NamLike Ike, goes to ‘Nam•VietnamizationVietnamization

•Secret Bombing of Cambodia & LaosSecret Bombing of Cambodia & Laos•War Powers ActWar Powers Act•Kent State & Jackson State UniversityKent State & Jackson State University

US-Vietnam War Ends: Paris Accords 1973 Ceasefire

Key Features of Nixon’s Politics and Domestic Policies

Nixon the Conservative

• Believed the federal government was too large

• Enacted “southern strategy” to appeal to former segregationists

• Firm stand against crime and drug use

Nixon the Liberal

• Increased funding for programs such as food stamps and increased Social Security payments

• Took special interest in environmental issues

• Created a new organization to prevent work-related injuries and deaths

• Advanced affirmative action

Problems:

• The overwhelming size and power of the Federal Government

• Welfare system was inefficient• Nixon’s Re-election• Vietnam and Domestic Disorder• Liberalism of Supreme Court

Justices• Stagflation and recession• Relations with China and Soviets

New Federalism

• Thought federal government was too large

• Solution was called the New Federalism

• Key feature was the concept of revenue sharing

• Believed that local governments could spend taxpayers money more effectively

Southern Strategy

• Nixon wanted to expand his support in the Democratic south

• Tried to weaken the 1965 Voting Rights Act

• Urged a slowdown in forced integration

• Opposed busing

• Wanted local governments to take action themselves

Nixon’s Politics and Domestic Policies

Drugs and Crime

• Opposed federal court rulings that put limits on the power of the police.

• Sought to name conservative judges to federal courts

• Filled four openings on the Supreme Court (2 of his nominees were rejected)

Nixon’s Politics and Domestic Policies

Environmentalism• Environmental concerns

had been growing.

• Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring

• Massive Earth Day demonstrations in 1970

• Signed the Clean Air Act

• Act sought to regulate levels of air pollution created by factories and other sources.

• Worked to establish the Environmental Protection Agency

Other Policies• Signed the Occupational

Safety and Health Act

• Act created the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) to prevent work-related death and injuries

• Advanced affirmative action by setting specific hiring goals and timetables for overcoming discrimination

• Extended affirmative action programs to the hiring of women

Foreign Policy Themes

• Détente: “relaxation of tension”• Kissinger is EVERYWHERE• Nixon believed US could play Sino-

Soviet split to its advantage• Realpolitik • Keep balance of power

Nixon’s Foreign Policies with China and the Soviet Union

• Nixon had great success with his foreign policy issues.

• Henry Kissinger was Nixon’s national security advisor and later secretary of state.

• Kissinger shaped much of Nixon’s foreign policy.

• Kissinger believed in the notion of realpolitik—or basing foreign policies on realistic views of national interest rather than on broad rules or principles.

• Nixon took steps to ease tensions with Cold War enemies—a policy called détente.

• The goal of détente was to build a more stable world in which the United States and its adversaries accepted one another’s place.

Kissinger and Realpolitik

Kissinger believed the United States should consider each foreign-policy conflict or question from the standpoint of what is best for America.

The government should not be bound by promises to fight communism or promote freedom wherever it is threatened.

Kissinger’s realpolitik marked a significant change from earlier policies such as containment.

Nixon’s Foreign Policies

The Soviet Union• In 1969 Nixon began talks

with the Soviet Union in order to slow the arms race.

• Known as the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT)

• Both nations had increased their number of weapons and made innovations in weapons technology (Ex. antiballistic missiles, or ABMs).

• In 1972 Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev agreed to an ABM treaty.

• Following this round of talks (now called SALT I), negotiations began on a second round of discussions.

China• Nixon wanted to improve

relations with the Communist People’s Republic of China.

• Believed that friendlier relations with China would force a more cooperative relationship with the Soviet Union (China’s rival).

• His efforts were done secretly

• Nixon surprised Americans by visiting China in 1972 where he met with Chinese leaders and Mao Zedong.

• They agreed to disagree about Taiwan.

