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Alan J. Cain
Nine Chapters on theSemigroup Art
Lecture notes for a tour through semigroups
Porto & Lisbon2020
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semigroups/
โข
ยฉ2012โ20 Alan J. Cain ([email protected])
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Contents
Preface vPrerequisites vii โ Acknowledgements vii
Chapter 1 | Elementary semigroup theory 1Basic concepts and examples 1 โ Generators and subsemi-groups 8 โ Binary relations 11 โ Orders and lattices 15 โHomomorphisms 19 โ Congruences and quotients 20 โGenerating equivalences and congruences 22 โ Subdirectproducts 28 โ Actions 29 โ Cayley graphs 30 โ Exercises 32โ Notes 34
Chapter 2 | Free semigroups & presentations 37Alphabets and words 37 โ Universal property 38 โ Proper-ties of free semigroups 41 โ Semigroup presentations 42 โExercises 51 โ Notes 53
Chapter 3 | Structure of semigroups 55Greenโs relations 55 โ Simple and 0-simple semigroups 58โ D-class structure 60 โ Inverses and D-classes 63 โSchรผtzenberger groups 65 โ Exercises 68 โ Notes 70
Chapter 4 | Regular semigroups 73Completely 0-simple semigroups 75 โ Ideals and completely0-simple semigroups 81 โ Completely simple semigroups 82โ Completely regular semigroups 84 โ Left and rightgroups 86 โ Homomorphisms 88 โ Exercises 89 โ Notes 91
Chapter 5 | Inverse semigroups 93Equivalent characterizations 93 โ VagnerโPreston theo-rem 97 โ The natural partial order 100 โ Clifford semi-groups 102 โ Free inverse semigroups 106 โ Exercises 116โ Notes 119
Chapter 6 | Commutative semigroups 121Cancellative commutative semigroups 121 โ Free commut-ative semigroups 123 โ Rรฉdeiโs theorem 125 โ Exercises 128โ Notes 129
โข iii
Chapter 7 | Finite semigroups 131Greenโs relations and ideals 131 โ Semidirect and wreathproducts 133 โ Division 135 โ KrohnโRhodes decompositiontheorem 140 โ Exercises 147 โ Notes 148
Chapter 8 | Varieties & pseudovarieties 149Varieties 149 โ Pseudovarieties 157 โ Pseudovarieties ofsemigroups and monoids 159 โ Free objects for pseudovari-eties 161 โ Projective limits 162 โ Pro-V semigroups 164 โPseudoidentities 167 โ Semidirect products of pseudovarie-ties 172 โ Exercises 173 โ Notes 174
Chapter 9 | Automata & finite semigroups 175Finite automata and rational languages 175 โ Syntactic sem-igroups and monoids 184 โ Eilenberg correspondence 188 โSchรผtzenbergerโs theorem 195 โ Exercises 201 โ Notes 202
Solutions to exercises 203
Bibliography 251
Index 255
List of Tables
Table 8.1 Varieties of semigroups 156Table 8.2 Varieties of monoids 156Table 8.3 Varieties of semigroups with a unary operation โ1 157Table 8.4 S-pseudovarieties of semigroups 169Table 8.5 M-pseudovarieties of monoids 169
Table 9.3 Varieties of rational โ-languages 193Table 9.4 Varieties of rational +-languages 193
โข
iv โข
Preface
โ A preface is frequently a superior composition to the work itself โโ Isaac DโIsraeli,
โPrefacesโ. In: Curiosities of Literature.
โข This course is a tour through selected areas of semi-group theory. There are essentially three parts:โ Chapters 1โ3 study general semigroups, including presentations for
semigroups and basic structure theory.โ Chapters 4โ6 examine special classes: namely regular, inverse, and
commutative semigroups.โ Chapters 7โ9 study finite semigroups, their classification using pseu-
dovarieties, and connections with the theory of automata and regularlanguages.
The course is broad rather than deep. It is not intended to be comprehens-ive: it does not try to study (for instance) structure theory as deeply asHowie, Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory, pseudovarieties as deeply asAlmeida, Finite Semigroups and Universal Algebra, or languages as deeplyas Pin, Varieties of Formal Languages; rather, it samples highlights fromeach area. It should be emphasized that there is very little that is originalin this course. It is heavily based on the treatments in these and otherstandard textbooks, as the bibliographic notes in each chapter make clear.The main novelty is in the selection and arrangement of material, theslightly slower pace, and the general policy of avoiding leaving proofs tothe reader when the corresponding results are required for later proofs.
Figure P.1 shows the dependencies between the chapters. At the endof each chapter, there are a number of exercises, intended to reinforceconcepts introduced in the chapter, and also to explore some relatedtopics that are not covered in the main text. The most important exercisesare marked with a star โด . Solutions are supplied for all exercises. Atthe end of each chapter are bibliographic notes, which give sources andsuggestions for further reading.
Warnings against potential misunderstandings are marked (like this)with a โdangerous bendโ symbol, as per Bourbaki or Knuth.
Important observations that are not potential misunderstandings per seare marked with an โexclamationโ symbol (like this).
This course was originally delivered to masterโs students at the Uni-
โข v
FIGURE P.1Chart of the dependenciesbetween the chapters. Dottedarrows indicate that thedependency is only in theexercises, not in the main text.
Chapter 1Elementary semigroup theory
Chapter 2Free semigroups & presentations
Chapter 3Structure of semigroups
Chapter 4Regular semigroups
Chapter 5Inverse semigroups
Chapter 6Commutative semigroups
Chapter 7Finite semigroups
Chapter 8Varieties & pseudovarieties
Chapter 9Automata & finite semigroups
versities of Porto and Santiago de Compostella. The course was coveredduring 56 hours of classes, which included lectures and discussions ofthe exercises. Revisions have increased the length of the notes, and about70 hours of class time would now be required to cover them fully.
These notes were heavily revised in 2013โ15. Most of the main text isnow stable, but Chapter 8 will be further revised, and further exerciseswill be added. At present, the index is limited to names and โnamedresultsโ only. There may be minor typesetting problems that arise fromthe โin-developmentโ status of the LuaLaTEX software and many of therequired packages.
The author welcomes any corrections, observations, or constructivecriticisms; please send them to the email address on the copyright page.
vi โขPreface
Prerequisites
There are few formal prerequisites: general mathematicalmaturity is the main one. An understanding of the most basic conceptsfrom elementary group theory is assumed, such as the definition of groups,cosets, and factor groups. Some knowledge of linear algebra will help withunderstanding certain examples, but is not vital. For Chapters 1 and 5,knowledge of the basic definitions of graph theory is assumed. Some basictopology is necessary to appreciate part of Chapter 8 fully (although mostof the chapter can be understood without it, and the relevant sections cansimply be skipped), and some background in universal algebra is useful,but not essential. For Chapter 9, some experience with formal languagetheory and automata is useful, but again not essential.
Acknowledgements
Attila Egri-Nagy, Darij Grinberg, AkihikoKoga, andGuil-herme Ritomade valuable suggestions and indicated various errors. Someexercises were suggested by Victor Maltcev. Typos were pointed out byNick Ham, Samuel Herman, Josรฉ Manuel dos Santos dos Santos, andAlexandre Trocado. Many improvements are due to the students whotook the first version of this course: Miguel Couto, Xabier Garcรญa, andJorge Soares. The imperfections that remain are my responsibility.
The title alludes toไน็ซ ็ฎ่ก (Jiuzhฤng Suร nshรน), Nine Chapters on theMathematical Art.
A. J. C.
โข
Prerequisites โข vii
viii โข
1Elementarysemigroup theory
โ I use the word โelementaryโ in the sensein which professional mathematicians use it โ
โ G.H. Hardy, A Mathematicianโs Apology, ยง 21.
โข A binary operation โ on a set ๐ is a map โ โถ ๐ ร ๐ โ ๐. Binary operationThis operation is associative if ๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง for all elements๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐. A semigroup is a non-empty set equipped with an associative Semigroupbinary operation.
Semigroups are therefore one of the most basic types of algebraicstructure. We could weaken the definition further by removing the as-sociativity condition and requiring only a binary operation on a set. Astructure that satisfies this weaker condition is called a magma or group-oid. (These โgroupoidsโ are different from the category-theoretic notionof groupoid.)
On the other hand, we can strengthen the definition by requiring anidentity and inverses. Structures satisfying this stronger condition are ofcourse groups. However, there are many more semigroups than groups.For instance, there are 5 essentially different groups with 8 elements (thecyclic group ๐ถ8, the direct products ๐ถ4 ร ๐ถ2 and ๐ถ2 ร ๐ถ2 ร ๐ถ2, the dihed-ral group๐ท4, and the quaternion group ๐8), but there are 3 684 030 417different (non-isomorphic) semigroups with 8 elements.
Some authors define a semigroup as a (possibly empty) set equippedwith โEmpty semigroupโan associative binary operation. That is, the empty set forms the โemptysemigroupโ. This has advantages from a category-theoretic viewpoint.Note, however, that other definitions must be adjusted if a semigroupcan be empty. In these notes, semigroups are required to be non-empty.
Basic concepts and examples
Throughout this chapter, ๐ will denote a semigroup withoperation โ. Formally, we write (๐, โ) to indicate that we are consideringthe set ๐ with the operation โ, but we will only do this when we need todistinguish a particular operation. Unless we need to distinguish between
โข 1
different operations, wewill oftenwrite๐ฅ๐ฆ instead of๐ฅโ๐ฆ (where๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐)and we will call the operation multiplication and the element ๐ฅ๐ฆ (i.e. theMultiplication, productresult of applying the operation to ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ) the product of the elements ๐ฅand ๐ฆ.
In order to compute a product like ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง๐ก (or, equivalently, ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ โ ๐ง โ ๐ก),where ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐, we have to insert balanced pairs of brackets into theproduct to show in what order we perform the multiplications. We mightinsert brackets in any of the following five ways:
((๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง)๐ก, (๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง))๐ก, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)(๐ง๐ก), ๐ฅ((๐ฆ๐ง)๐ก), ๐ฅ(๐ฆ(๐ง๐ก)).
The following result shows that the choice of how to insert balanced pairsof brackets is unimportant:
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 1. Let ๐ 1,โฆ , ๐ ๐ โ ๐. Every way of inserting balancedAssociativitypairs of brackets into the product ๐ 1๐ 2โฏ๐ ๐ gives the same result.
Proof of 1.1. We will prove that any insertion of brackets into the productgives the same result as ๐ 1(๐ 2(๐ 3โฏ๐ ๐)โฏ). We proceed by induction on ๐.For ๐ = 1, the result is trivially true, for there is only one way to insertbalanced pairs of brackets into the product ๐ 1. This is the base case of theinduction.
So assume that the result holds for all ๐ < ๐; we aim to show it istrue for ๐ = ๐. Take some bracketing of the product ๐ 1๐ 2โฏ๐ ๐ and let ๐ก bethe result. This bracketing is a product of some bracketing of ๐ 1โฏ๐ โ andsome bracketing of ๐ โ+1โฏ๐ ๐, for some โ with 1 โฉฝ โ < ๐. Now considertwo cases:โ Suppose โ = 1. By the assumption, the result of inserting brack-
ets into ๐ โ+1โฏ๐ ๐ = ๐ 2โฏ๐ ๐ is equal to ๐ 2(๐ 3(โฏ ๐ ๐)โฏ). Thus ๐ก =๐ 1(๐ 2(๐ 3(โฏ ๐ ๐)โฏ)), which is the result with ๐ = ๐.
โ Suppose โ > 1. By the assumption, the result of the bracketing of๐ 1โฏ๐ โ is ๐ 1(๐ 2(โฏ ๐ โ)โฏ) and the result of the bracketing of ๐ โ+1โฏ๐ ๐is ๐ โ+1(๐ โ+2(โฏ ๐ ๐)โฏ). Thus
๐ก = (๐ 1(๐ 2(โฏ ๐ โ)โฏ))(๐ โ+1(๐ โ+2(โฏ ๐ ๐)โฏ))
= ๐ 1(((๐ 2(โฏ ๐ โ)โฏ))(๐ โ+1(๐ โ+2(โฏ ๐ ๐)โฏ))) [by associativity]
= ๐ 1(๐ 2(๐ 3โฏ๐ ๐)โฏ), [by assumption with ๐ = ๐ โ 1]
which is the result with ๐ = ๐.Hence, by induction, the result holds for all ๐. 1.1
Thus, by Proposition 1.1, there is no ambiguity in writing a product๐ 1๐ 2โฏ๐ ๐ (where each ๐ ๐ โ ๐): the product is the same regardless of howwe insert the brackets.
Any group is also a semigroup. The most familiar example of a semi-group that is not a group is the set of natural numbersโ = {1, 2, 3,โฆ}
2 โขElementary semigroup theory
under the operation of addition. This is not a group since it does notcontain inverses.
Note that, for our purposes, the set of natural numbersโ = {1, 2, 3,โฆ}does not include 0.Let ๐ be an element of ๐. If ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, the element ๐ is a Identity, monoid
left identity. If ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, the element ๐ is a right identity. If๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, then ๐ is a two-sided identity or simply anidentity. A semigroup that contains an identity is called a monoid.
Let ๐ง be an element of ๐. If ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, the element ๐ง is a left Zerozero. If ๐ฅ๐ง = ๐ง for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, the element ๐ง is a right zero. If ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ง = ๐งfor all ๐ฅ โ ๐, then ๐ง is a two-sided zero or simply a zero.
E x ampl e 1 . 2. Let us give some examples of semigroups:a) The integers โค form a semigroup under two different operations:
addition + and multiplication โ . The semigroup (โค, +) is a monoidwith identity 0; but in (โค, โ ), the element 0 is a zero.
b) The trivial semigroup contains only one element ๐, with multiplication Trivial semigroupobviously defined by ๐๐ = ๐. Since ๐ is (trivially) an identity, thissemigroup is also called the trivial monoid.
c) A null semigroup is a semigroup with a zero ๐ง in which the product Null semigroupof any two elements is ๐ง. It is easy to see that this multiplication isassociative. Notice that we can define a null semigroup on any non-empty set by choosing some element ๐ง and defining all products tobe ๐ง.
d) If every element of ๐ is a left zero (that is, ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐), Right/left zero semigroupthen ๐ is a left zero semigroup. If every element of ๐ is a right zero(that is, ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐), then ๐ is a right zero semigroup. Wecan define a left zero semigroup on any non-empty set๐ by definingthe multiplication ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐; it is easy to see that thismultiplication is associative. Similarly, we can define a right zerosemigroup on any non-empty set ๐ by defining the multiplication๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐.
e) Any ring is a semigroup under multiplication.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 3. If ๐ is a left identity of ๐ and ๐โฒ is a right identity Uniqueness of an identityof ๐ then ๐ = ๐โฒ. Consequently, a semigroup contains at most one identity.
Proof of 1.3. Since ๐ is a left identity ๐๐โฒ = ๐โฒ. Since ๐โฒ is a right identity,๐ = ๐๐โฒ. Hence ๐ = ๐๐โฒ = ๐โฒ. 1.3
Pro p o s i t i on 1 . 4. If ๐ง is a left zero of ๐ and ๐งโฒ is a right zero of ๐ then Uniqueness of a zero๐ง = ๐งโฒ. Consequently, a semigroup contains at most one zero.
Proof of 1.4. Since ๐ง is a left zero, ๐ง๐งโฒ = ๐ง. Since ๐งโฒ is a right zero, ๐ง๐งโฒ = ๐งโฒ.Hence ๐ง = ๐ง๐งโฒ = ๐งโฒ. 1.4
Basic concepts and examples โข 3
It therefore makes sense to use the special notations 0 and 1 for theunique zero and identity of a semigroup. If we need to specify the zero oridentity of a particular semigroup ๐, we will use 0๐ and 1๐.
Let 1 be a new element not in the semigroup ๐. Extend the multiplic-Adjoining an identity or zeroation on ๐ to ๐ โช {1} by 1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ1 = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ and 11 = 1. It is easyto prove that this extended multiplication is associative. Then ๐ โช {1} isa monoid with identity 1. Similarly, let 0 be a new element not in ๐ andextend the multiplication on ๐ to ๐ โช {0} by 0๐ฅ = ๐ฅ0 = 00 = 0 for all๐ฅ โ ๐. Again, this extended multiplication is associative. Then ๐ โช {0} is asemigroup with zero 0. For any semigroup ๐, define
๐1 = {๐ if ๐ has an identity,๐ โช {1} otherwise;
๐0 = {๐ if ๐ has a zero,๐ โช {0} otherwise.
The semigroups ๐1 and ๐0 are called, respectively, the monoid obtainedby adjoining an identity to ๐ if necessary and the semigroup obtained byadjoining a zero to ๐ if necessary.
Throughout these notes, maps are written on the right and composedNotation for mapsleft to right. To clarify: let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be maps. The resultof applying ๐ to an element ๐ฅ of ๐ is denoted ๐ฅ๐. The composition of๐ and ๐ is denoted ๐ โ ๐ or simply ๐๐, and is a map from ๐ to ๐ with๐ฅ(๐๐) = (๐ฅ๐)๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. For๐โฒ โ ๐, the restriction of the map ๐ to๐โฒ is denoted ๐|๐โฒ.
Let X = {๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } (where ๐ผ is an index set) be a collection ofCartesian productsets. Informally, the cartesian product โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ of the sets in X is the setof tuples with |๐ผ| components, where, for each ๐ โ ๐ผ, the ๐-th componentis an element of๐๐. More formally, the cartesian productโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ is theset of maps ๐ from ๐ผ toโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ such that ๐๐ โ ๐๐ for each ๐ โ ๐ผ. We thinkof the map ๐ as a tuple with ๐-th component ๐๐. We will use both mapnotation and (especially when the index set ๐ผ is finite) tuple notation forelements of cartesian products. When ๐ผ = {1,โฆ , ๐} is finite, we write๐1 ร โฆ ร ๐๐ for โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐, and we say the cartesian product is finitary.Finitary cartesian productWhen the sets๐๐ are all equal to a set๐ (that is, when we consider thecartesian product of |๐ผ| copies of the set๐), we write๐๐ผ forโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐.
Let S = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } (where ๐ผ is an index set) be a collection ofDirect productsemigroups. The direct product of the semigroups in S is their cartesianproductโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ with componentwise multiplication: (๐)(๐ ๐ก) = (๐)๐ (๐)๐ก, or,using tuple notation,
(โฆ , ๐ ๐,โฆ )(โฆ , ๐ก๐,โฆ ) = (โฆ , ๐ ๐๐ก๐,โฆ ).
It is easy to prove that this componentwise multiplication is associative,and so the direct product is itself a semigroup.
4 โขElementary semigroup theory
For ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ โ โ, define Exponent
๐ฅ๐ =๐ timesโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐ฅ๐ฅโฏ๐ฅ . (1.1)
Notice that, in general, ๐ฅ๐ is only defined for positive ๐. If ๐ is a monoid,define ๐ฅ0 = 1๐. Any element ๐ฅ๐, where ๐ โ โ โช {0} is a power of ๐ฅ; if Power, positive power๐ > 0, it is a positive power of ๐ฅ. Notice that if ๐ is not a monoid, thenevery power is a positive power.
As an immediate consequence of Proposition 1.1, ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐ for Exponent lawsall ๐ฅ โ ๐ and๐, ๐ โ โ. If ๐ is a monoid, then ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐and๐, ๐ โ โ โช {0}.
Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ and consider the positive powers ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ2, ๐ฅ3,โฆ. There are Periodic element,index, periodtwo possibilities: either all these positive powers of ๐ฅ are distinct or there
is some ๐, โ โ โ with ๐ < โ such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅโ. In the latter case, ๐ฅ is saidto be periodic; notice that in a finite semigroup, this latter case must hold.Choose โ as small as possible; then ๐ฅโ is the first positive power of ๐ฅ thatis equal to some earlier positive power. Let ๐ = โ โ ๐; then ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐.Repeatedly multiplying this equality by ๐ฅ๐, one sees that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐๐ forall ๐ โ โโช{0}. Let ๐ โ โโช{0}. Then ๐ = ๐๐+ ๐ for some ๐ โ โโช{0} and๐ โ {0,โฆ ,๐ โ 1}, and so ๐ฅ๐+๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐๐+๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐. Therefore every powerof ๐ฅ after ๐ฅ๐ is equal to one of
๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1.
Thus, by the minimality of the choice of โ, there are ๐ + ๐ โ 1 distinctpositive powers of ๐ฅ, namely
๐ฅ, ๐ฅ2,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐โ1, ๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1.
We call ๐ the index of ๐ฅ and๐ the period of ๐ฅ. A periodic semigroup is Periodic semigroupone in which every element is periodic. Note that all finite semigroupsare periodic.
An element ๐ฅ of ๐ is an idempotent if ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ. The set of idempotents Idempotent, ๐ธ(๐),semigroup of idempotentsof ๐ is denoted ๐ธ(๐). If every element of ๐ is an idempotent, then ๐ is
a semigroup of idempotents. For example, a right zero semigroup is asemigroup of idempotents.
For any subsets๐ and๐ of ๐, define๐๐ = { ๐ฅ๐ฆ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐, ๐ฆ โ ๐ }.Write Product of subsets๐ฅ๐ for {๐ฅ}๐ and๐๐ฆ for๐{๐ฆ}. Since multiplication in ๐ is associative, sois this product of subsets: for subsets๐, ๐, and ๐ of ๐, we have๐(๐๐) =(๐๐)๐. By analogy with (1.1), for๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ โ, define
๐๐ =๐ timesโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐๐โฏ๐ .
The semigroup ๐ is nilpotent if it contains a zero and there exists some Nilpotent semigroup,nilsemigroup๐ โ โ such that ๐๐ = {0}. The semigroup ๐ is a nilsemigroup if it contains
a zero and for every ๐ฅ โ ๐, there exists some ๐ โ โ such that ๐ฅ๐ = 0.
Basic concepts and examples โข 5
Note that this is incompatible with the definition of a โnilpotent groupโ.A non-trivial group is never nilpotent in this semigroup sense.
The semigroup ๐ is left-cancellative ifCancellativity
(โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐)(๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ);
right-cancellative if
(โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐)(๐ฅ๐ง = ๐ฆ๐ง โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ);
and cancellative if it is both left- and right-cancellative. Note that a non-trivial semigroup with zero cannot be cancellative.
The semigroup ๐ is commutative if ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. ForCommutativityinstance, (โค, +) and (โค, โ ) are both commutative. A non-trivial left zerosemigroup is not commutative.
Let๐ be amonoid. Let๐ฅ โ ๐. Suppose that there exists an element๐ฅโฒLeft and right inversesuch that ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = 1. Then ๐ฅโฒ is a right inverse for ๐ฅ, and ๐ฅ is right invertible.Similarly, suppose there exists an element ๐ฅโณ such that ๐ฅโณ๐ฅ = 1. Then๐ฅโณ is a left inverse for ๐ฅ, and ๐ฅ is left invertible. If ๐ฅ is both left and rightinvertible, then ๐ฅ is invertible.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 5. Let๐ be a monoid, and let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Suppose ๐ฅRight and leftinverses coincide is invertible and let ๐ฅโฒ be a right inverse of ๐ฅ and ๐ฅโณ a left inverse. Then
๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโณ.
Proposition 1.5 says that right and left inverses coincide when they bothexist. The existence of one does not imply the existence of the other.
Proof of 1.5. Since ๐ฅโฒ and ๐ฅโณ are, respectively, right and left inverses of ๐ฅ,we have ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = 1 and ๐ฅโณ๐ฅ = 1. Hence ๐ฅโฒ = 1๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโณ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโณ1 = ๐ฅโณ. 1.5
Thus if ๐ฅ is an invertible element of a monoid๐, denote the uniqueGroupright and left inverse of ๐ฅ by ๐ฅโ1. A monoid in which every element isinvertible is of course a group.
Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. If there is an element ๐ฆ โ ๐ such that ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, then theRegular elementelement ๐ฅ is regular. Notice that in this case, ๐ฅ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ๐ฅ are idempotent,since (๐ฅ๐ฆ)2 = ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ and (๐ฆ๐ฅ)2 = ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ) = ๐ฆ๐ฅ.If every element of ๐ is regular, then ๐ is a regular semigroup.Regular semigroup
An element ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐ such that ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ and ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ is an inverse ofInverse๐ฅ.
Notice that this is entirely different from the notion of left/right inversesabove. We will never use โinverseโ (on its own) to refer to a left or rightinverse.
Pro p o s i t i on 1 . 6. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ has an inverse if and only if ๐ฅ isregular.
6 โขElementary semigroup theory
Proof of 1.6. Obviously if ๐ฅ has an inverse, then it is regular. So suppose ๐ฅis regular. Then there exists ๐ฆ โ ๐ such that ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Let ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ. Then๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = (๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ) =๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅโฒ, so ๐ฅโฒ is an inverse of๐ฅ. 1.6
In the proof of Proposition 1.6, the element ๐ฆmight not be an inverse of๐ฅ: for example, let ๐ be a semigroup with a zero and let ๐ฅ = 0 and ๐ฆ โ 0.Then ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ but ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฆ.An element ๐ฅ can have more than one inverse; see Example 1.7(e). The Set of inverses ๐(๐ฅ)
set of inverses of๐ฅ is denoted๐(๐ฅ). Notice also that a zero 0 of a semigrouphas an inverse, namely 0 itself. In general, if ๐ โ ๐ is idempotent, then๐3 = ๐2 = ๐ and so ๐ is an inverse of itself. In particular, every idempotentis regular.
E x a m p l e 1 . 7. a) Let ๐ = {0,โฆ , ๐} for some ๐ โฉพ 0. Define anoperationโณ on ๐ by ๐โณ ๐ = min{๐, ๐}. It is easy to see thatโณ isassociative, and so (๐,โณ) is a semigroup. Notice that 0โณ๐ = ๐โณ0 =0 and ๐ โณ ๐ = ๐ โณ ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ โ ๐. Hence ๐ has zero 0 andidentity ๐. Furthermore,๐โณ๐ = ๐ for all๐ โ ๐, so every elementof ๐ is an idempotent. Finally,๐โณ ๐ = ๐ โณ ๐ for all๐, ๐ โ ๐ andso ๐ is commutative.
b) Similarly, define an associative operationโณ onโ โช {0} = {0, 1, 2,โฆ}by ๐ โณ ๐ = min{๐, ๐}. Then (โ โช {0},โณ) has a zero 0 but has noidentity. It is commutative and all its elements are idempotents.
c) Consider the set of all 2 ร 2 integer matrices:
๐2(โค) = {[๐ ๐๐ ๐] โถ ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ โค}.
With the usualmatrixmultiplication,๐2(โค) is amonoidwith identity
[1 00 1] and zero [0 00 0]. It is easy to see that๐2(โค) is not commut-
ative, and that not all of its elements are idempotent. Since๐2(โค)contains a zero, it is not cancellative.
d) Now let ๐ be the set of all 2 ร 2 integer matrices with non-zero de-terminant:
๐ = {[๐ ๐๐ ๐] โถ ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ โค โง det [๐ ๐๐ ๐] โ 0}.
Again, ๐ is a monoid. Let ๐,๐, ๐ โ ๐. Suppose ๐ ๐ = ๐ ๐. Sincedet๐ โ 0, the matrix ๐ has a (left and right) inverse ๐ โ1 โ ๐2(โ).[Note that ๐ โ1 โ ๐ whenever det๐ โ ยฑ1, so ๐ is not a group.] So๐ โ1๐ ๐ = ๐ โ1๐ ๐ and so ๐ = ๐. Hence๐ is left-cancellative. Similarly,it is right-cancellative and therefore cancellative.
Basic concepts and examples โข 7
e) Let ๐ฟ be a left zero semigroup and ๐ a right zero semigroup. LetRectangular band๐ต = ๐ฟร๐ . The semigroup ๐ต is an |๐ฟ| ร |๐ | rectangular band, or simplya rectangular band. For (โ1, ๐1), (โ2, ๐2) โ ๐ต, we have
(โ1, ๐1)(โ2, ๐2) = (โ1โ2, ๐1๐2) = (โ1, ๐2),
since (in particular) โ1 is a left zero and ๐2 is a right zero. Thus everyelement of ๐ต is idempotent, since (โ, ๐)(โ, ๐) = (โ, ๐) for all (โ, ๐) โ ๐ต.Furthermore, for any (โ1, ๐1), (โ2, ๐2) โ ๐ต, we have
(โ1, ๐1)(โ2, ๐2)(โ1, ๐1) = (โ1โ2โ1, ๐1๐2๐1) = (โ1, ๐1)(โ2, ๐2)(โ1, ๐1)(โ2, ๐2) = (โ2โ1โ2, ๐2๐1๐2) = (โ2, ๐2).
Hence (โ2, ๐2) is an inverse of (โ1, ๐1). Thus every element is an inverseof every element.
The name โrectangular bandโ comes from the following diagram-matic interpretation of the multiplication. The elements of the sem-igroup correspond to the cells of a grid whose rows are indexed by๐ฟ and whose columns are indexed by ๐ . So (โ1, ๐1) corresponds to(โ1, ๐1) (โ1, ๐2)
(โ2, ๐2)
FIGURE 1.1Diagrammatic interpretation ofmultiplication in a rectangular
band.
the cell in row โ1 and column ๐1. In terms of cells, the product of twoelements is the cell in the row of the first multiplicand and the columnof the second multiplicand; see Figure 1.1. [The reason for indexingrows by the first coordinate and columns by the second coordinatewill become clear in Chapter 4.]
The opposite semigroup ๐opp of ๐ is the semigroup with the same set asOpposite semigroup๐ but โreversed multiplicationโ. That is, for ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐, the product ๐ฅ๐ฆ in ๐oppis equal to the product ๐ฆ๐ฅ in ๐. It is easy to check that ๐opp is indeed asemigroup. Notice that if ๐ is commutative, then ๐opp and ๐ are the samesemigroup.
Generators and subsemigroups
A non-empty subset ๐ of ๐ is a subsemigroup if it is closedSubsemigroupunder multiplication; that is, if ๐๐ โ ๐. A proper subsemigroup is anysubsemigroup except ๐ itself. A submonoid is a subsemigroup that hap-pens to be a monoid. A subgroup is a subsemigroup that happens to be agroup.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 8. The set of invertible elements of a monoid forms asubgroup.
Proof of 1.8. Let ๐ be the set of invertible elements of a monoid๐. Notethat ๐ is non-empty since 1 โ ๐. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then since ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ areinvertible we have ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ = 1 and ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = 1.
8 โขElementary semigroup theory
Hence ๐ฅ๐ฆ is invertible and so lies in ๐. Hence ๐ is a subsemigroup of๐.Furthermore, 1 โ ๐ is also an identity for ๐ and so ๐ is a submonoid of๐. Finally, let ๐ฅ โ ๐; then ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = 1 and so ๐ฅโ1 is invertible andthus ๐ฅโ1 โ ๐. Hence ๐ is closed under taking inverses. Therefore ๐ is asubgroup of๐. 1.8
The set of invertible elements of a monoid is called its group of units; Group of unitsProposition 1.8 justifies this name.
The following result is a useful characterization of subgroups of asemigroup:
L emma 1 . 9. Let ๐บ be a non-empty subset of ๐. Then ๐๐บ = ๐บ๐ = ๐บ forall ๐ โ ๐บ if and only if ๐บ is a subgroup of ๐.
Proof of 1.9. Notice first that if ๐บ is a subgroup and ๐ โ ๐บ, then ๐บ =๐๐โ1๐บ โ ๐๐บ โ ๐บ, so ๐บ = ๐๐บ. Similarly, ๐บ = ๐บ๐.
For the converse, suppose that ๐๐บ = ๐บ๐ = ๐บ for all ๐ โ ๐บ. For any๐, โ โ ๐บ, the product ๐โ lies in ๐๐บ = ๐บ. Hence ๐บ is a subsemigroup.
Let ๐ โ ๐บ. Since ๐บ = ๐บ๐, it follows that ๐ โ ๐บ๐, and so there exists๐ โ ๐บ such that ๐ = ๐๐. Let โ โ ๐บ. Since ๐บ = ๐๐บ, there exists ๐ฅ โ ๐บ suchthat โ = ๐๐ฅ. Hence ๐โ = ๐๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ = โ. Since โ โ ๐บ was arbitrary, ๐ is aleft identity for ๐บ. Similarly ๐บ contains a right identity ๐, and so ๐ = ๐ isan identity for ๐บ by Proposition 1.3. So ๐บ is a submonoid with identity1๐บ.
Finally, since 1๐บ โ ๐๐บ = ๐บ๐, the element ๐ is right and left invertibleand its right and left inverses coincide by Proposition 1.5. Since ๐ โ ๐บwas arbitrary, ๐บ is a subgroup. 1.9
Let ๐ be a non-empty subset of ๐. The subset ๐ is a left ideal of ๐ if it is Idealclosed under left multiplication by any element of ๐; that is, if ๐๐ โ ๐. Itis a right ideal of ๐ if it is closed under right multiplication by any elementof ๐; that is, if ๐๐ โ ๐. It is a two-sided ideal, or simply an ideal, of ๐if it is closed under both left and right multiplication by elements of ๐;that is, if ๐๐ โช ๐๐ โ ๐. Every ideal, whether left, right, or two-sided, is asubsemigroup.
For any ๐ฅ โ ๐, define Principal ideal
๐ฟ(๐ฅ) = ๐1๐ฅ = {๐ฅ} โช ๐๐ฅ,๐ (๐ฅ) = ๐ฅ๐1 = {๐ฅ} โช ๐ฅ๐,๐ฝ(๐ฅ) = ๐1๐ฅ๐1 = {๐ฅ} โช ๐ฅ๐ โช ๐๐ฅ โช ๐๐ฅ๐.
Then ๐ฟ(๐ฅ), ๐ (๐ฅ), and ๐ฝ(๐ฅ) are, respectively, the principal left ideal gener-ated by ๐ฅ, the principal right ideal generated by ๐ฅ, and the principal idealgenerated by ๐ฅ. As their names imply, they are, respectively, a left ideal, aright ideal, and a (two-sided) ideal.
Generators and subsemigroups โข 9
E x a m p l e 1 . 1 0. a) Consider the semigroup (โ, +). Let ๐ โ โ andlet ๐ผ๐ = {๐ โ โ โถ ๐ โฉพ ๐ }. Then ๐ผ๐ is an ideal of โ; indeed, ๐ผ๐ =๐ฟ(๐) = ๐ (๐) = ๐ฝ(๐).
b) Let ๐ be a right zero semigroup. Let ๐ be a non-empty subset of ๐.Then ๐๐ = ๐ since ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ for any ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฆ โ ๐. So ๐ is a left idealof ๐. On the other hand, ๐๐ = ๐ and so ๐ is a right ideal if and only if๐ = ๐.
c) Let ๐บ be a group. Let ๐ be a non-empty subset of ๐บ. For any ๐ฅ โ ๐บand ๐ฆ โ ๐, we have ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ โ ๐บ๐ฆ; hence ๐บ๐ฆ = ๐บ. So ๐ is a leftideal if and only if ๐ = ๐บ; similarly ๐ is a right ideal if and only if๐ = ๐บ. So the only left ideal or right ideal of ๐บ is ๐บ itself.
Let T = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } be a collection of subsemigroups of ๐. It isGenerating a subsemigroupeasy to see that if their intersectionโT = โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ is non-empty, it is alsoa subsemigroup. So let ๐ be a non-empty subset of ๐ and let T be thecollection of subsemigroups of ๐ that contain๐. The collection T has atleast onemember, namely the semigroup ๐ itself, and every subsemigroupinT contains๐, soโT is non-empty and is thus a subsemigroup. Indeed,it is the smallest subsemigroup of ๐ that contains๐. This subsemigroup,denoted โจ๐โฉ, is called the subsemigroup generated by๐.