China Visit, 1972

• Nixon & Kissinger meet Mao

• “Shuttle Diplomacy”• Recognize China &

support China’s admission to UN

Why could “only Nixon” visit “Red China”?

Cold War Détente

• Czechoslovakia invaded (Prague Spring crushed, 1968) –US preoccupied with Vietnam; did nothing

• Visit Moscow (1972) --Played “China card”

• SALT I & ABM Treaties

Background to Energy Crisis, 1973

Response to this Arab defeat OPEC issued oil embargo!

War galvanized Arab opinion: furious at the emergency re-supply effort that had enabled Israel to withstand Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the US, W Euro, & Japan. By the early 1970s the great Western oil conglomerates suddenly faced a unified bloc of producers.

U.S. President Richard Nixon and U.S. President Richard Nixon and Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir meeting on November 1, 1973. meeting on November 1, 1973. Nixon's National Security Advisor Nixon's National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger is directly behind is directly behind Nixon.Nixon.

Causes: Yom Kippur War –Big surprise attack by Egypt & Syria but Israel wins

• Arab countries divided between those backed by the Soviets (e.g. Libya & Syria) and those backed by the West (e.g. Saudi Arabia).

• Like 6-Day War, again saw the superiority of Western-backed Israel over the Soviet-backed Arab states.

• Kissinger negotiates peace settlement

Energy Crisis

Shah of Iran (2Shah of Iran (2ndnd largest exporter of oil & closest ally of the US in ME): largest exporter of oil & closest ally of the US in ME):

"Of course [the world price of oil] is going to rise … Certainly! And how...; You "Of course [the world price of oil] is going to rise … Certainly! And how...; You [Western nations] increased the price of wheat you sell us by 300 %, and the [Western nations] increased the price of wheat you sell us by 300 %, and the same for sugar and cement...; You buy our crude oil and sell it back to us, same for sugar and cement...; You buy our crude oil and sell it back to us, redefined as petrochemicals, at a hundred times the price you've paid to us...; It's redefined as petrochemicals, at a hundred times the price you've paid to us...; It's only fair that, from now on, you should pay more for oil. Let's say 10 times more."only fair that, from now on, you should pay more for oil. Let's say 10 times more."

Gas prices doubled & Gas prices doubled & inflation HIGHinflation HIGH

No gas rationing at first; No gas rationing at first; shortagesshortages

Then ration –according to Then ration –according to license plate odd/evenslicense plate odd/evens

Trouble in the Middle East

• 1967 Six-Day War – resulted in Israel occupying territory that had belonged to the

nations of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan

– The United Nations passed a resolution that called for Israel to withdraw from these lands and for the Arab states to recognize Israel’s right to exist

• 1973 Yom Kippur War – Egypt and Syria attacked Israel, and the fighting affected the

United States.

• Threat of Soviet involvement could turn conflict into a superpower confrontation

• Imposition of an oil embargo

Trouble in the Middle East

Oil Embargo• Several Arab nations imposed

an oil embargo in reaction to the Yom Kippur War.

• They agreed not to ship oil to the United States and certain other countries who supported Israel.

• The Arab countries were a part of OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).

• The United States was dependent on foreign sources for one third of its oil needs.

• The embargo caused serious problems throughout the U.S. economy.

Shuttle Diplomacy• Henry Kissinger tried to solve

the crisis in the Middle East.

• He was unable to get all the parties to meet together to talk about solutions.

• Started what came to be called shuttle diplomacy

• Kissinger traveled—shuttled—from group to group trying to work out separate agreements.

• Eventually the fighting ended and the oil embargo was lifted.

Nixon Doctrine: peace thru partnerships

Central to the Nixon policy toward the Third World was the effort to maintain a stable status quo without involving the US too deeply in local disputes.

In 1969 and 1970, in response to the height of the Vietnam War, Nixon stated US would "participate in the defense and development of allies and friends" but would leave the "basic responsibility" for the future of those "friends" to the nations themselves.