If ๐ โ ๐ is such that โจ๐โฉ = ๐, then ๐ is a generating set for ๐ andGenerating set๐ generates ๐. If there is a finite generating set for ๐, then ๐ is said to befinitely generated.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 1 1. Let๐ be a non-empty subset of ๐. Then โจ๐โฉ ={ ๐ฅ1๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐ โถ ๐ โ โ, ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ }.
Proof of 1.11. Let ๐ = { ๐ฅ1๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐ โถ ๐ โ โ, ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ }. Then ๐ is closedunder multiplication and so is a subsemigroup of ๐. Furthermore,๐ โ ๐.Hence ๐must be one of the ๐๐ in T, and so โจ๐โฉ โ ๐. Since๐ โ โจ๐โฉ andโจ๐โฉ is closed under multiplication, ๐ โ โจ๐โฉ. Therefore โจ๐โฉ = ๐. 1.11
Suppose ๐ is generated by a single element ๐ฅ; that is, ๐ = โจ{๐ฅ}โฉ (whichMonogenic semigroupwe abbreviate to ๐ = โจ๐ฅโฉ). Then ๐ is a monogenic semigroup, and, byProposition 1.11, ๐ = { ๐ฅ๐ โถ ๐ โ โ }. If the element ๐ฅ is periodic withindex ๐ and period๐, then ๐ = {๐ฅ, ๐ฅ2,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1}. Let
๐พ = {๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1}.
It is easy to see that ๐พ is an ideal of ๐.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 1 2. The ideal ๐พ is a subgroup of ๐.
Proof of 1.12. Let ๐ผ = {๐, ๐ + 1,โฆ , ๐ + ๐ โ 1}, so that ๐พ = { ๐ฅ๐ โถ ๐ โ๐ผ }. Then ๐ผ is a complete set of representatives for congruence classesof the integers modulo ๐. In particular there is some ๐ โ ๐ผ such that๐ โก 0 mod ๐; note that ๐ = ๐๐ for some ๐ โ โ. Let ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐. Then
10 โขElementary semigroup theory
๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐ and similarly ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ for any ๐ โ ๐ผ; hence๐ is an identity for ๐พ.
Now let ๐ โ ๐ผ. Choose ๐ โ ๐ผ with ๐ โก โ๐ mod ๐. Then ๐ + ๐ โก0 mod ๐ and so ๐ + ๐ = ๐ ๐ for some ๐ โ โ. Hence ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐ = ๐ฅ๐ ๐.Since ๐ ๐ โฉพ ๐ and since ๐๐ is the unique multiple of๐ in ๐ผ, it follows that๐ ๐ = ๐๐ + ๐ก๐ for some ๐ก โ โ โช {0}. Hence ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐+๐ก๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐,and similarly ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐. Hence ๐ฅ๐ is a right and left inverse for ๐ฅ๐; since๐ โ ๐ผ was arbitrary, every element of ๐พ has an inverse in ๐พ. 1.12
Note that๐ฅ๐may not be an identity for๐. It is true that๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ =๐ฅ๐, but if ๐ > ๐, then ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐พ.Given a subset๐ of a monoid๐, we can also define the submonoid Generating a submonoid
generated by๐. Let T be the collection of submonoids of๐ that contain๐โช{1๐}. The intersection of the submonoids inT is non-empty and thusa submonoid. This is the smallest submonoid of๐ with identity 1๐ thatcontains๐. This submonoid, denoted Monโจ๐โฉ, is called the submonoidgenerated by๐. Reasoning similar to the proof of Proposition 1.11 yieldsthe following result:
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 1 3. Let๐ โ ๐. ThenMonโจ๐โฉ = { 1๐๐ฅ1๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐ โถ๐ โ โ โช {0}, ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ }. 1.13
Essentially, when we generate a submonoid of a monoid, we always Monoid generatorinclude the identity of the monoid. If๐ โ ๐ is such that Monโจ๐โฉ = ๐,then๐ is a monoid generating set for๐ and๐ generates๐ as a monoid.
Notice that if ๐ is a generating set for๐, then ๐ is also a monoid Generating set andmonoid generating setgenerating set; on the other hand, if๐ is a monoid generating set for๐,
then ๐ โช {1๐} is a generating set for๐. Thus๐ is finitely generated ifand only if there is a finite monoid generating set for๐.
Binary relations
Recall that a relation ๐ between a set ๐ and a set ๐ issimply a subset of ๐ ร ๐, and ๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ is equivalent to (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐. Theidentity relation on๐ is the relation Identity relation
id๐ = { (๐ฅ, ๐ฅ) โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ }.
The converse ๐โ1 of ๐ is the relation Converse of a relation
๐โ1 = { (๐ฆ, ๐ฅ) โถ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ }.
The converse relation ๐โ1 is not in general a left or right inverse of ๐,even when ๐ is a map.Let ๐ be a relation between ๐ and ๐ and ๐ be a relation between ๐ Composition of relations
Binary relations โข 11
and ๐. Define the composition of ๐ and ๐ to be
๐ โ ๐ = { (๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐ ร ๐ โถ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)((๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ) โง (๐ฆ ๐ ๐ง)) }. (1.2)
Notice that ๐ โ ๐ is a relation between๐ and ๐. Furthermore, notice that๐ โ id๐ = ๐ and id๐ โ ๐ = ๐.
For any ๐ฅ โ ๐, let ๐ฅ๐ = { ๐ฆ โ ๐ โถ ๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ }. Then ๐ is a partial mapPartial/full mapfrom ๐ to ๐ if |๐ฅ๐| โฉฝ 1 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Furthermore, ๐ is a full map, orsimply a map from๐ to ๐ if |๐ฅ๐| = 1 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐.
Suppose ๐ is a partial map from ๐ to ๐. When ๐ฅ๐ is the empty set,we say that ๐ฅ๐ is undefined; when ๐ฅ๐ is the singleton set {๐ฆ}, we say that๐ฅ๐ is defined and write ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ instead of ๐ฅ๐ = {๐ฆ}.
The definition of a map given here, and the notation in the last para-graph, agree with the standard concept and notation of a map. Further-more, when ๐ and ๐ are maps, (1.2) simply defines the usual compositionof maps. Thus we have recovered the usual notion of maps in a moregeneral setting.
For any partial map ๐ from๐ to ๐, the domain of ๐ is the setDomain, image, preimage
dom ๐ = { ๐ฅ โ ๐ โถ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)((๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐) }. (1.3)
That is, dom ๐ is the subset of๐ on which ๐ is defined. If ๐ is a map, wehave dom ๐ = ๐. The image of ๐ is the set
im ๐ = { ๐ฆ โ ๐ โถ (โ๐ฅ โ ๐)((๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐) }. (1.4)
The preimage under ๐ of ๐โฒ โ ๐ is the set
๐โฒ๐โ1 = { ๐ฅ โ ๐ โถ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐โฒ)((๐ฆ, ๐ฅ) โ ๐โ1) }= { ๐ฅ โ ๐ โถ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐โฒ)((๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐) }.
We will be particularly interested in binary relations on ๐; that is,Binary relations, B๐relations from ๐ to itself. Let B๐ denote the set of all binary relationson ๐. It is easy to show that โ is an associative operation on B๐ andso (B๐, โ) is a semigroup, called the semigroup of binary relations on๐.Furthermore, id๐ is an identity and so B๐ is a monoid.
A partial map from ๐ to itself is called a partial transformation ofPartial/full transformation๐. A map from ๐ to itself is called a full transformation, or simply atransformation of๐. The set of all partial transformations of๐ isP๐; theP๐, T๐, S๐set of all [full] transformations of๐ is T๐. Finally, S๐ denotes the set ofbijections on ๐. This is the well-known symmetric group on ๐. ClearlyS๐ โ T๐ โ P๐ โ B๐.
P r o p o s i t i o n 1 . 1 4. a) P๐ is a submonoid of B๐;b) T๐ is a submonoid of P๐;c) S๐ is a subgroup of T๐.
12 โขElementary semigroup theory
Proof of 1.14. a) Let ๐, ๐ โ P๐ and suppose ๐ฆ, ๐ฆโฒ โ ๐ฅ(๐ โ ๐). Then by thedefinition of โ, there exist ๐ง, ๐งโฒ โ ๐ such that (๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐ and (๐ง, ๐ฆ) โ ๐,and (๐ฅ, ๐งโฒ) โ ๐ and (๐งโฒ, ๐ฆโฒ) โ ๐. Since ๐ โ P๐, we have |๐ฅ๐| โฉฝ 1 andso ๐ง = ๐งโฒ. Since ๐ โ P๐, we have |๐ง๐| โฉฝ 1 and so ๐ฆ = ๐ฆโฒ. Hence|๐ฅ(๐ โ ๐)| โฉฝ 1 and so ๐ โ ๐ โ P๐.
b) Let ๐, ๐ โ T๐. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Since ๐ โ T๐, we have |๐ฅ๐| = 1. So let๐ง = ๐ฅ๐. Since ๐ โ T๐, we have |๐ง๐| = 1. So ๐ฅ(๐ โ ๐) contains (๐ฅ, ๐ง๐)and so |๐ฅ(๐ โ ๐)| โฉพ 1. By part a), |๐ฅ(๐ โ ๐)| = 1. Therefore ๐ โ ๐ โ T๐.
c) This is immediate because the composition of two bijections is abijection. 1.14
In light of Proposition 1.14, T๐ is called the semigroup of transforma-tions on๐ and P๐ is called the semigroup of partial transformations on๐.
Any bijection ๐ โ S๐ can be denoted by the usual disjoint cycle Two-line notationfor transformationsnotation from group theory. A partial (or full) transformation ๐ โ P๐
can be denoted using a 2 ร |๐| matrix: the (1, ๐ฅ)-th entry is ๐ฅ and the(2, ๐ฅ)-th entry is either ๐ฅ๐ (when ๐ฅ๐ is defined) or โ (indicating that ๐ฅ๐ isundefined). For example, if๐ = {1, 2, 3} and 1๐ = 2, and 2๐ is undefined,and 3๐ = 1, then
๐ = (1 2 32 โ 1) .
E xampl e 1 . 1 5. Let๐ = {1, 2}. Thenโ S๐ consists of two elements:
id๐ = (1 21 2) and (1 22 1) ;
โ T๐ consists of four elements: the two elements in S๐, and the trans-formations
(1 21 1) and (1 22 2) ;
โ P๐ consists of nine elements: the four elements inT๐, and the partialtransformations
(1 21 โ) , (1 22 โ) , (
1 2โ 1) , (
1 2โ 2) , and (
1 2โ โ) ;
โ B๐ consists of all sixteen possible subsets of ๐ ร ๐, including theempty setโ and๐ ร ๐ itself.
Let us illustrate how elements of the semigroups of partial and fulltransformations multiply:
Binary relations โข 13
E xampl e 1 . 1 6. Let๐ = {1, 2, 3}.a) LetMultiplication in T๐
๐ = (1 2 33 1 1) and ๐ = (1 2 32 2 3)
be elements of T๐. Let us compute the product ๐๐. First, ๐ containsthe pair (1, 3) and ๐ contains the pair (3, 3), so ๐๐ contains the pair(1, 3). Using our notation for partial and full maps, this says that1๐ = 3 and 3๐ = 3, and thus 1๐๐ = 3๐ = 3. Similarly, 2๐๐ = 1๐ = 2and 3๐๐ = 1๐ = 2. Hence
๐๐ = (1 2 33 2 2) .
b) LetMultiplication in P๐
๐ = (1 2 33 โ 2) and ๐ = (1 2 31 โ 2)
be elements ofP๐. Let us compute the product ๐๐. First, 1๐๐ = 3๐ =2; this part of the computation is just like the case of a full map. Next,2๐ is undefined: that is, ๐ does not contain the pair (2, ๐ฅ) for any๐ฅ โ ๐. Hence ๐๐ cannot contain the pair (2, ๐ฆ) for any ๐ฆ โ ๐. Thatis, 2๐๐ is undefined. Finally, 3๐ = 2, but ๐ does not contain the pair(2, ๐ฅ) for any ๐ฅ โ ๐, and hence ๐๐ cannot contain the pair (3, ๐ฅ) forany ๐ฅ โ ๐. That is, 3๐๐ is undefined. Hence
๐๐ = (1 2 32 โ โ) .
[During this computation, it may be helpful to think of โโโ as anadditional element of๐ that is mapped to itself by every partial trans-formation of P๐. Then one can think โ๐maps 2 to โ and ๐maps โto โ, so ๐๐ maps 2 to โโ and โ๐ maps 3 to 2 and ๐ maps 2 to โ, so๐๐maps 3 to โโ. Remember, however, that โ is not an element of๐,but is simply a notational convenience to indicate where a partialtransformation is undefined.]
There are several important properties that a binary relationmay have:Reflexive, (anti-)symmetric,transitive a relation ๐ โ B๐ is
โ reflexive if ๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, or, equivalently, if id๐ โ ๐;โ symmetric if ๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฆ ๐ ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐, or, equivalently, if๐ = ๐โ1;
โ anti-symmetric if (๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ) โง (๐ฆ ๐ ๐ฅ) โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐, or,equivalently, if ๐ โฉ ๐โ1 โ id๐;
14 โขElementary semigroup theory
โ transitive if (๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ) โง (๐ฆ ๐ ๐ง) โ ๐ฅ ๐ ๐ง for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐, or,equivalently, if ๐2 โ ๐.Notice that โanti-symmetricโ is not the same as โnot symmetricโ: forexample, the identity relation id๐ is both symmetric and anti-symmetric.An equivalence relation is a relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and Equivalence relation
transitive. An equivalence relation on๐ partitions the set๐ into equival-ence classes, each made up of related elements.
Orders and lattices
Let ๐ โ B๐. The binary relation ๐ is a partial order if it is Partial orderreflexive, anti-symmetric, and transitive. We normally use symbols likeโฉฝ, โผ, and โ for partial orders. We write ๐ฅ < ๐ฆ to mean that ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ and๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ; the obvious analogies apply for symbols like โบ and โ. A partiallyordered set or poset is a set๐ equipped with a partial order โฉฝ, formallydenoted (๐, โฉฝ).
If (๐, โฉฝ) is a partially ordered set and ๐ is a subset of ๐, then ๐โinheritsโ the partial order โฉฝ from๐. That is, the restriction of the relationโฉฝ to ๐ (that is, โฉฝ โฉ (๐ ร ๐)) is a partial order on ๐, and so ๐ is also apartially ordered set. We use the same notation for the original partialorder on๐ and for its restriction to ๐.
A Hasse diagram of a partial order โฉฝ on a set ๐ is a diagrammatic Hasse diagramrepresentation of โฉฝ. Every element of๐ is represented by a point on theplane, arranged so that ๐ฅ appears below ๐ฆ whenever ๐ฅ < ๐ฆ. If ๐ฅ < ๐ฆ andthere is no element ๐ง such that ๐ฅ < ๐ง < ๐ฆ, then a line segment is drawnbetween ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ.
Suppose โฉฝ is a partial order on๐. Two elements ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ are compar- Total orderable if ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ or ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ. The partial order โฉฝ is a total order, or simply anorder, if all pairs of elements of๐ are comparable.
Suppose โฉฝ is a partial order on๐. A chain is a subset ๐ of๐ in which Chain, antichainevery pair of elements are comparable. An antichain is a subset ๐ of๐ inwhich no pair of distinct elements is comparable. Note that it is possiblefor ๐ itself to be a chain or an antichain. If ๐ is a chain (respectively,antichain), then any subset of๐ is also a chain (respectively, antichain).
E x a m p l e 1 . 1 7. a) For example, the relation โฉฝ on the integers โคis a partial order: it is reflexive, since ๐ โฉฝ ๐ for all ๐; it is anti-symmetric, since๐ โฉฝ ๐ and ๐ โฉฝ ๐ imply๐ = ๐; and it is transitive,since๐ โฉฝ ๐ and ๐ โฉฝ ๐ imply๐ โฉฝ ๐.
b) Let๐ be a set. Recall that the power set โ๐ is the set of all subsets of๐. The relation โ on โ๐ is a partial order. Figure 1.2 shows the Hasse
{1, 2, 3}
{1, 3}{1, 2} {2, 3}
{2}{1} {3}
{}FIGURE 1.2Hasse diagram for โ onโ{1, 2, 3}.
diagram of โ{1, 2, 3}. Notice that โ is not a total order: for instance,{1} and {2, 3} are not comparable.
Orders and lattices โข 15
c) Let โฃ be the divisibility relation onโ; that is, ๐ฅ โฃ ๐ฆ if and only if thereexists ๐ โ โ such that ๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ. Then โฃ is reflexive, since ๐ฅ โฃ ๐ฅ forall ๐ฅ โ โ. It is anti-symmetric, since ๐ฅ โฃ ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ โฃ ๐ฅ imply ๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅand ๐ฅ = ๐โฒ๐ฆ for some ๐, ๐โฒ โ โ, which implies ๐ฅ = ๐โฒ๐๐ฅ and so๐ = ๐โฒ = 1, which implies ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. It is transitive, since ๐ฅ โฃ ๐ฆ and๐ฆ โฃ ๐ง imply ๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ and ๐ง = ๐โฒ๐ฆ for some ๐, ๐โฒ โ โ, which implies๐ง = (๐โฒ๐)๐ฅ and so ๐ฅ โฃ ๐ง. So โฃ is a partial order onโ.
If ๐ฅ โ ๐ is such that there is no element ๐ฆ โ ๐ with ๐ฆ < ๐ฅ (respect-Minimal/minimum,maximal/maximum ively, ๐ฅ < ๐ฆ), then ๐ฅ is minimal (respectively, maximal). If ๐ฅ โ ๐ is such
that for all elements ๐ฆ โ ๐, we have ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ (respectively ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ), then ๐ฅ isa minimum (respectively, maximum). Therefore, in summary:
๐ฅ is minimalโ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)(๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ);๐ฅ is minimumโ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)(๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ);๐ฅ is maximalโ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)(๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ);๐ฅ is maximumโ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)(๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ).
Notice that a minimum element is also minimal, but that the conversedoes not hold. A poset does not have to contain minimum or minimalelements. It contains at most one minimum element, for if ๐ฅ1 and ๐ฅ2are both minimum, then ๐ฅ1 โฉฝ ๐ฅ2 and ๐ฅ2 โฉฝ ๐ฅ1, and so ๐ฅ1 = ๐ฅ2 by anti-symmetry. It may contain many distinct minimal elements.
E x a m p l e 1 . 1 8. a) The poset (โค, โฉฝ) does not contain either max-imal elements or minimal elements.
b) Let๐ = {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ1, ๐ฆ2}; define โฉฝ on๐ by
๐ข โฉฝ ๐ข for all ๐ข โ ๐,๐ฆ1 โฉฝ ๐ฅ,๐ฆ2 โฉฝ ๐ฅ.
The Hasse diagram for (๐, โฉฝ) is as shown in Figure 1.3(a): ๐ฅ is a (ne-cessarily unique) maximum element, and ๐ฆ1 and ๐ฆ2 are both minimalelements.
c) Let๐ = {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง1, ๐ง2,โฆ} and define โฉฝ by
๐ข โฉฝ ๐ข for all ๐ข โ ๐,๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ,๐ง๐ โฉฝ ๐ฅ for all ๐ โ โ,๐ง๐ โฉฝ ๐ง๐ for all ๐, ๐ โ โ with ๐ โฉพ ๐.
The Hasse diagram for (๐, โฉฝ) is as shown in Figure 1.3(b): ๐ฅ is a(necessarily unique) maximum element, and ๐ฆ is the unique minimalelement, but ๐ฆ is not a minimum.
16 โขElementary semigroup theory
๐ฅ๐ฆ1 ๐ฆ2
๐ง1
๐ง2๐ง3๐ง4๐ง๐
๐ฆ๐ฅ
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.3Examples of partial orders, illus-trating minimal/maximal andminimum/maximum elements:(a) has a maximum ๐ฅ and twominimal elements ๐ฆ1 and ๐ฆ2 ;(b) has a unique minimal ele-ment ๐ฆ but has no minimumelement.
There is a natural partial order of idempotents of a semigroup ๐ that Partial order of idempotentswill re-appear in several different settings. Define the relation โผ on theset of idempotents ๐ธ(๐) by ๐ โผ ๐ โ ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 1 9. The relation โผ is a partial order.
Proof of 1.19. Since ๐2 = ๐, we have ๐ โผ ๐ and so โผ is reflexive. If ๐ โผ ๐and ๐ โผ ๐, then ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ and so ๐ = ๐; hence โผ isanti-symmetric. If ๐ โผ ๐ and ๐ โผ ๐, then ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐and so ๐๐ = ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ and thus ๐ โผ ๐; henceโผ is transitive. Therefore โผ is a partial order. 1.19
Let โฉฝ be a partial order on a set๐. Let ๐ โ ๐. A lower bound for ๐ is Lower boundany element ๐ง of๐ such that ๐ง โฉฝ ๐ฆ for all ๐ฆ โ ๐. Let ๐ต be the set of lowerbounds for ๐. If ๐ต is non-empty and has a maximum element ๐ง, then ๐งis the greatest lower bound or meet or infimumof ๐. The meet of ๐, if it Greatest lower bound, meetexists, is unique and is denoted byโจ ๐, or, in the case where ๐ = {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ},by ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ.
If ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ exists for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐, then ๐ is a meet semilattice or lower Semilatticesemilattice. Ifโจ ๐ exists for all๐ โ ๐, then๐ is a completemeet semilatticeor complete lower semilattice.
The obvious definitions apply for upper bound, least upper bound or Upper bound, joinjoin or supremum,โจ๐, ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ, join semilattice or upper semilattice, andcomplete join semilattice or complete upper semilattice.
Most texts use โง, โจ, โ, and โ in place of โ, โ, โจ , and โจ. The squarevariants are used here to avoid confusion with the symbols for logicalconjunction (โandโ) โง and disjunction (โorโ) โจ.
The partially ordered set (๐, โฉฝ) is a lattice if it is an upper and lower Latticesemilattice. It is a complete lattice if it is an complete upper semilatticeand complete lower semilattice.
E x a m p l e 1 . 2 0. a) In the example of the relation โ on the powersetโ{1, 2, 3}, we have {1, 2} โ {1, 3} = {1} and {1, 2} โ {3} = {}. Indeed,(โ{1, 2, 3}, โ) is a complete lattice.
Orders and lattices โข 17
b) Let๐ = {๐ก, ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง1, ๐ง2,โฆ} and define โฉฝ by
๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ก,๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ก,๐ง๐ โฉฝ ๐ก for all ๐ โ โ,๐ง๐ โฉฝ ๐ฅ for all ๐ โ โ,๐ง๐ โฉฝ ๐ฆ for all ๐ โ โ,๐ง๐ โฉฝ ๐ง๐ for all ๐, ๐ โ โ with ๐ โฉฝ ๐.
Figure 1.4 shows a partial Hasse diagram for (๐, โฉฝ). Notice that ๐ฅ and
๐ง1
๐ง2
๐ง3๐ง4
๐ง๐
๐ฅ ๐ฆ๐ก
FIGURE 1.4Partial Hasse diagram for the
partially ordered set (๐, โฉฝ).
๐ฆ do not have a meet, but that every pair of elements has a join. So(๐, โฉฝ) is an upper semilattice but not a lower semilattice. However,it is not a complete upper semilattice because the subset { ๐ง๐ โถ ๐ โ โ }does not have a join.
T h e o r e m 1 . 2 1. a) Let (๐, โฉฝ) be a non-empty lower semilattice.
Semilattice = commutativesemigroup of idempotents
Then (๐, โ) is a commutative semigroup of idempotents.Conversely, let (๐, โ) be a commutative semigroup of idempotents.
Define a relation โฉฝ on ๐ by ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ. Then โฉฝ is a partialorder and (๐, โฉฝ) is a lower semilattice.
b) Let (๐, โฉฝ) be a non-empty upper semilattice. Then (๐, โ) is a commut-ative semigroup of idempotents.
Conversely, let (๐, โ) be a commutative semigroup of idempotents.Define a relation โฉฝ on ๐ by ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ. Then โฉฝ is a partialorder and (๐, โฉฝ) is an upper semilattice.
Proof of 1.21. We prove part a); the reasoning for part b) is dual. Suppose(๐, โฉฝ) is a lower non-empty semilattice. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐. First, ๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง)and (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง are both the meet of {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง} and hence ๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) =(๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง. So โ is associative. Next, ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ are both the meetof {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ}, and so ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ. So (๐, โ) is commutative. The meet of {๐ฅ}is ๐ฅ itself, so ๐ฅ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Hence every element of (๐, โ) is idempotent. So(๐, โ) is a commutative semigroup of idempotents.
Suppose (๐, โ) is a commutative semigroup of idempotents and defineโฉฝ as in the statement of the result. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐. First, ๐ฅ is idempotent,and so ๐ฅ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, and thus ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฅ. Hence โฉฝ is reflexive. Second, supposethat ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ. Then ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. Since (๐, โ) iscommutative, this shows that ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. Hence โฉฝ is anti-symmetric. Third,suppose ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ง. Then ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ง = ๐ฆ. So ๐ฅ โ ๐ง =(๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง = ๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) = ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ, and so ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ง. Hence โฉฝ is transitive.
Finally, wewant to show that๐ฅโ๐ฆ = ๐ฅโ๐ฆ. First of all (๐ฅโ๐ฆ)โ๐ฅ = (๐ฅโ๐ฆ),so ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ and similarly ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฆ. So ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ is a lower bound for {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ}.Let ๐ง be some lower bound for {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ}. Then ๐ง โฉฝ ๐ฅ and ๐ง โฉฝ ๐ฆ. Hence๐ง โ ๐ฅ = ๐ง and ๐ง โ ๐ฆ = ๐ง. So ๐ง โ (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) = (๐ง โ ๐ฅ) โ ๐ฆ = ๐ง โ ๐ฆ = ๐ง, and so๐ง โฉฝ (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ). Hence ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ is the greatest lower bound for {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ}. Thus (๐, โฉฝ)is a lower semilattice. 1.21
18 โขElementary semigroup theory
Homomorphisms
Let ๐ and ๐ be semigroups. A map ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is a homo- Homomorphismmorphism if (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐) for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. If ๐ and ๐ are monoids,then ๐ is a monoid homomorphism if (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐) for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐and 1๐๐ = 1๐.
A monomorphism is an injective homomorphism. If ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ Monomorphism,isomorphismis a surjective homomorphism, then ๐ is a homomorphic image of ๐.
An isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism. It is easy to prove that ahomomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is an isomorphism if and only if there is ahomomorphism ๐โ1 โถ ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐๐โ1 = id๐ and ๐โ1๐ = id๐. Ifthere is an isomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐, then we say ๐ and ๐ are isomorphicand denote this by ๐ โ ๐.
When two semigroups are isomorphic, we can think of them as theโsameโ abstract structure in different settings.
It is easy to prove that if ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is a homomorphism and ๐โฒ and ๐โฒare subsemigroups of ๐ and๐ respectively, then ๐โฒ๐ is a subsemigroup of๐and ๐โฒ๐โ1 is a subsemigroup of ๐ if it is non-empty. In particular, putting๐โฒ = ๐ shows that im๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐. If ๐ is a monomorphism,then ๐ is isomorphic to the subsemigroup im๐ of ๐.
The kernel of a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is the binary relation Kernel of a homomorphism
ker๐ = { (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ ร ๐ โถ ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ }.
Notice that ๐ is a monomorphism if and only if ker๐ is the identityrelation (that is, ker๐ = id๐).
We now give a result showing that every semigroup is isomorphic to asubsemigroup of a semigroup of transformations. This is the analogue ofCayleyโs theorem for groups, which states that every group is isomorphicto a subgroup of a symmetric group. For any ๐ฅ โ ๐, let ๐๐ฅ โ T๐1 be the ๐๐ฅmap defined by ๐ ๐๐ฅ = ๐ ๐ฅ for all ๐ โ ๐1.
T h eorem 1 . 2 2. The map ๐ โถ ๐ โ T๐1 given by ๐ฅ โฆ ๐๐ฅ is a mono- Right regular representationmorphism.
Proof of 1.22. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ โ ๐. Then ๐ ๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = (๐ ๐ฅ)๐๐ฆ = (๐ ๐ฅ)๐ฆ = ๐ (๐ฅ๐ฆ) =๐ ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ; hence (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐) = ๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐. Therefore ๐ is a homomor-phism. Furthermore
๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ โ 1๐๐ฅ = 1๐๐ฆ โ 1๐ฅ = 1๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ;
hence ๐ is injective. 1.22
An endomorphism is a homomorphism from a semigroup to itself.The set of all endomorphisms of ๐ is denoted End(๐) and forms a sub- End(๐)semigroup of T๐.
The semigroup ๐ is group-embeddable if there exists a group ๐บ and a Group-embeddability
Homomorphisms โข 19
monomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ. In this case, ๐ is isomorphic to the subsemi-group im๐ of๐บ. Clearly any group-embeddable semigroup is cancellative,but we shall see that there exist cancellative semigroups that are not group-embeddable (see Example 2.14).
A map ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is an anti-homomorphism if (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฆ๐)(๐ฅ๐) forAnti-homomorphismall ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐.
Congruences and quotients
A binary relation ๐ on ๐ isCongruence
โ left-compatible if (โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐)(๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ โ ๐ง๐ฅ ๐ ๐ง๐ฆ);โ right-compatible if (โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐)(๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ๐ง ๐ ๐ฆ๐ง);โ compatible if (โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐)((๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ) โง (๐ง ๐ ๐ก) โ ๐ฅ๐ง ๐ ๐ฆ๐ก).
A left-compatible equivalence relation is a left congruence; a right-compat-ible equivalence relation is a right congruence; a compatible equivalencerelation is a congruence.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 2 3. A relation ๐ on ๐ is a congruence if and only ifCongruences areleft/right congruences it is both a left and a right congruence.
Proof of 1.23. Suppose that the relation ๐ is both a left and a right congru-ence. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐ be such that ๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ and ๐ง ๐ ๐ก. Since ๐ is a rightcongruence, ๐ฅ๐ง ๐ ๐ฆ๐ง. Since ๐ is a left congruence, ๐ฆ๐ง ๐ ๐ฆ๐ก. Since ๐ istransitive, ๐ฅ๐ง ๐ ๐ฆ๐ก. Hence ๐ is a congruence.
Suppose now that ๐ is a congruence. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ be such that ๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฆ.Let ๐ง โ ๐. Since ๐ is reflexive, ๐ง ๐ ๐ง. Since ๐ is a congruence, ๐ง๐ฅ ๐ ๐ง๐ฆ and๐ฅ๐ง ๐ ๐ฆ๐ง. Hence ๐ is both a left and a right congruence. 1.23
Let ๐ be a congruence on ๐. Let ๐/๐ denote the quotient set of ๐ byFactor semigroup๐ (that is, the set of ๐-classes of ๐). For any ๐ฅ โ ๐, let [๐ฅ]๐ โ ๐/๐ be the๐-class of ๐ฅ; that is, [๐ฅ]๐ = { ๐ฆ โ ๐ โถ ๐ฆ ๐ ๐ฅ }. Define a multiplication on๐/๐ by
[๐ฅ]๐[๐ฆ]๐ = [๐ฅ๐ฆ]๐.
This multiplication is well-defined, in the sense that if we chose differentrepresentatives for the ๐-classes [๐ฅ]๐ and [๐ฆ]๐, we would get the sameanswer:
([๐ฅ]๐ = [๐ฅโฒ]๐) โง ([๐ฆ]๐ = [๐ฆโฒ]๐)โ (๐ฅ ๐ ๐ฅโฒ) โง (๐ฆ ๐ ๐ฆโฒ)โ ๐ฅ๐ฆ ๐ ๐ฅโฒ๐ฆโฒ [since ๐ is a congruence]โ [๐ฅ๐ฆ]๐ = [๐ฅโฒ๐ฆโฒ]๐.
20 โขElementary semigroup theory
The factor set ๐/๐, with thismultiplication, is a semigroup and is called thequotient or factor of ๐ by ๐. The map ๐โฎ โถ ๐ โ ๐/๐, defined by ๐ฅ๐โฎ = [๐ฅ]๐is clearly a surjective homomorphism, called the natural map or natural Natural maphomomorphism.
T h eorem 1 . 2 4. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be a homomorphism. Then ker๐ is a First isomorphism theoremcongruence, and the map ๐ โถ ๐/ker๐ โ im๐ with [๐ฅ]ker๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐ is anisomorphism, and so ๐/ker๐ โ im๐.
Proof of 1.24. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐. Then
(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ker๐ โง (๐ง, ๐ก) โ ker๐โ (๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐) โง (๐ง๐ = ๐ก๐) [by definition of ker๐]โ (๐ฅ๐)(๐ง๐) = (๐ฆ๐)(๐ก๐)โ (๐ฅ๐ง)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ก)๐ [since ๐ is a homomorphism]โ (๐ฅ๐ง, ๐ฆ๐ก) โ ker๐; [by definition of ker๐]
thus ker๐ is a congruence. Now,
[๐ฅ]ker๐ = [๐ฆ]ker๐โ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ker๐ [by definition of ker๐-classes]โ ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ [by definition of ker๐]โ [๐ฅ]ker๐๐ = [๐ฆ]ker๐๐. [by definition of ๐]
}}}}}}}}}}}
(1.5)
The forward implication of (1.5) shows that ๐ is well-defined. The reverseimplication shows that ๐ is injective. The image of ๐ is clearly im๐. Themap ๐ is a homomorphism since ๐ is a homomorphism. Hence ๐ is anisomorphism and so ๐/ker๐ โ im๐. 1.24
Let ๐ผ be an ideal of ๐. Then ๐๐ผ = (๐ผ ร ๐ผ) โช id๐ is a congruence on ๐. Rees factor semigroupThe factor semigroup ๐/๐๐ผ is also denoted ๐/๐ผ, and the element [๐ฅ]๐๐ผ isdenoted [๐ฅ]๐ผ. The congruence ๐๐ผ is called the Rees congruence induced by๐ผ, and ๐/๐ผ is a Rees factor semigroup.The elements of ๐/๐ผ are the ๐๐ผ-classes,which comprise ๐ผ and singleton sets {๐ฅ} for each ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐ผ. It is easy tosee that ๐ผ is a zero of the factor semigroup ๐/๐ผ, so it is often convenient toview ๐/๐ผ as having elements (๐ โ ๐ผ) โช {0}, and to think of forming ๐/๐ผ bystarting with ๐ and merging all elements of ๐ผ to form a zero; see Figure 1.5.
๐/๐ผ๐
๐ โ ๐ผ ๐ โ ๐ผ
๐ผ 0๐/๐ผ
FIGURE 1.5Forming๐/๐ผ from๐bymergingelements of ๐ผ to form a zero.
The following result shows that the ideals of ๐/๐ผ are in one-to-onecorrespondence with the ideals of ๐ that contain ๐ผ.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 2 5. Let ๐ผ be an ideal of ๐. Let A be the collection ofideals of ๐ that contain ๐ผ. Let B be the collection of the ideals of ๐/๐ผ. Thenthe map ๐ โถ A โ B given by ๐ฝ๐ = ๐ฝ/๐ผ is a bijection from A to B thatpreserves inclusion, in the sense that ๐ฝ โ ๐ฝโฒ โ ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ๐. 1.25
Congruences and quotients โข 21
A semigroup ๐ธ is an ideal extension of ๐ by ๐ if ๐ is an ideal of ๐ธIdeal extensionand ๐ธ/๐ โ ๐. Note that for an ideal extension of ๐ by ๐ to exist, ๐mustcontain a zero. Note further that there may be many non-isomorphicsemigroups that are ideal extensions of ๐ by ๐.