The Nixon Doctrine signified a growing contempt for the United Nations, where undeveloped nations were gaining influence through their sheer numbers, and increasing support to authoritarian regimes attempting to withstand popular challenges from within.

Applied to Persian Gulf Region: military aid to Iran & Saudi Arabia (so these US allies could undertake responsibility of ensuring peace & stability in region).

Major Social and Cultural Events during the Nixon Years

• On July 16, 1969 the Apollo 11 successfully lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center.

• Three astronauts were on board—Neil Armstrong, Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, and Michael Collins.

• On July 20 Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon.

NASA

• Nixon was worried about the high rates of inflation and unemployment.

• He announced a 90-day freeze of wages and prices in order to stop inflation from rising.

• The wage and price controls did work temporarily.

Inflationand

Price Controls

Culture of Nixon Years • Pepsi Generation: era of restoration rather than

protest, conservatism rather than reform, consumer culture rather than counterculture, detente rather than confrontation Example: Erich Segal's Love Story best seller of 1970,

reflected commercialized emotion, political insensitivity, middle class consumer values, not the passion and idealism and liberal activism earlier.

• Apollo 11 landed on the moon July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong, Ed Aldrin, Mike Collins; called the "triumph of the squares" according to Eric Hoffer

• Woodstock in 1969 celebrated love and music, not the antiwar protest of 1964 SDS marchers

The Downfall of Nixon

WATERGATE SCANDAL

From Watergate to Ford

The Main Idea

The Nixon presidency became bogged down in scandal, leading to the first presidential resignation in American

history and the administration of Gerald Ford.Questions to consider

• What were the main events of the presidential election of 1972?

• How did the Watergate scandal unfold?

• Who was Gerald Ford, and what were the highlights of his presidency?

President Nixon and His White House

An Imperial Presidency• Depression, WW II, Cold War make executive

most powerful branch• Nixon expands presidential powers, ignores

Congress

Watergate: Nixon’s Downfall

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The President’s Men• Nixon has small, loyal group of advisers; like him,

desire secrecy- H. R. Haldeman, White House chief of staff- John Ehrlichman, chief domestic adviser- John Mitchell, Nixon’s former attorney general

The “plumbers” leader was an official of the (CREEP) John Mitchell, CRP’s director had resigned as the attorney general to run Nixon’s reelection campaign.

Main events in the presidential election of 1972

• Nixon was concerned about winning the 1972 presidential election and was not above using illegal actions to help ensure his re-election.

• During his first term, Nixon advisors created a group that came to be known as the “Plumbers.”– Their job was to respond to “leaks” of secret information and to

investigate Nixon’s political enemies.

– In 1971 the Plumbers tried to damage the reputation of Daniel Ellsberg—the man who had leaked the Pentagon Papers—by breaking into Ellsberg’s psychiatrist’s office and looking for information on Ellsberg.

• In early 1972 the Plumbers decided to break into the offices of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate hotel to collect information about the Democratic strategy for the 1972 election.

Watergate

On June 17, 1972, police arrested five men who had broken into the offices of the Democratic National Committee.

Although the break-in barely made the news when it happened, it quickly became clear that the men had connections to the president.

Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post refused to let the story die and continued to investigate the break-in.

The Post reported that the break-in was part of a widespread spying effort by the Nixon campaign, but this did not seem to affect voters.

On election day Nixon won one of the most overwhelming victories in U.S. history.

1973

The Cover-Up Unravels

The Senate Investigates Watergate• Judge John Sirica presides burglars’ trial,

thinks did not act alone• Burglar leader James McCord says lied under

oath, advisers involved• Nixon dismisses White House counsel John

Dean; others resign• Senator Samuel J. Ervin heads investigative

committee

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Startling Testimony• Dean declares Nixon involved in cover-up• Alexander Butterfield says Nixon tapes

presidential conversations

Continued . . .

March – Mitchell and Dean are implicated

• Mitchell had been Nixon’s attorney general

• Dean had been Nixon’s White House counsel.

April – Dean is fired Haldeman and Erlichman resigns

May –Senate opens Watergate hearings

• Nixon fired many people to protect himself.