Generating equivalencesand congruences
In this section, we will study how an equivalence rela-tion or congruence on a semigroup ๐ is generated by a relation on ๐.This section is rather technical, but fundamentally important for futurechapters.
Throughout this section, let๐ be a non-empty set. For any ๐ โ B๐,Generating equivalenceslet
๐R = โ{๐ โ B๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ โง ๐ is reflexive };
๐S = โ{๐ โ B๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ โง ๐ is symmetric };
๐T = โ{๐ โ B๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ โง ๐ is transitive };
๐E = โ{๐ โ B๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ โง ๐ is an equivalence relation }.
There is at least one element ๐ โ B๐ fulfilling the condition in each of thecollections above, namely ๐ = ๐ ร ๐. Furthermore, since every elementin these collections contains ๐, the intersections ๐R, ๐S, ๐T, and ๐E allcontain ๐. It is easy to see thatโ ๐R, called the reflexive closure of ๐, is the smallest reflexive relation
containing ๐;โ ๐S, called the symmetric closure of ๐, is the smallest symmetric relation
containing ๐;โ ๐T, called the transitive closure of ๐, is the smallest transitive relation
containing ๐;โ ๐E, called the equivalence relation generated by ๐, is the smallest equi-
valence relation containing ๐.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 2 6. For any ๐ โ B๐,a) ๐R = ๐ โช id๐;b) ๐S = ๐ โช ๐โ1;c) ๐T = โโ๐=1 ๐
๐;d) (๐R)S = (๐S)R = ๐ โช ๐โ1 โช id๐;e) (๐R)T = (๐T)R = ๐T โช id๐;f) ๐E = ((๐R)S)T = ((๐S)T)R = id๐ โช โ
โ๐=1(๐ โช ๐
โ1)๐.
22 โขElementary semigroup theory
Proof of 1.26. a) Since ๐R is a reflexive relation containing ๐, it is immedi-ate that ๐โช id๐ โ ๐R. On the other hand, ๐โช id๐ is a reflexive relationcontaining ๐; since ๐R is the smallest reflexive relation containing ๐,we have ๐R โ ๐ โช id๐. Hence ๐R = ๐ โช id๐.
b) Since ๐S is a symmetric relation containing ๐, it is immediate that๐ โช ๐โ1 โ ๐S. On the other hand, ๐ โช ๐โ1 is a symmetric relationcontaining ๐; since ๐S is the smallest symmetric relation containing๐, we have ๐S โ ๐ โช ๐โ1. Hence ๐S = ๐ โช ๐โ1.
c) Since ๐T contains ๐, transitivity implies that it contains ๐2 = ๐ โ ๐.Transitivity again implies that ๐T contains ๐3 = ๐ โ ๐2. Continuinginductively, we see that ๐T contains ๐๐ for all ๐ โ โ; henceโโ๐=1 ๐
๐ โ๐T.
On the other hand,
(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ), (๐ฆ, ๐ง) โ โโ๐=1๐๐
โ (โ๐, โ โ โ)((๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐๐ โง (๐ฆ, ๐ง) โ ๐โ)โ (โ๐, โ โ โ)((๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐๐ โ ๐โ)โ (โ๐, โ โ โ)((๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐๐+โ)
โ (๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ โโ๐=1๐๐.
Soโโ๐=1 ๐๐ is a transitive relation containing ๐. Since ๐T is the smallest
such relation, we have ๐T โ โโ๐=1 ๐๐. Hence ๐T = โโ๐=1 ๐
๐.d) We have
(๐R)S (1.6)= ๐R โช (๐R)โ1 [by part b)]= ๐ โช id๐ โช (๐ โช id๐)โ1 [by part a)]= ๐ โช id๐ โช ๐โ1 โช idโ1๐ [by definition of converse]= ๐ โช ๐โ1 โช id๐ [since idโ1๐ = id๐] (1.7)= ๐S โช id๐ [by part b)]
= (๐S)R. [by part a)] (1.8)
The result is given by lines (1.6), (1.7), and (1.8).e) Since id๐ โ ๐R, we have idT๐ โ (๐R)T. Since id๐ โ id๐ = id๐, it follows
from part c) that idT๐ = id๐. So id๐ โ (๐R)T. Since ๐ โ ๐R, we have๐T โ (๐R)T. So (๐T)R = ๐T โช id๐ โ (๐R)T.
Now let (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐R)T. Then by parts a) and c), (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ โโ๐=1(๐ โชid๐)๐. So there exists ๐ โ โ and ๐ฅ0,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐ข = ๐ฅ0,๐ฃ = ๐ฅ๐, and (๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1) โ ๐โช id๐ for ๐ = 0,โฆ , ๐โ1. Fix such a sequencewith ๐ minimal. Then if ๐ โฉพ 2, no pair (๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1) is in id๐, for thiswould imply that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1 and so we could shorten the sequence by
Generating equivalences and congruences โข 23
deleting one of ๐ฅ๐ or ๐ฅ๐+1, contradicting the minimality of ๐. So
(๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ id๐ โช ๐ โชโ
โ๐=2๐๐ = id๐ โช ๐T = (๐T)R.
Hence (๐R)T โ (๐T)R and so (๐R)T = (๐T)R.f) Since๐E is reflexive and contains๐, it contains๐R. Since it is symmetric
and contains ๐R, it contains (๐R)S. Since it is transitive and contains(๐R)S, it contains ((๐R)S)T. Hence ((๐R)S)T โ ๐E.
On the other hand, ((๐R)S)T is transitive by the definition of T.Furthermore, ((๐R)S)T โ (๐R)S) โ ๐R โ id๐ and so ((๐R)S)T is reflex-ive. Let (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ((๐R)S)T = โโ๐=1((๐
R)S)๐. Then (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ((๐R)S)๐ forsome ๐ โ โ. Hence there exist ๐ฅ0,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ with ๐ฅ0 = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ,and (๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1) โ (๐R)S for ๐ = 0,โฆ , ๐ โ 1. Since (๐R)S is symmetric,(๐ฅ๐+1, ๐ฅ๐) โ (๐R)S for each ๐, and so (๐ฆ, ๐ฅ) โ ((๐R)S)๐ โ ((๐R)S)T. So((๐R)S)T is symmetric. Hence ((๐R)S)T is an equivalence relation con-taining ๐. Since ๐E is the smallest equivalence relation containing ๐,we have ๐E โ ((๐R)S)T. Hence ๐E = ((๐R)S)T.
Finally, notice that
๐E = ((๐R)S)T [by the above reasoning] (1.9)= ((๐S)R)T [by part d)]
= ((๐S)T)R [by part e)] (1.10)= id๐ โช (๐S)T [by part a)]
= id๐ โช (๐ โช ๐โ1)T [by part b)]= id๐ โช โ
โ๐=1(๐ โช ๐
โ1). [by part c)] (1.11)
Lines (1.9), (1.10), and (1.11) give the three required equalities. 1.26
For any ๐ โ B๐, letGenerating congruences
๐C = โ{๐ โ B๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ โง ๐ is left and right compatible },
๐# = โ{๐ โ B๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ โง ๐ is a congruence }.
It is easy to see thatโ ๐C is the smallest left and right compatible relation containing ๐;โ ๐#, called the congruence generated by ๐, is the smallest congruence
containing ๐.
P ro p o s i t i on 1 . 2 7. For any ๐ โ B๐, we have ๐C = { (๐๐ฅ๐, ๐๐ฆ๐) โ๐ ร ๐ โถ ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 โง (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ }.
Proof of 1.27. Let ๐ = { (๐๐ฅ๐, ๐๐ฆ๐) โ ๐ ร ๐ โถ ๐, ๐ โ ๐1, (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ }. Toprove that ๐ = ๐C, we have to show that ๐ is the smallest left and rightcompatible relation on ๐ containing ๐. Notice first that if (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐, then
24 โขElementary semigroup theory
(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) = (1๐ฅ1, 1๐ฆ1) โ ๐. Hence ๐ contains ๐. Let (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐.Then ๐ข = ๐๐ฅ๐ and ๐ฃ = ๐๐ฆ๐ for some (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐. Let ๐โฒ = ๐๐. Then(๐๐ข, ๐๐ฃ) = (๐โฒ๐ฅ๐, ๐โฒ๐ฆ๐) โ ๐. Hence ๐ is left-compatible. Similarly, ๐ isright compatible.
Now let ๐ be some left and right compatible relation that contains๐. Let (๐๐ฅ๐, ๐๐ฆ๐) โ ๐, where (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ and ๐, ๐ โ ๐1. Then (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐since ๐ โ ๐. Hence (๐๐ฅ๐, ๐๐ฆ๐) โ ๐ since ๐ is left and right compatible.Thus ๐ โ ๐. Therefore ๐ is the smallest left and right compatible relationcontaining ๐. 1.27
Pro p o s i t i on 1 . 2 8. For any ๐, ๐ โ B๐,a) (๐ โช ๐)C = ๐C โช ๐C;b) (๐โ1)C = (๐C)โ1.
Proof of 1.28. a) For ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐,
(๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐ โช ๐)C
โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐1, (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ โช ๐)(๐ข = ๐๐ฅ๐ โง ๐ฃ = ๐๐ฆ๐)[by Proposition 1.27]
โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐1, (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐)(๐ข = ๐๐ฅ๐ โง ๐ฃ = ๐๐ฆ๐)โจ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐1, (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐)(๐ข = ๐๐ฅ๐ โง ๐ฃ = ๐๐ฆ๐)
โ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐C โจ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐C [by Proposition 1.27]
โ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐C โช ๐C.
b) For ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐,
(๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐โ1)C
โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐1, (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐โ1)(๐ข = ๐๐ฅ๐ โง ๐ฃ = ๐๐ฆ๐)[by Proposition 1.27]
โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐1, (๐ฆ, ๐ฅ) โ ๐)(๐ฃ = ๐๐ฆ๐ โง ๐ข = ๐๐ฅ๐)โ (๐ฃ, ๐ข) โ ๐C [by Proposition 1.27]
โ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐C)โ1. 1.28
Pro p o s i t i on 1 . 2 9. For any ๐ โ B๐, Characterizinggenerated congruences
๐# = (๐C)E = id๐ โชโ
โ๐=1(๐C โช (๐C)โ1)๐.
Proof of 1.29. By Proposition 1.26(f),
(๐C)E = id๐ โชโ
โ๐=1(๐C โช (๐C)โ1)๐,
so we must prove that ๐# = (๐C)E. That is, we must show that (๐C)E is thesmallest congruence containing ๐. By definition, (๐C)E is an equivalencerelation containing ๐C, which in turn contains ๐. So ๐ โ (๐C)E.
Generating equivalences and congruences โข 25
Now let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐ and suppose that (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ (๐C)E. If (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ id๐,then ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ, and so ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ, and thus (๐ง๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ฆ) โ id๐ โ (๐C)E. Further-more,
(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ โโ๐=1(๐C โช (๐C)โ1)๐
โ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ โโ๐=1((๐ โช ๐โ1)C)๐ [by Proposition 1.28]
โ (โ๐ โ โ)(โ๐ฅ0, ๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐)[(๐ฅ = ๐ฅ0) โง (๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ)โง (โ๐)((๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1) โ (๐ โช ๐โ1)C)] [by definition of โ]
โ (โ๐ โ โ)(โ๐ฅ0, ๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐)[(๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฅ0) โง (๐ง๐ฅ๐ = ๐ง๐ฆ)โง (โ๐)((๐ง๐ฅ๐, ๐ง๐ฅ๐+1) โ (๐ โช ๐โ1)C)]
[since (๐ โช ๐โ1)C is left and right compatible]
โ (โ๐ โ โ)((๐ง๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ฆ) โ ((๐ โช ๐โ1)C)๐) [by definition of โ]
โ (๐ง๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ฆ) โ โโ๐=1(๐C โช (๐C)โ1)๐ [by Proposition 1.28]
โ (๐ง๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ฆ) โ (๐C)E.
Hence (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ (๐C)E implies (๐ง๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ฆ) โ (๐C)E. Therefore (๐C)E is left-compatible. Similarly, (๐C)E is right-compatible. Hence (๐C)E is a congru-ence containing ๐.
Now suppose that ๐ is a congruence containing ๐. Then ๐ is left andright compatible and so must contain ๐C, which is the smallest left andright compatible relation containing ๐. Furthermore, ๐ is an equivalencerelation, and so it must contain (๐C)E, which is the smallest equivalencerelation containing ๐C. Hence (๐C)E โ ๐. Therefore (๐C)E is the smallestcongruence containing ๐. 1.29
Let E๐ be the set of equivalence relations on ๐ and let C๐ be the set ofLattice of congruencescongruences on ๐. Then E๐ and C๐ both admit โ as a partial order. It iseasy to see that both (E๐, โ) and (C๐, โ) are actually lattices:โ for any ๐, ๐ โ E๐, we have ๐ โ ๐ = ๐ โฉ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ = (๐ โช ๐)E;โ for any ๐, ๐ โ C๐, we have ๐ โ ๐ = ๐ โฉ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ = (๐ โช ๐)#.
Suppose ๐, ๐ โ C๐. There seems to be an ambiguity in writing ๐ โ ๐: dowe mean the join (๐ โช ๐)E in the lattice of equivalence relations E๐, or thejoin (๐ โช ๐)# in the lattice of congruences C๐? However,
(๐ โช ๐)#
= ((๐ โช ๐)C)E [by Proposition 1.29]
= (๐C โช ๐C)E [by Proposition 1.28(a)]
= (๐ โช ๐)E. [since ๐ and ๐ are compatible]
So there is really no ambiguity in writing ๐ โ ๐.
26 โขElementary semigroup theory
Pro p o s i t i on 1 . 3 0. Let ๐, ๐ โ E๐. Then ๐ โ ๐ = (๐ โ ๐)T. Characterizing join ofequivalence relations
Proof of 1.30. Since ๐ โช ๐ contains both ๐ and ๐, it follows that
๐ โ ๐ โ (๐ โช ๐) โ (๐ โช ๐) = (๐ โช ๐)2,
and more generally that (๐ โ ๐)๐ โ (๐ โช ๐)2๐. Thus
(๐ โ ๐)T =โ
โ๐=1(๐ โ ๐)๐ โ
โ
โ๐=1(๐ โช ๐)๐ = (๐ โช ๐)T. (1.12)
On the other hand, ๐ โ ๐ contains ๐ โ id๐ = ๐ (since ๐ is reflexive) andcontains id๐ โ ๐ = ๐ (since ๐ is reflexive), and thus ๐ โช ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐. Hence(๐ โช ๐)T โ (๐ โ ๐)T. Combine this with (1.12) to see that
(๐ โช ๐)T = (๐ โ ๐)T. (1.13)
Then
๐ โ ๐= (๐ โช ๐)E
= (((๐ โช ๐)R)S)T [by Proposition 1.26(f)]
= ((๐ โช ๐) โช (๐ โช ๐)โ1 โช id๐)T [by Proposition 1.26(d)]
= (๐ โช ๐ โช ๐โ1 โช ๐โ1 โช id๐)T
= (๐ โช ๐)T [since ๐ and ๐ are reflexive and symmetric]
= (๐ โ ๐)T. [by (1.13)]
This completes the proof. 1.30
Pro p o s i t i on 1 . 3 1. Let ๐, ๐ โ E๐. If ๐ โ ๐ = ๐ โ ๐, then ๐โ๐ = ๐ โ ๐. Join of commutingequivalence relations
Proof of 1.31. Suppose ๐ โ ๐ = ๐ โ ๐. Then
(๐ โ ๐)2 = ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ = ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ = ๐2 โ ๐2. (1.14)
But ๐2 โ ๐ and ๐2 โ ๐ since ๐ and ๐ are transitive. Furthermore, ๐ =๐ โ id๐ โ ๐2 since ๐ is reflexive, and similarly ๐ โ ๐2. Hence ๐2 = ๐ and๐2 = ๐ and so (๐ โ ๐)2 = ๐ โ ๐ by (1.14). Hence (๐ โ ๐)๐ = ๐ โ ๐ for all๐ โ โ, and thus
๐ โ ๐ = (๐ โ ๐)T [by Proposition 1.30]= โโ๐=1(๐ โ ๐)
๐ [by Proposition 1.26(c)]= ๐ โ ๐. 1.31
Generating equivalences and congruences โข 27
Subdirect products
Let S = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } be a collection of semigroups. Foreach ๐ โ ๐ผ, there is a projection map from the direct productโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ to๐๐, taking an element of the direct product to its ๐-th component:
๐๐ โถ โ๐โ๐ผ๐๐ โ ๐๐, ๐ฅ๐๐ = (๐)๐ฅ.
Notice that every ๐๐ is a surjective homomorphism.A subdirect product of S is [a semigroup isomorphic to] a subsemi-Subdirect product
group ๐ of the direct productโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ such that ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ผ.Let ๐ be a semigroup. A collection of surjective homomorphismsSeparation by surjective
homomorphisms ๐ท = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } is said to separate the elements of ๐ if they havethe property that
(โ๐ โ ๐ผ)(๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐) โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ.
Pro p o s i t i on 1 . 3 2. A semigroup ๐ is a subdirect product of a collec-tion of semigroups S = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } if and only if there exists a collectionof surjective homomorphisms ๐ท = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } that separate theelements of ๐.
Proof of 1.32. If ๐ is a subdirect product of S, then the collection of projec-tion maps restricted to ๐ (that is, the collection { ๐๐|๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ })separates the elements of ๐.