• These people said:– Dean- Nixon deeply involved in the

cover-up– Mitchell- If there was a cover-up,

Nixon wasn’t involved.– Butterfield- Nixon had taped nearly

all of his presidential conversations.

The Saturday Night Massacre- (October)

• Nixon argued that executive privilege gave him the right to withhold the tapes.

• Investigators rejected Nixon’s claim of executive privilege and Special Prosecutor Cox and the Senate Watergate committee issued subpoenas demanding the tapes.

• In response, Nixon executed the so-called Saturday night massacre.

– Nixon directed attorney general Elliot Richardson to fire Cox. He refused and quit.

– Nixon then ordered Richardson’s assistant to fire Cox. He refused and resigned.

– Finally, the third-ranking official in the Justice Department fired Cox.

– The president’s actions shocked the public.

1974

NA, NA, NA, NA, HEY, HEY GOODBYE!!

April – Edited transcripts of tapes are released

• The transcripts showed Nixon’s use of vulgar language and his lack of concern about addressing the Watergate sandal.

• Investigators weren’t satisfied with the transcripts because only unedited tapes could provide evidence involving possible criminal activity.

July – Supreme Court Orders the Surrender of tapes

• The tapes revealed that within a week, Nixon had known of his administration’s role in the burglary and had participated in the cover-up.

August – House adopts impeachment articles

The Watergate Scandal

The Crisis Continues• Nixon continued to deny

his involvement in the break-in or a cover-up.

• Public confidence in Nixon was very low.

• The White House revealed that an 18-minute portion of the tape had been erased.

• There were calls for impeachment.

• Nixon released some transcripts of the tapes in the spring of 1974.

Nixon Resigns• The Supreme Court ruled

that Nixon must hand over the tapes.

• At the same time, the House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend impeachment.

• On August 8, 1974, Nixon resigned the presidency.

• He must have known that the tapes would reveal clear evidence of his wrongdoings.

In sum,

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The Ford and Carter YearsThe Ford and Carter administrations attempt to remedy the nation’s worst economic crisis in decades.

Gerald Ford

• Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigned after being charged with cheating on his taxes and taking payments in return for political favors.

• Nixon choose Gerald R. Ford to replace Agnew.

• Ford was the Republican leader in the House of Representatives.

• When Nixon resigned, Ford became president.

• He was the first person ever to become president without having been elected either president or vice-president.

Gerald Ford’s Presidency

• Ford tried to cut government spending to curb inflation but the Democratic Congress passed many spending bills against his wishes.

• In foreign affairs, Ford continued the policy of détente and kept Kissinger as secretary of state.

• Congress refused to allow Ford to take part in Vietnam or Cuba, but he did recover the cargo ship—the Mayaguez—from the Cambodian navy.

FordPardonsNixon

• President Ford granted a full pardon to Richard Nixon for any crime he may have committed.

Ford as

President

• Ford won his party’s nomination after a close struggle with former California governor Ronald Reagan.

ElectionChallenge

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Ford Travels a Rough Road

“A Ford, Not a Lincoln”• September 1974, new president Gerald R. Ford

pardons Nixon• Tries to move country past Watergate; loses much

public support

The Ford and Carter Years

Ford Tries to “Whip” Inflation• Unsuccessfully asks public to cut back use of oil,

gas, save energy• Cuts government spending; urges higher interest to

restrict credit • “Tight money” policy triggers recession• Continually battles Democratic Congress with own

economic agenda

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Ford’s Foreign Policy

Carrying Out Nixon’s Foreign Policies• Ford continues negotiations with China, Soviet Union• Signs Helsinki Accords—cooperation between

Eastern, Western Europe

Ongoing Turmoil in Southeast Asia• Vietnam cease-fire breaks down; Ford asks

Congress for aid to South• Congress refuses; South Vietnam surrenders

in 1975• Cambodia seizes U.S. merchant ship Mayagüez • Ford uses big military response; 41 die to rescue

39, is criticized

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3SECTION

Mr. Carter Goes to Washington• Jimmy Carter promises to restore integrity to

presidency- defeats Ford by narrow margin

• Has down-to-earth style; holds “fireside chats” on radio, TV

• Does not make deals with Congress; relies on Georgia advisers

• Both parties in Congress join to sink Carter budgets, major reforms

Carter Enters the White House

Carter’s Presidency

The Main Idea

Jimmy Carter used his reputation for honesty to win the presidency in 1976, but he soon met challenges that

required other qualities as well.