On the other hand, suppose the collection ๐ท separates the elementsof ๐. Define ๐ โถ ๐ โ โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ by letting the ๐-th component of ๐ ๐ be๐ ๐๐; that is, (๐)(๐ ๐) = ๐ ๐๐. Then ๐ is a homomorphism since each ๐๐ isa homomorphism. Furthermore, ๐ ๐ = ๐ก๐ implies that ๐ ๐๐ = ๐ก๐๐ for all๐ โ ๐ผ, which implies ๐ = ๐ก since ๐ท separates the elements of ๐. Hence ๐ isinjective. So ๐ is isomorphic to the subsemigroup im๐ ofโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐. Finally,the projection maps ๐๐ are all surjective since each ๐๐ is surjective. Soim๐ is a subdirect product of S. 1.32
Prop o s i t i on 1 . 3 3. Let ๐ be a semigroup and let ๐ด = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }be a collection of congruences on ๐. Let ๐ = โ๐ด. Then ๐/๐ is a subdirectproduct of { ๐/๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }.
Proof of 1.33. For each ๐ there is a homomorphism ๐๐ โถ ๐/๐ โ ๐/๐๐ with[๐ฅ]๐๐๐ = [๐ฅ]๐๐ . (These maps are well-defined since ๐ โ ๐๐.) Clearly, thehomomorphisms ๐๐ are surjective. Furthermore, the collection๐ท = { ๐๐ โถ๐ โ ๐ผ } separates the elements of ๐/๐, since if [๐ฅ]๐๐๐ = [๐ฆ]๐๐๐ for all๐ โ ๐ผ, then [๐ฅ]๐๐ = [๐ฆ]๐๐ and thus (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ผ, which implies(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ = โ๐ด and so [๐ฅ]๐ = [๐ฆ]๐. Therefore ๐/๐ is a subdirect productof { ๐/๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } by Proposition 1.32. 1.33
Prop o s i t i on 1 . 3 4. Let๐ be a monoid and let ๐ธ be an ideal ex-Ideal extensions of monoidsare subdirect products tension of๐ by a semigroup ๐. Then ๐ธ is a subdirect product of๐ and
๐.
28 โขElementary semigroup theory
Proof of 1.34. By definition,๐ is an ideal of ๐ธ and ๐ is the Rees factorsemigroup ๐ธ/๐. Let ๐ โถ ๐ธ โ ๐ be the natural homomorphism ๐ฅ๐ =[๐ฅ]๐. Let ๐ โถ ๐ธ โ ๐ be given by ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1๐. Then
(๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐) = ๐ฅ1๐๐ฆ1๐= ๐ฅ๐ฆ1๐ [since ๐ฆ1๐ lies in the ideal๐ of ๐ธ]= (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐.
Thus ๐ is a homomorphism. Both ๐ and ๐ are clearly surjective. Further-more, if๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ and๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐, then either๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ธโ๐ and [๐ฅ]๐ = [๐ฆ]๐and so ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ, or ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ and ๐ฅ1๐ = ๐ฆ1๐ and so ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. Thus the collec-tion of surjective homomorphisms {๐, ๐} separates elements of ๐ธ and so๐ธ is a subdirect product of๐ and ๐. 1.34
Actions
A semigroup action of a semigroup ๐ on a set๐ด is an oper- Semigroup actionation โ โถ ๐ด ร ๐ โ ๐ด that is compatible with the semigroup multiplication,in the sense that
(๐ โ ๐ฅ) โ ๐ฆ = ๐ โ (๐ฅ๐ฆ) (1.15)
for all ๐ โ ๐ด and ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. We call such a semigroup action an action of ๐on ๐ด, or an ๐-action on ๐ด, and say that ๐ acts on ๐ด.
E x a m p l e 1 . 3 5. a) Any subsemigroup ๐ of T๐ด acts on๐ด by ๐ โ ๐ =๐๐ (where ๐ โ T๐ด).
b) Let ๐ be a subsemigroup of a semigroup ๐. Then ๐ acts on ๐ via๐ก โ ๐ฅ = ๐ก๐ฅ for all ๐ก โ ๐ and ๐ฅ โ ๐. In particular, this holds when ๐ = ๐or when ๐ = ๐1.
Given an action โ , we can define a map ๐ โถ ๐ โ T๐ด, where thetransformation ๐ ๐ is such that ๐(๐ ๐) = ๐ โ ๐ . The condition (1.15) impliesthat ๐ is a homomorphism. Conversely, given a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โT๐ด, we can define an action โ by ๐ โ ๐ = ๐(๐ ๐), which satisfies (1.15) since ๐is a homomorphism. There is thus a one-to-one correspondence betweenactions of a semigroup ๐ on ๐ด and homomorphisms ๐ โถ ๐ โ T๐ด.
An action of ๐ on ๐ด is free if distinct elements of ๐ act differently on Free, transitive,regular actionsevery element of ๐ด, or, equivalently,
(โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐)((โ๐ โ ๐ด)(๐ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ).
An action of ๐ on ๐ด is transitive if ๐ด is non-empty and for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐ด,there is some element ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐ โ ๐ = ๐. That is, the action istransitive if one can reach start at any element of๐ด and reach any element
Actions โข 29
(possibly the same one) by acting by some element of ๐. An action isregular if it is both free and transitive. It is easy to see that if ๐ has aregular action on ๐ด, then |๐| = |๐ด|.
Suppose ๐ด is also a semigroup. An action of ๐ on ๐ด is by endomorph-Action by endomorphismsisms if ๐ ๐ โ End๐ด for each ๐ โ ๐; in this case,
๐๐ โ ๐ฅ = (๐ โ ๐ฅ)(๐ โ ๐ฅ)
for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐ด and ๐ฅ โ ๐.The above discussions concern right semigroup actions. There is aLeft action
dual notion of a left semigroup action of ๐ on ๐ด, which is an operationโ โถ ๐ ร ๐ด โ ๐ด satisfying
๐ โ (๐ก โ ๐) = (๐ ๐ก) โ ๐;
this corresponds to a map ๐ โถ ๐ โ T๐ด, where ๐(๐ ๐) = ๐ โ ๐. This map ๐is an anti-homomorphism since
๐(๐ก๐)(๐ ๐) = (๐ก โ ๐)(๐ ๐) = ๐ โ (๐ก โ ๐) = ๐ ๐ก โ ๐ = ๐((๐ ๐ก)๐).
The definitions of actions being free, transitive, regular, and by endo-morphisms also apply to left actions.
The correspondence of right actions with homomorphisms and leftactions with anti-homomorphisms depends on writing maps on theright and composing them left-to-right. When maps are written onthe left and composed right-to-left, right actions correspond to anti-homomorphisms and left actions to homomorphisms.
Cayley graphs
Let ๐ be a semigroup or monoid with a generating set ๐ด.The right (respectively, left) Cayley graph ๐ค(๐, ๐ด) (respectively, ๐คโฒ(๐, ๐ด))of ๐with respect to๐ด is the directed graph with vertex set ๐ and, for every๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ด, an edge from ๐ฅ to ๐ฅ๐ (respectively, ๐๐ฅ) labelled by ๐. Bydefault โCayley graphโ means โright Cayley graphโ.
E x a m p l e 1 . 3 6. a) Let๐ be the monoid (โโช{0})ร (โโช{0}). Let๐ = (1, 0) and ๐ = (0, 1) and let ๐ด = {๐, ๐}. The Cayley graph ๐ค(๐,๐ด)is an infinite grid; part of it is shown in Figure 1.6.
b) Let๐ = {1, 2}. Let ๐ด = {๐, ๐, ๐} โ P๐, where
๐ = (1 22 1) , ๐ = (1 21 1) , and ๐ = (
1 21 โ) .
Then ๐ด generatesP๐. The Cayley graph ๐ค(P๐, ๐ด) is shown in Figure
1.7. Note the subgroup S๐ and the subsemigroupT๐, and that(1 2โ โ)
is a zero and a sink vertex of the graph.
30 โขElementary semigroup theory
(0, 0)
(1, 1)
(1, 2)
(1, 3)
(2, 1)
(2, 2)
(2, 3)
(3, 1)
(3, 2)
(3, 3)
(1, 0) (2, 0) (3, 0)
(0, 1)
(0, 2)
(0, 3)
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐ ๐ ๐
๐
๐
๐
FIGURE 1.6Cayley graph of ๐ = (โ โช{0}) ร (โ โช {0}).
(1 2โ โ)
(1 2โ 1) (1 2โ 2)(1 21 โ) (1 22 โ)
(1 21 1) (1 22 2)
(1 21 2) (1 22 1)๐
๐
๐
๐,๐
๐
๐,๐
๐
๐,๐
๐,๐, ๐
๐ ๐
๐, ๐
๐, ๐ ๐, ๐
๐๐
๐
๐๐
FIGURE 1.7Cayley graph ofP{1,2} .
c) Let ๐ = {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ} be a two-element right zero semigroup and let ๐ด = ๐.The i) right and ii) left Cayley graphs ๐ค(๐, ๐ด) and ๐คโฒ(๐, ๐ด) are shownin Figure 1.8.
For groups, Cayley graphs have special properties. First, the left andright Cayley graphs are isomorphic under the map sending each vertexand each edge label to its inverse. Second, theCayley graphs are connected,and indeed strongly connected. Third, the Cayley graphs are homogen-eous, which essentially means that a neighbourhood of any vertex โlookslikeโ the corresponding neighbourhood of any other vertex. The graphs inExample 1.36(c) show that the left and right Cayley graphs of a semigroupneed not be isomorphic; the second graph shows that the Cayley graph ofa semigroup need not be connected. All the graphs in Example 1.36 except(c)(ii) show that Cayley graphs of semigroups need not be homogeneous.
Cayley graphs โข 31
FIGURE 1.8Right (i) and left (ii) Cayleygraphs of a two-element right
zero semigroup {๐ฅ,๐ฆ}.
๐ฆ
๐ฅ
๐ฆ
๐ฅ
๐ฅ
๐ฆ ๐ฆ
๐ฅ ๐ฅ,๐ฆ
๐ฅ,๐ฆ
(i) (ii)
Exercises
[See pages 203โ209 for the solutions.]1.1 Prove that if ๐ is a semigroup and ๐ โ ๐ is both a right zero and a right
identity, then ๐ is trivial.1.2 Prove the following:
a) If ๐ is a monoid with identity 1, the semigroup ๐0 obtained byadjoining a zero if necessary is also a monoid with identity 1.
b) If ๐ is a semigroup with zero 0, the monoid ๐1 obtained by adjoin-ing an identity if necessary also has zero 0.
โด1.3 Let ๐ be a left-cancellative semigroup. Suppose that ๐ โ ๐ is an idem-potent. Prove that ๐ is a left identity. Deduce that a cancellative semi-group can contain at most one idempotent, which must be an identity.
โด1.4 Prove that a right zero semigroup is left-cancellative.โด1.5 Prove that a finite cancellative semigroup is a group.1.6 Prove from the definition that id๐ is an identity for B๐. Does B๐
contain a zero?1.7 Does there exist a non-trivial semigroup that does not contain any
proper subsemigroups?โด1.8 Give an [easy] example of an infinite periodic semigroup.1.9 Does either T๐ orP๐ contain a zero? A left zero? A right zero? [Note
that the answer may depend on |๐|.]1.10 The power semigroup of a semigroup ๐ is the set โ๐ of all subsets ofPower semigroup๐ under the operation ๐๐ = { ๐ฅ๐ฆ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐, ๐ฆ โ ๐ } for ๐,๐ โ โ๐.(Recall from page 5 that๐(๐๐) = (๐๐)๐ for all๐,๐, ๐ โ โ๐.)a) Prove that โ๐ contains a subsemigroup isomorphic to ๐.b) Prove thatโ is a zero of โ๐. Prove that (โ๐) โ {โ } is a subsemi-
group of โ๐.c) Let๐ be a monoid. Prove that (โ๐) โ {โ } is cancellative if and
only if๐ is trivial.d) Prove that (โ๐) โ {โ } is a right zero semigroup if and only if ๐ is
a right zero semigroup.โด1.11 Let ๐ = {1,โฆ , ๐} with ๐ โฉพ 2. Recalling the cycle notation for per-
mutations from group theory, let ๐ = (1 2) and ๐ = (1 2 โฆ ๐ โ 1 ๐).Note that ๐, ๐ โ S๐; indeed, from elementary group theory, we know
32 โขElementary semigroup theory
that S๐ = โจ๐, ๐โฉ. For any ๐, ๐ โ ๐ with ๐ โ ๐, let |๐ ๐| denote thetransformation ๐๐,๐ โ T๐ such that ๐๐๐,๐ = ๐๐๐,๐ = ๐, and ๐ฅ๐๐,๐ = ๐ฅ for๐ฅ โ {๐, ๐}.a) Prove the following four identities when ๐ โฉพ 3, and only the last
identity for ๐ โฉพ 2; note that the elements appearing in first threeidentities all lie in T๐ only when ๐ โฉพ 3:
(1 ๐)|1 2|(1 ๐) = |๐ 2| for ๐ โฉพ 3;(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐) = |1 ๐| for ๐ โฉพ 3;
(1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = |๐ ๐| for ๐, ๐ โฉพ 3 and ๐ โ ๐;(๐ ๐)|๐ ๐|(๐ ๐) = |๐ ๐| for ๐, ๐ โฉพ 1 and ๐ โ ๐.
b) Let ๐ โ T๐. Suppose | im๐| = ๐ < ๐. Let ๐, ๐ โ ๐ with ๐ โ ๐ besuch that ๐๐ = ๐๐. Let ๐ โ ๐ โ im๐. Show that ๐ = |๐ ๐|๐โฒ, where๐๐โฒ = ๐ and ๐ฅ๐โฒ = ๐ฅ๐ for ๐ฅ โ ๐.
c) Deduce that T๐ = โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ.1.12 Let ๐ be a finite monoid. Prove that ๐ฅ โ ๐ is right-invertible if and
only if it is left-invertible. [Hint: use the fact that ๐ฅ is periodic.]โด1.13 Prove than an element of T๐ is
a) left-invertible if and only if it is surjective;b) right-invertible if and only if it is injective.
1.14 Let (๐, โฉฝ) be a lattice.a) Prove that (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ for any ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐.b) Deduce that
(โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐)(๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ (๐ฅ โ ๐ง))โ (โ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐)(๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ (๐ฅ โ ๐ง)).
[Equivalently: โ distributes over โ if and only if โ distributes overโ.]
โด1.15 Give an example of a map ๐ from a monoid ๐ to a monoid ๐ that is ahomomorphism but not a monoid homomorphism.
โด1.16 Let ๐ and ๐ be semigroups and let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be a homomorphism.The homomorphism ๐ is a categorical monomorphism if, for any sem-igroup ๐ and homomorphisms ๐1, ๐2 โถ ๐ โ ๐,
๐1 โ ๐ = ๐2 โ ๐ โ ๐1 = ๐2, (1.16)
and a categorical epimorphism if, for any semigroup ๐ and homomor-phisms ๐1, ๐2 โถ ๐ โ ๐,
๐ โ ๐1 = ๐ โ ๐2 โ ๐1 = ๐2. (1.17)
[These are the definitions of โmonomorphismโ and โepimorphismโ usedin category theory; the word โcategoricalโ is simply being used to avoidambiguity here.]
Exercises โข 33
a) Prove that ๐ is a monomorphism (as defined on page 19) if andonly if it is a categorical monomorphism. [Therefore, for semi-groups, monomorphisms and categorical monomorphisms coin-cide and there is no risk of confusion in using the term โmono-morphismโ.]
b) i) Prove that a surjective homomorphism is a categorical epi-morphism.
ii) Prove that the inclusion map ๐ โถ โ โ โค is a categoricalepimorphism. [Hint: prove the contrapositive of (1.17) with๐ = ๐.]
[Therefore, for semigroups, categorical epimorphisms are notnecessarily surjective. For groups, โsurjective homomorphismโ andโcategorical epimorphismโ are equivalent. Some authors defineโepimorphismโ as โsurjective homomorphismโ for semigroups, butthis risks confusion.]
1.17 Prove that if we restrict the maps ๐๐ฅ in Theorem 1.22 to ๐ (instead of๐1), then the map ๐ฅ โฆ ๐๐ฅ may or may not be injective. [Hint: showthat this map is injective if ๐ is a right zero semigroup but not if it is aleft zero semigroup.]
1.18 Let ๐ be a semilattice. Prove that ๐ is a subdirect product of copies ofthe two-element semilattice ๐ = {๐, ๐ง}, where ๐ > ๐ง.
1.19 Let ๐ผ and ๐ฝ be ideals of ๐ such that ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ. Prove that ๐/๐ฝ โ (๐/๐ผ)/(๐ฝ/๐ผ).1.20 Let ๐ผ and ๐ฝ be ideals of ๐. Prove that ๐ผโฉ๐ฝ and ๐ผโช๐ฝ are ideals. [Remember
to prove that ๐ผ โฉ ๐ฝ โ โ .] Prove that (๐ผ โช ๐ฝ)/๐ฝ โ ๐ผ/(๐ผ โฉ ๐ฝ).1.21 Let ๐ be a semigroupwith a zero and let๐ be a subset of ๐ that contains0๐ and at least one other element. Prove that ๐ = ๐บ โช {0๐} for somesubgroup ๐บ of ๐ if and only if ๐ก๐ = ๐๐ก = ๐ for all ๐ก โ ๐ โ {0๐}. [Thisis an analogue of Lemma 1.9 for groups with a zero adjoined.]
Notes
Most of the definitions and results in this chapter are โfolkloreโ.โ The exposition owes much to the standard accounts in Clifford& Preston,TheAlgebraic Theory of Semigroups, ch. 1 and Howie, Fundamentals of SemigroupTheory, ch. 1, which are probably the ne plus ultra of how to explain this material,and to a lesser extent Grillet, Semigroups, ch. i and Higgins, Techniques of Semi-group Theory, ch. 1. โ The number of non-isomorphic semigroups of order 8 isfrom Distler, โClassification and Enumeration of Finite Semigroupsโ, Table A.16.Exercise 1.11 appears as Howie, Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory, Exercise 1.6,but contains a minor error in the original. โ For an alternative approach tobasic semigroup theory, Ljapin, Semigroups covers fundamental topics in muchgreater detail. For an account of structure theory that allows a semigroup to be
34 โขElementary semigroup theory
empty, see Grillet, Semigroups. For further reading on the issues discussed inExercise 1.16, the standard text on category theory remains Mac Lane, Categoriesfor the Working Mathematician. For the situation for groups, see Linderholm, โAgroup epimorphism is surjectiveโ.
โข
Notes โข 35
36 โข
2Free semigroups& presentations
โ how canwe think both of presentations as conforming to objects, andobjects as conforming to presentations? is, not the first,but the highest task of transcendental philosophy. โ
โ Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling,System of Transcendental Philosophy, ยง 3.
โข Informally, a free semigroup on a set ๐ด is the uniquebiggest, most โgeneralโ semigroup generated by [any set in bijection with]๐ด, in the sense that all other semigroups generated by๐ด are homomorphicimages (and thus factor semigroups) of the free semigroup on ๐ด. Thischapter studies some of the interesting properties of free semigroupsand then explains their role in semigroup presentations, which can beused to define and manipulate semigroups as factor semigroups of freesemigroups.
Alphabets and words
An alphabet is an abstract set of elements called letters Alphabet, letter, wordor symbols. Let ๐ด be an alphabet. A word over ๐ด is a finite sequence(๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐), where each term ๐๐ of the sequence is a letter from ๐ด.The length of this word is ๐. There is also a word of length 0, whichis the empty sequence (). This is called the empty word. The set of all ๐ด+, ๐ดโ
words (including the empty word) over ๐ด is denoted ๐ดโ. The set of allnon-empty words (that is, of length 1 or more) over ๐ด is denoted ๐ด+.
Multiplication of words is simply concatenation: that is, for all words Multiplication of words(๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐), (๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐) โ ๐ดโ,
(๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐)(๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐) = (๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐, ๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐)
It is easy to see that this multiplication is associative and so ๐ดโ is a sem-igroup; furthermore, the empty word () is an identity and so ๐ดโ is amonoid. Since the product of two words of non-zero length must itselfhave non-zero length, ๐ด+ is a subsemigroup of๐ดโ; indeed,๐ดโ is [isomor-phic to] (๐ด+)1.
Because of associativity, we simply write ๐1๐2โฏ๐๐ for (๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐) Notation for words
โข 37
FIGURE 2.1Part of the Cayley graph๐ค(๐ดโ,๐ด), where๐ด = {๐, ๐}. ๐ ๐
๐
๐2
๐๐
๐๐
๐2
๐3
๐3
๐๐๐
๐๐2
๐2๐
๐2๐
๐๐2
๐๐๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐๐
๐๐
๐๐
๐๐
and write ๐ for the empty word. For any word ๐ข โ ๐ดโ, denote the lengthof ๐ข by |๐ข|, and notice that |๐ข| = 0 if and only if ๐ข = ๐. Note further that|๐ข๐ฃ| = |๐ข| + |๐ฃ| for any ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ.
A subword of a word ๐1๐2โฏ๐๐ (where ๐๐ โ ๐ด) is any word of theSubwordform ๐๐โฏ๐๐, where 1 โฉฝ ๐ โฉฝ ๐ โฉฝ ๐. A prefix of ๐1๐2โฏ๐๐ is a subword๐1โฏ๐๐, where 1 โฉฝ ๐ โฉฝ ๐.
TheCayley graph๐ค(๐ดโ, ๐ด) is an infinite tree; an example for๐ด = {๐, ๐}is shown in Figure 2.1. This is obvious, because if we start at ๐ and followthe path labelled by ๐ข โ ๐ดโ, then we end up at the vertex ๐ข. Thus a pathuniquely determines a vertex and so the graph must be a tree.
Universal property
Let ๐น be a semigroup and let ๐ด be an alphabet. Let ๐ โถFree semigroup๐ด โชโ ๐น be an embedding of ๐ด into ๐น. Then (๐น, ๐) is a free semigroupon ๐ด if, for any semigroup ๐ and map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, there is a uniquehomomorphism ๐+ โถ ๐น โ ๐ that extends ๐ (that is, with ๐๐+ = ๐). Using
38 โขFree semigroups & presentations
diagrams, this definition says that (๐น, ๐) is a free semigroup on ๐ด if
for all๐ด ๐น
๐
๐
๐, there exists a unique
homomorphism ๐+ such that๐ด ๐น
๐
๐
๐๐+ .
}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}
(2.1)
Usually, we just write โ๐น is a free semigroup on ๐ดโ instead of the preciselycorrect โ(๐น, ๐) is a free semigroup on ๐ดโ.
P ro p o s i t i on 2 . 1. Let ๐ด be an alphabet and let ๐น be a semigroup. Uniqueness of thefree semigroup on ๐ดThen ๐น is a free semigroup on ๐ด if and only if ๐น is isomorphic to ๐ด+.
Proof of 2.1. Part 1. Let us first show that ๐ด+ is a free semigroup on ๐ด. Let๐ โถ ๐ด โชโ ๐ด+ be the natural embedding map. Let ๐ be a semigroup and๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be a map. Define ๐+ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ by
(๐1๐2โฏ๐๐)๐+ = (๐1๐)(๐2๐)โฏ (๐๐๐). (2.2)
It is easy to see that ๐+ is a homomorphism and that ๐๐+ = ๐. We nowhave to prove that ๐+ is unique. So let ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ be an arbitraryhomomorphism with ๐๐ = ๐. For any ๐1๐2โฏ๐๐ โ ๐ด+,
(๐1๐2โฏ๐๐)๐= (๐1๐)(๐2๐)โฏ (๐๐๐) [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= (๐1๐+)(๐2๐+)โฏ (๐๐๐+) [since ๐๐ = ๐ = ๐๐+]= (๐1๐2โฏ๐๐)๐+. [since ๐+ is a homomorphism]
and so ๐ = ๐+. Hence ๐+ is the unique homomorphism from ๐ด+ to ๐with ๐๐+ = ๐, and so ๐ด+ is free on ๐ด.
Now suppose that ๐น is isomorphic to ๐ด+ via an isomorphism ๐ โถ๐ด+ โ ๐น. The embedding map is ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โชโ ๐น. Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be a map.Let ๐ = ๐๐+ (where ๐+ is the homomorphism defined in (2.2)); then๐ โถ ๐น โ ๐ is a homomorphism extending ๐. To see that it is unique, let๐ โถ ๐น โ ๐ be an arbitrary homomorphism extending ๐. Then ๐โ1๐ โถ๐ด+ โ ๐ is a homomorphism extending ๐. Since ๐ด+ is a free semigroup,๐โ1๐ = ๐+, and so ๐ = id๐น๐ = ๐๐โ1๐ = ๐๐+ = ๐. So ๐ โถ ๐น โ ๐ is theunique homomorphism extending ๐ and so ๐น is a free semigroup on ๐ด.Part 2. Suppose that ๐น is a free semigroup on ๐ด; the aim is to show that ๐นis isomorphic to ๐ด+. Let ๐1 โถ ๐ด โชโ ๐ด+ and ๐2 โถ ๐ด โชโ ๐น be the embeddingmaps. Since ๐ด+ is free on ๐ด, we can put ๐1, ๐ด+, ๐2 and ๐น in the places of ๐,๐น, ๐ and ๐ in (2.1) to see that there is a homomorphism ๐+2 such that
๐ด ๐ด+
๐น
๐1
๐2 ๐+2 . (2.3)
Universal property โข 39
Similarly, since ๐น is free on ๐ด, we can put ๐2, ๐น, ๐1 and ๐ด+ in the places of๐, ๐น, ๐ and ๐ in (2.1) to see that there is a homomorphism ๐+1 such that
๐ด ๐น
๐ด+
๐2
๐1 ๐+1 . (2.4)
Combining (2.3) and (2.4) in two ways, we get the following diagrams:
๐ด ๐ด+
๐น
๐ด+
๐1
๐2
๐1
๐+2
๐+1
and
๐ด ๐น
๐ด+
๐น
๐2
๐1
๐2
๐+1
๐+2
. (2.5)
Therefore ๐1 = ๐1๐+2 ๐+1 and ๐2 = ๐2๐+1 ๐+2 . In diagrammatic terms, this corres-ponds to simplifying the diagrams in (2.5) to give
๐ด ๐ด+
๐ด+
๐1
๐1 ๐+2 ๐+1 and๐ด ๐น
๐น
๐2
๐2 ๐+1 ๐+2 . (2.6)
Clearly the following diagrams commute:
๐ด ๐ด+
๐ด+
๐1
๐1 id๐ด+ and๐ด ๐น
๐น
๐2
๐2 id๐น . (2.7)
Therefore, by the left-hand diagrams in (2.6) and (2.7), if we put ๐1, ๐ด+,๐1 and ๐ด+ in place of ๐, ๐น, ๐, and ๐ in (2.1), then the homomorphisms๐+2 ๐+1 and id๐ด+ are both possibilities for ๐+. But (2.1) requires that there isa unique such homomorphism ๐+, so ๐+2 ๐+1 = id๐ด+ . Similarly, using theright-hand diagrams in (2.6) and (2.7), we obtain ๐+1 ๐+2 = id๐น. Hence ๐+1and ๐+2 are mutually inverse isomorphisms, and so ๐น is isomorphic to๐ด+. 2.1
We could repeat the discussion above, but for monoids instead ofFree monoidssemigroups. Let๐น be amonoid and let๐ด be an alphabet, and let ๐ โถ ๐ด โชโ ๐นbe an embedding of ๐ด into ๐น. Then (๐น, ๐) is a free monoid on ๐ด if, for anymonoid ๐ and map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, there is a unique monoid homomorphism๐โ โถ ๐น โ ๐ extending ๐; that is, with ๐๐โ = ๐. One can prove an analogyof Proposition 2.1 for monoids, showing that a monoid ๐น is a free on ๐ด ifand only if ๐น โ ๐ดโ. As with free semigroups, we usually write โ๐น is thefree monoid on ๐ดโ instead of โ(๐น, ๐) is the free monoid on ๐ดโ.
40 โขFree semigroups & presentations
Properties of free semigroups
In preparation for our study of presentations, we beginby examining the structure of free semigroups and monoids.
P ro p o s i t i on 2 . 2. Let๐ be a submonoid of ๐ดโ. Let๐ = ๐ โ {๐}.Then๐ โ๐2 is the unique minimal (monoid) generating set for๐.
Proof of 2.2. Clearly, any generating set for๐must contain๐โ๐2. So wemust show thatMonโจ๐โ๐2โฉ = ๐. ClearlyMonโจ๐โ๐2โฉ โ ๐; we haveto prove that๐ โ Monโจ๐โ๐2โฉ.We already know that ๐ โ Monโจ๐โ๐2โฉ,so it remains to show that๐ โ Monโจ๐ โ ๐2โฉ.
Assume that all words of length less than โ in๐ lie in Monโจ๐ โ๐2โฉ.Let ๐ข โ ๐ with |๐ข| = โ. If ๐ข โ ๐ โ ๐2, then ๐ข โ Monโจ๐ โ ๐2โฉ. Onother other hand, if ๐ข โ ๐ โ ๐2, then ๐ข โ ๐2 and so ๐ข = ๐ขโฒ๐ขโณ for๐ขโฒ, ๐ขโณ โ ๐. Hence |๐ขโฒ| = |๐ข| โ |๐ขโณ| and |๐ขโณ| = |๐ข| โ |๐ขโฒ|. Since neither ๐ขโฒnor ๐ขโณ is the empty word, this gives |๐ขโฒ|, |๐ขโณ| < |๐ข| = โ. So, by assumption,๐ขโฒ, ๐ขโณ โ Monโจ๐ โ ๐2โฉ and so ๐ข โ Monโจ๐ โ ๐2โฉ. Hence, by induction,๐ โ Monโจ๐ โ ๐2โฉ. 2.2
The base of a submonoid or subsemigroup๐ of ๐ดโ is defined to be Base๐โ๐2, where๐ = ๐โ{๐}. Thus the base is the unique minimal monoidgenerating set for๐ if๐ is a submonoid, and is the unique minimalgenerating set for๐ if๐ is a subsemigroup that is not a submonoid. Asan immediate application of Proposition 2.2, we see that ๐ด is the base of๐ดโ and ๐ด+.
P ro p o s i t i on 2 . 3. A semigroup ๐ is free if and only if every elementof ๐ has a unique representative as a product of elements of ๐ โ ๐2.
Proof of 2.3. Clearly every element of ๐ด+ has a unique representative as aproduct of elements of ๐ด = ๐ด+ โ (๐ด+)2.
So assume that every element of ๐ has a unique representative as aproduct of elements of ๐ด = ๐ โ ๐2. We will show that ๐ satisfies the defin-ition of freedom. Let ๐ be a semigroup and ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ a map. Define amap ๐+ โถ ๐ โ ๐ by letting ๐ ๐+ = (๐1๐)(๐2๐)โฏ (๐๐๐), where ๐1๐2โฏ๐๐is the unique representative of ๐ as a product of elements ๐๐ โ ๐ด. Noticethat if ๐ก โ ๐ is uniquely represented ๐1โฏ๐๐ where ๐๐ โ ๐ด, then ๐ ๐ก hasunique representative ๐1โฏ๐๐๐1โฏ๐๐. Hence ๐+ is a homomorphism.It is clear that ๐+ is the unique homomorphism extending ๐ and so ๐ isfree on ๐ด. 2.3
Prop o s i t i on 2 . 4. Let ๐ด = {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ}. Let ๐ต = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ โ }. Then ๐ดโ Free monoid of rank 2contains a free monoid ofcountably infinite rank
contains a submonoid isomorphic to ๐ตโ.
Proof of 2.4. Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ต โ ๐ดโ by ๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ. Since ๐ตโ is free on๐ต, this map ๐ extends to a unique homomorphism, which we also denote๐, from ๐ตโ to ๐ดโ.
Properties of free semigroups โข 41
Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐ is notinjective. Then there exist ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ตโ with ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐.
Suppose ๐ข and ๐ฃ begin with the same symbol ๐; that is, ๐ข = ๐๐ขโฒ and๐ฃ = ๐๐ฃโฒ.Then (๐๐)(๐ขโฒ๐) = (๐๐)(๐ฃโฒ๐) and so ๐ขโฒ๐ = ๐ฃโฒ๐ by cancellativity in๐ดโ. So we can replace ๐ข by ๐ขโฒ and ๐ฃ by ๐ฃโฒ and repeat this process until wehave words ๐ข and ๐ฃ beginning with different symbols. Therefore assumethat ๐ข and ๐ฃ begin with symbols ๐๐ and ๐๐ respectively, where ๐ โ ๐; thatis, ๐ข = ๐๐๐ขโฒ and ๐ฃ = ๐๐๐ฃโฒ.
Then ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ(๐ขโฒ๐) = (๐๐๐)(๐ขโฒ๐) = (๐๐๐)(๐ฃโฒ๐) = ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ(๐ฃโฒ๐). Assume ๐ >๐; the other case is similar. By cancellativity in ๐ดโ, we have ๐ฆ๐โ๐๐ฅ(๐ขโฒ๐) =๐ฅ(๐ฃโฒ๐), which is a contradiction since ๐ โ ๐ > 0. Therefore ๐ is injectiveand so ๐ตโ is isomorphic to im๐. 2.4
As a consequence of Proposition 2.4, we see that the free monoid on{๐ฅ, ๐ฆ} contains submonoids isomorphic to all free monoids on countablesets. A similar result holds for free semigroups.
E x ampl e 2 . 5. Let๐ด = {๐ฅ} and let ๐ = โจ๐ฅ2, ๐ฅ3โฉ.Then ๐โ๐2 = {๐ฅ2, ๐ฅ3}.Free semigroups can containnon-free subsemigroups But ๐ฅ5 โ ๐ and ๐ฅ5 = ๐ฅ2๐ฅ3 = ๐ฅ3๐ฅ2, so ๐ฅ5 has two distinct representatives
as a product of elements of {๐ฅ2, ๐ฅ3}. Hence ๐ is not a free semigroup byProposition 2.3.
Example 2.5 shows that a free semigroup contains subsemigroups thatare not themselves free. In contrast, every subgroup of a free group isitself a free group by the famous NielsenโSchreier theorem.
Semigroup presentations
The reason why free semigroups are interesting is thatEvery semigroup is aquotient of a free semigroup every semigroup is isomorphic to a quotient of a free semigroup. To see
this, let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be such that im๐ generates ๐. (We could, for instance,choose ๐ด to be a set of the same cardinality as ๐ and ๐ to be a bijection.)Then, ๐ extends to a homomorphism ๐+ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐. Since im๐ generates๐, we have im๐+ = ๐. By Theorem 1.24, ๐ด+/ker๐+ โ im๐+ = ๐. That is,๐ is isomorphic to the quotient ๐ด+/ker๐+.
This is slightly interesting, but its real importance is when we turnit around. Instead of starting with a semigroup and knowing that it is aquotient of a free semigroup, we can specify a free semigroup ๐ด+ and acongruence ๐ and so define the corresponding quotient semigroup ๐ด+/๐.
This is the idea of a semigroup presentation. It allows us to specifyand reason about a semigroup as a quotient of a free semigroup: that is,as a quotient ๐ด+/๐ for some congruence ๐ on the free semigroup ๐ด+. ByProposition 2.1, in order to specify the free semigroup, it is sufficient to
42 โขFree semigroups & presentations
specify the alphabet๐ด. In order to specify the congruence ๐, it is sufficientto specify some binary relation ๐ that generates ๐.
A semigroup presentation is a pair Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ, where ๐ด is an alphabet Presentationsand ๐ is a binary relation on ๐ด+. The elements of ๐ด are called generatingsymbols, and the elements of ๐ (which are pairs of words in ๐ด+) arecalled defining relations. The presentation Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ defines, or presents,any semigroup isomorphic to ๐ด+/๐#.