Reading Focus

• What were some of the difficult domestic challenges facing Carter and the nation in the late 1970s?

• What were Carter’s greatest foreign-policy triumphs and challenges?

• How did international crises affect Carter’s presidency?

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Confronting the Energy Crisis • Carter offers energy proposals; oil-, gas-producing

states, auto makers resist• National Energy Act—encourages conservation,

U.S. energy sources• National Energy Act, conservation cut foreign oil

dependence

Carter’s Domestic Agenda

The Economic Crisis Worsens• Violence in Middle East creates fuel shortage;

OPEC raises prices• Carter tries various methods, none work; gives

“malaise” speech• 1980 inflation 14%, standard of living drops;

people lose confidenceContinued . . .

Carter Faces Domestic Challenges

• Jimmy Carter came across as an honest man of deep religious faith who promised not to lie to the American people.

• Carter immediately tried to help the nation heal some of the wounds of the past.– Ex. He issued a pardon to thousands of Vietnam War draft

dodgers.

• Carter tackled problems in the economy and with energy.

• Finally, Carter tried to deal with environmental issues.

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A Changing Economy• From 1950s automation, foreign competition reduce

manufacturing jobs• Service sector expands, higher paying jobs require

education, skills

continued Carter’s Domestic Agenda

Carter and Civil Rights• Carter hires more African Americans, women than

previous presidents• Many civil rights groups disappointed because few

laws passed• 1978 Bakke case, Supreme Court strikes

affirmative action quotas- allows race as one factor in university admissions

Carter’s Foreign Policy

• Carter came to office with little foreign-policy experience.

• Carter promised that the concept of human rights would be at the forefront of his foreign policy.

• Carter worked to strengthen ties between the United States and the Soviet Union and China.

• Carter gave control of the Panama Canal back to Panama.

• Carter helped Egypt and Israel deal with some of the divisions that caused conflicts between their countries.

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Advancing Human Rights• Carter’s foreign policy promotes human rights—

basic freedoms• Cuts off aid to some, not all, allies that mistreat

own citizens

A Human Rights Foreign Policy

Yielding the Panama Canal• Panamanians resent having country split in two

by foreign power• 1977 treaty gives control of canal to Panama on

Dec. 31, 1999• Agreements improve relations between U.S.,

Latin America

Continued . . .

Human Rights

• Basic ideas outlined in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights

• Carter expected friends and enemies alike to uphold the highest standards in the treatment of their citizens.

Soviet Relations

• Carter wrote to Brezhnev about his concerns with Soviet human rights issues.

• Brezhnev politely said that each country should mind their own business.

• Concluded SALT II talks in 1979 that limited nuclear weapons

Carter’s Foreign Policy

Recognizing China

• Formally recognized the government of the Communist People’s Republic of China

• Ended recognition of the Republic of China on Taiwan

Carter’s Foreign Policy

Panama Canal

• American control of the Panama Canal had been a source of conflict between the two countries.

• In 1977 Carter and Panama’s leader agreed that Panama would take control of the canal by the end of 1999.

• The Senate narrowly approved the treaties.

• For some Americans, loss of control of the canal represented a decline in American power.

Camp David Accords

• Greatest foreign-policy achievement

• Conflict between Egypt and Israel continued. Egypt would not recognize Israel and Israel continued to occupy Egyptian territory.

• Carter guided Anwar el-Sadat and Menachem Begin to a historic agreement that came to be called the Camp David Accords.

• Begin and Sadat won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979.

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The Collapse of Détente• Carter’s insistence on human rights strains relations

with U.S.S.R.• SALT II talks delayed; Carter, Brezhnev finally sign

June 1979• SALT II meets sharp opposition in Senate• December, Soviets invade Afghanistan; Carter lets

SALT II die

continued A Human Rights Foreign Policy

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The Camp David Accords• 1978 Carter hosts talks between Anwar el-Sadat,

Menachem Begin• Camp David Accords forge peace between Israel,

Egypt:- Israel withdraws from Sinai Peninsula- Egypt recognizes Israel’s right to exist

Triumph and Crisis in the Middle East

Continued . . .

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The Iran Hostage Crisis• Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini leads overthrow

of shah- establishes Islamic state

• Carter supports shah; allows him entry to U.S. for cancer treatment

• Students seize U.S. embassy, take 52 hostages; demand shah back

• Carter refuses; standoff ensues; intense secret negotiations follow

• Captives released Jan. 1981, shortly after Ronald Reagan sworn in

continued Triumph and Crisis in the Middle East

How did international crises affect Carter’s presidency?

In 1979 a series of events occurred that seemed to overwhelm Carter’s presidency.

In 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

On November 4, 1979, a mob attacked the American embassy in Tehran, Iran’s capital, and took several dozen Americans hostage.

International Crises

Afghanistan• Soviets invaded Afghanistan

to ensure continued Communist rule in the country.

• The attack threatened U.S.-Soviet relations and called into question Carter’s ability to respond to Soviet aggression.

• Carter blocked shipment of grain to the Soviet Union and said the United States would boycott the 1980 Olympics.

• Americans did not like the grain embargo or the Olympic boycott because they seemed to hurt the United States as much as the Soviet Union.

Iran• Revolution in Iran overthrew

the shah and replaced him with the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini.

• The American government allowed the shah to enter the United States for medical treatment—this action enraged many Iranians.

• A mob attacked the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took Americans hostage.

• Carter’s attempts to negotiate the release of the hostages went nowhere.

• A military attempt to rescue the hostages failed.

A Crisis of Confidence

• The Iranian Hostage situation dragged on throughout the presidential election year of 1980.

• The situation in Iran also drove up gasoline prices so that prices of goods in the United States went up and inflation soared.

• Many voters held Carter responsible for the problems and the downcast mood of the country.

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The Roots of Environmentalism

Rachel Carson and Silent Spring• Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring warns against use

of pesticides- argues poisons kill food, harmless animals as well as pests

• Becomes best seller; leads JFK to establish advisory committee- chemical companies claim book inaccurate, threaten suits

• Carson starts national focus on environmental issues

Environmental Activism

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The First Earth Day• Earth Day—celebration highlighting environmental

awareness• First observed 1970 by communities, thousands of

schools, colleges

Environmental Concerns in the 1970s

Continued . . .

The Government Takes Action• Nixon not an environmentalist—active protector of

environment• Signs Clean Air Act, creates Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA)- main government arm on environmental issues

• 1970s, Congress passes 35 laws on conservation, clean up

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Balancing Progress and Conservation in Alaska• Pipeline creates jobs, revenue, worries over

wildlife, native people• Nixon gives millions of acres to native tribes for

conservation, use• Carter sets aside 56 million acres as national

monuments• 1980, Congress adds 104 million acres as

protected areas

continued Environmental Concerns in the 1970s

The Debate over Nuclear Energy• Many think nuclear power good alternative to

foreign oil• Opponents contend nuclear plants, waste

potentially harmful Continued . . .

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Three Mile Island• March 1979, reactor at Three Mile Island nuclear

plant malfunctions• Low-level radiation escapes; 100,000 people

evacuated from area• Incident rekindles debate over safety of nuclear

power• Nuclear Regulatory Commission strengthens safety

standards- also improves inspection procedures

continued Environmental Concerns in the 1970s

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Environment or Employment?• 1970s, environment movement gains popular

support• Opponents protest loss of jobs, revenues• 1980s, 1990s, attempt to balance environment

with jobs, progress

A Continuing Movement