Let ๐ be a semigroup presented by Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ. Then ๐ is isomorphic to๐ด+/๐# and so there is a one-to-one correspondence between elementsof ๐ and ๐#-classes. Thus we can think of a word ๐ค โ ๐ด+ as representingthe element of ๐ corresponding to [๐ค]๐# . If ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+ represent the sameelement of ๐ (that is, if (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐#, or, equivalently, if [๐ข]๐# = [๐ฃ]๐# ), wesay that ๐ข and ๐ฃ are equal in ๐ and write ๐ข =๐ ๐ฃ.
Let๐ be a semigroup. Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be a map such that๐ด๐ generates Assignment of generators๐; such amap is called an assignment of generators. In this case, the uniquehomomorphism ๐+ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ extending ๐ is surjective.
The semigroup ๐ satisfies a defining relation (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐ with respect Satisfying a defining relationto an assignment of generators ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ if ๐ข๐+ = ๐ฃ๐+. Notice that ๐satisfies all defining relations in ๐ with respect to ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ if and onlyif ๐ โ ker๐+. By definition, any semigroup defined by the presentationSgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ satisfies the defining relations ๐ with respect to the assignmentof generators (๐#)โฎ|๐ด โถ ๐ด โ ๐ด+/๐#.
P ro p o s i t i on 2 . 6. Let ๐ be a semigroup, and suppose ๐ satisfiesthe defining relations in ๐ with respect to an assignment of generators๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐. Then ๐ is a homomorphic image of the semigroup presentedby Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ.
Proof of 2.6. Since ๐ satisfies the defining relations ๐ with respect to ๐,we have ๐ โ ker๐+. Since ker๐+ is a congruence by Theorem 1.24, and๐# is the smallest congruence containing ๐, it follows that ๐# โ ker๐+.So the map ๐ โถ ๐ด+/๐# โ ๐ defined by [๐ข]๐#๐ = ๐ข๐+ is a well-definedhomomorphism, and is clearly surjective since ๐+ is surjective. 2.6
By Proposition 2.6, we can think of semigroup presented by Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉas the largest semigroup generated by ๐ด and satisfying the defining rela-tions in ๐.
An elementary ๐-transition is a pair (๐ค, ๐คโฒ) โ (๐C)S = ๐C โช (๐C)โ1, Elementary transitionwhich we denote ๐ค โ๐ ๐คโฒ. By Proposition 1.27, ๐ค โ๐ ๐คโฒ if and only if๐คโฒ can be obtained from ๐ค by substituting a subword ๐ฆ for a subword๐ฅ of ๐ค, where (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ or (๐ฆ, ๐ฅ) โ ๐. In this situation, we say that weapply the defining relation (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) or (๐ฆ, ๐ฅ) to the word ๐ค and obtain ๐คโฒ.
Let ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+. If there is a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions ๐ข =๐ค0 โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ, then we say (๐ข, ๐ฃ) is a consequence of ๐, or(๐ข, ๐ฃ) can be deduced from ๐. The following result shows the connectionbetween this notion and presentations:
Semigroup presentations โข 43
Pro p o s i t i on 2 . 7. Let ๐ be presented by Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ and let ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+.Then ๐ข =๐ ๐ฃ if and only if (๐ข, ๐ฃ) is a consequence of ๐; that is, if and only ifthere is a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions
๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ ๐ค1 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ.
Proof of 2.7. First of all, note that
๐ข =๐ ๐ฃโ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐#
โ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐C)E [by Proposition 1.29]
โ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ id๐ด+ โช โโ๐=1(๐
C โช (๐C)โ1)๐ [by Proposition 1.26(f)]
โ (๐ข = ๐ฃ) โจ (โ๐ โ โ)((๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐C โช (๐C)โ1)๐)โ (โ๐ โ โ โช {0})(โ๐ค0,โฆ ,๐ค๐ โ ๐ด+)
[(๐ข = ๐ค0) โง (๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ)โง (โ๐)((๐ค๐, ๐ค๐+1) โ ๐C โช (๐C)โ1)]
โ (โ๐ โ โ โช {0})(โ๐ค0,โฆ ,๐ค๐ โ ๐ด+)[(๐ข = ๐ค0) โง (๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ) โง (โ๐)(๐ค๐ โ๐ ๐ค๐+1))].
Hence ๐ข =๐ ๐ฃ if and only if there is there is a sequence of elementary๐-transitions from ๐ข to ๐ฃ. 2.7
The next result gives a usable condition for when a given presentationdefines a particular semigroup. Afterwards, we will see how this resultyields a practical proof method.
P ro p o s i t i on 2 . 8. Let ๐ be a semigroup. Then Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ presents ๐ ifCondition forSgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ to define ๐ and only if there is an assignment of generators ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ such that
a) ๐ satisfies the defining relations in ๐ with respect to ๐, andb) if ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+ are such that ๐ข๐+ = ๐ฃ๐+, then (๐ข, ๐ฃ) is a consequence of ๐.
Proof of 2.8. Suppose first that Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ presents ๐. Then ๐ is isomorphicto ๐ด+/๐#, so we can let ๐ be the restriction of natural homomorphism(๐#)โฎ|๐ด โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ด+/๐#. Then condition a) holds from the definition andcondition b) holds from Proposition 2.7.
Now suppose that conditions a) and b) hold. Since ๐ satisfies thedefining relations in ๐, we have ๐ โ ker๐+ and so ๐# โ ker๐+. If (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โker๐+, then ๐ข๐+ = ๐ฃ๐+ and so (๐ข, ๐ฃ) is a consequence of ๐ and hence(๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐# by Proposition 2.7. Hence ๐# = ker๐+ and therefore ๐ โ๐ด+/ker๐+ โ ๐ด+/๐#; thus Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ presents ๐. 2.8
There is a standard three-step method for directly proving that apresentation defines a particular semigroup:
M ethod 2 . 9. To prove that a presentation Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ defines a particu-Method for provingSgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ defines ๐ lar semigroup ๐:
44 โขFree semigroups & presentations
1) Define an assignment of generators ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, and prove that ๐satisfies the defining relations in ๐ with respect to ๐.
2) Find a set of words๐ โ ๐ด+ such that for every word ๐ค โ ๐ด+ there isa word ๐ค โ ๐ such that (๐ค, ๐ค) is a consequence of ๐.
3) Prove that ๐+|๐ is injective.
In Method 2.9, step 1 establishes that condition a) of Proposition 2.8holds. Now let ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+ be such that ๐ข๐+ = ๐ฃ๐+. Step 2 shows that(๐ข, ๐ข) and (๐ฃ, ๐ฃ) are consequences of ๐; that is, there are sequences ofelementary ๐-transitions ๐ข โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐ข and ๐ฃ โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐ฃ. Since ๐satisfies the relations in ๐, this implies that ๐ข๐+ = ๐ฃ๐+, so step 3 showsthat ๐ข = ๐ฃ, and thus there is a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions๐ข โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐ข = ๐ฃ โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐ฃ; that is, (๐ข, ๐ฃ) is a consequence of๐. This establishes condition b) of Proposition 2.8 and so proves thatSgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ presents ๐.
Before giving some examples to illustrate the theory described above,we introduce a convention to simplify notation. When we explicitly listgenerating symbols and defining relations in a presentation, we do notwrite the braces { } enclosing the list of elements in the two sets. So insteadof Sgโจ{๐1, ๐2,โฆ} | {(๐ข1, ๐ฃ1), (๐ข2, ๐ฃ2),โฆ}โฉ, wewrite Sgโจ๐1, ๐2,โฆ | (๐ข1, ๐ฃ1),(๐ข2, ๐ฃ2),โฆโฉ.
E x a m p l e 2 . 1 0. a) Let us prove that the presentation Sgโจ๐ด | โฉ (withno defining relations) defines the free semigroup ๐ด+. To see this, itsuffices to notice thatโ # = id๐ด+ , and ๐ด+/id๐ด+ โ ๐ด+.
[Following Method 2.9 for the sake of illustration, let ๐ be theembedding map ๐ โถ ๐ด โชโ ๐ด+. Clearly ๐ด+ trivially satisfies all definingrelations with respect to ๐; this is step 1. Let๐ = ๐ด+; then every wordin ๐ด+ itself in๐ and so step 2 is immediately proved. Finally, step 3 istrivial since ๐+ is the identity map and so injective.]
b) Now we prove that the presentation Sgโจ๐ | (๐2, ๐)โฉ defines the trivialsemigroup {๐}. To see this, it suffices to notice that {(๐2, ๐)}# = {๐}+ ร{๐}+.
[FollowingMethod 2.9 for the sake of illustration, let๐ โถ {๐} โ {๐}be given by ๐๐ = ๐. Then ๐2๐+ = (๐๐+)2 = ๐2 = ๐ = ๐๐+ and so thesemigroup {๐} satisfies the defining relation (step 1). Let๐ = {๐}.Thenany word in {๐}+ can be transformed to the unique word ๐ โ ๐ byrepeatedly applying the defining relation (step 2). Finally,๐ containsonly a single element and hence ๐+|๐ is trivially injective (step 3).]
c) Less trivially, we now prove that the presentation Sgโจ๐ด | (๐๐, ๐) โถ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโฉ defines a left zero semigroup on a set of size |๐ด|. FollowingMethod 2.9, let ๐ be the left zero semigroup with |๐ด| elements and let๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be a bijection. Then (๐๐)๐+ = (๐๐+)(๐๐+) = ๐๐+ since ๐ isa left zero semigroup, and so ๐ satisfies the defining relations (step 1).Let๐ = ๐ด; then any word in ๐ด+ can be transformed to one in๐ by
Semigroup presentations โข 45
applying defining relations to replace a subword ๐๐ by ๐; this yields ashorter word and so ends with a word in๐ด (step 2). Finally, if ๐, ๐ โ ๐are such that ๐๐+ = ๐๐+, then ๐๐ = ๐๐+ = ๐๐+ = ๐๐, which implies๐ = ๐ since ๐ is a bijection; thus ๐+|๐ is injective (step 3).
d) Consider the set๐3(โค) of all 3 ร 3 integer matrices. Let
๐ = [
[
1 0 00 1 10 0 1]
], ๐ = [
[
1 1 00 1 00 0 1]
], ๐ = [
[
1 0 10 1 00 0 1]
],
and let ๐ be the subsemigroup of๐3(โค) generated by {๐, ๐, ๐ }. Letus prove that ๐ is presented by
Sgโจ๐, ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐๐๐), (๐๐, ๐๐), (๐๐, ๐๐)โฉ.
First, let ๐ โถ {๐, ๐, ๐} โ ๐ be given by ๐๐ = ๐, ๐๐ = ๐, and ๐๐ = ๐ .Straightforward calculations show that ๐ satisfies the defining relationswith respect to ๐+ (step 1). Let
๐ = { ๐๐๐๐๐๐ โถ ๐, ๐, ๐ โ โ โช {0} โง ๐, ๐, ๐ not all 0 }.
Every word in {๐, ๐, ๐}+ can be transformed to one in ๐ as follows:First, by applying the second and third defining relations from left toright, we move all symbols ๐ to the right of the word. Then, if there issome symbol ๐ to the left of a symbol ๐, we apply the first definingrelation, and move the โnewโ symbol ๐ to the right of the word. Werepeat this step until there is no symbol ๐ to the left of a symbol ๐. Thisprocess must terminate because no application of a relation changesthe number of symbols ๐ or ๐ in the word. At the end of the process,we are left with a word in ๐ (step 2). Finally, a simple calculationshows that
(๐๐๐๐๐๐)๐+ = [
[
1 ๐ ๐0 1 ๐0 0 1]
],
and so if ๐๐๐๐๐๐ =๐ ๐๐โฒ๐๐โฒ๐๐โฒ, then ๐ = ๐โฒ, ๐ = ๐โฒ, and ๐ = ๐โฒ; hence๐+|๐ is injective (step 3). [Note that the subgroup of๐3(โค) generatedby {๐, ๐, ๐ } is the famous discrete Heisenberg group๐ป3(โค).]
We could repeat the discussion of presentations above, but reasoningMonoid presentationsabout monoids instead of semigroups. Every monoid is a quotient of afree monoid. In a monoid presentation Monโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ the defining relationsin ๐ are of the form (๐ข, ๐ฃ) for ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ. In particular, they can be of theform (๐ข, ๐) or (๐, ๐ข) or (๐, ๐). The presentation Monโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ presents themonoid ๐ดโ/๐#. The notion of an assignment of generators carries overto monoids. The analogies of Propositions 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8 all hold for
46 โขFree semigroups & presentations
monoids, using๐ดโ instead of๐ด+ and๐โ instead of๐+ as appropriate.Thusthemonoid presented byMonโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ is the largestmonoid generated by๐ดand satisfying the defining relations in ๐. If๐ is presented byMonโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ,then for ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ, we have ๐ข =๐ ๐ฃ if and only if there is a sequenceof elementary ๐-transitions from ๐ข to ๐ฃ. Finally, Method 2.9 works formonoids, again with ๐โ instead of ๐+.
E x a m p l e 2 . 1 1. a) Let us prove that the monoid (โ โช {0}) ร (โ โช{0}) is presented by Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐๐)โฉ. Following the monoid ver-sion of Method 2.9, let ๐ โถ {๐, ๐} โ (โ โช {0}) ร (โ โช {0}) be definedby ๐๐ = (1, 0) and ๐๐ = (0, 1). Then (๐๐)๐โ = (1, 0)(0, 1) = (1, 1) =(0, 1)(1, 0) = (๐๐)๐โ, so (โ โช {0}) ร (โ โช {0}) satisfies the definingrelations with respect to ๐ (step 1). Let ๐ = { ๐๐๐๐ โถ ๐, ๐ โ โ โช {0} }Then every word in {๐, ๐}โ can be transformed to one in๐ by apply-ing the defining relation to move symbols ๐ to the left of symbols ๐(step 2). Finally, note that if ๐๐๐๐๐โ = ๐๐โฒ๐๐โฒ๐โ, then (๐, ๐) = (๐โฒ, ๐โฒ)and so ๐ = ๐โฒ and ๐ = ๐โฒ; thus ๐โ|๐ is injective (step 3).
b) Let ๐, ๐ โ Tโ be given by
๐ = (1 2 3 4 โฆ2 3 4 5 โฆ) , ๐ = (1 2 3 4 โฆ1 1 2 3 โฆ) ,
and let ๐ต be the submonoid generated by {๐, ๐}. Let us prove that ๐ต ispresented by Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐)โฉ. Define ๐ โถ {๐, ๐} โ ๐ต by ๐๐ = ๐ and๐๐ = ๐. Then (๐๐)๐โ = ๐๐ = idโ = ๐๐โ, so ๐ต satisfies the definingrelation with respect to ๐ (step 1). Let ๐ = { ๐๐๐๐ โถ ๐, ๐ โ โ โช {0} };then every word in {๐, ๐}โ can be transformed to one in๐ by usingthe defining relations to replace subwords ๐๐ by ๐ (effectively โdeletingโthe subword ๐๐) and ultimately yielding one in๐ (step 2). Finally,
(๐๐๐๐)๐โ
= (1 2 โฆ ๐ + 1 ๐ + 2 โฆ1 1 โฆ 1 2 โฆ)
( 1 2 3 4 โฆ๐ + 1 ๐ + 2 ๐ + 3 ๐ + 4 โฆ)
= ( 1 2 โฆ ๐ + 1 ๐ + 2 โฆ๐ + 1 ๐ + 1 โฆ ๐ + 1 ๐ + 2 โฆ) ,
and so in the image of ๐๐๐๐, the image of 1 is ๐ + 1 and the maximumelement of the domain with image ๐ + 1 is ๐ + 1. That is, the imagedetermines ๐ and ๐. Hence ๐โ|๐ is injective (step 3).
This monoid ๐ต defined byMonโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐)โฉ is the bicyclic monoid. Bicyclic monoidEvery element of the bicyclic monoid is represented by a uniqueword of the form ๐๐๐๐, where ๐, ๐ โ โ โช {0}, and we normally workwith these representatives of elements of ๐ต. Multiplying using these
Semigroup presentations โข 47
representatives is concatenation followed by deletion of subwords ๐๐.That is,
๐๐๐๐ ๐๐๐โ =๐ต {๐๐+๐โ๐๐โ if ๐ โฉพ ๐,๐๐๐๐โ๐+โ if ๐ โฉฝ ๐.
A presentation is finite if both ๐ด and ๐ are finite. The semigroup isFinite presentationfinitely presented if is defined by some finite presentation.
P ro p o s i t i on 2 . 1 2. Suppose ๐ is finitely presented and let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐Finite presentabilityis independent ofthe generating set
be an assignment of generators (with ๐ด possibly being infinite). Then thereexists a finite subset ๐ต of ๐ด and ๐ โ ๐ต+ ร ๐ต+ such that Sgโจ๐ต | ๐โฉ is a finitepresentation defining ๐.
Proof of 2.12. Since ๐ is finitely presented, it is defined by a finite present-ation Sgโจ๐ถ | ๐โฉ. For brevity, let ๐ โถ ๐ถ โ ๐ be the natural assignment ofgenerators (๐#)โฎ|๐ถ, so that ๐๐ = [๐]๐# .
For each ๐ โ ๐ถ, there exists aword ๐๐ โ ๐ด+ such that ๐ and ๐๐ representthe same element of ๐. (We can choose ๐๐ to be any word in (๐๐)(๐+)โ1.)Thus we have a map ๐ โถ ๐ถ โ ๐ด+ such that ๐+๐+ = ๐+. Let
๐ต = { ๐ โ ๐ด โถ (โ๐ โ ๐ถ)(๐ appears in ๐๐) };
thus ๐ถ๐ โ ๐ต+ and so ๐+๐|+๐ต = ๐+. Notice that ๐ต is finite since ๐ถ is finite.Notice that โจ๐ต๐|๐ตโฉ โ โจ๐ถ๐โฉ = ๐, so ๐|๐ต โถ ๐ต โ ๐ is an assignment ofgenerators.
Similarly, for every ๐ โ ๐ต, there exists a word ๐๐ โ ๐ถ+ such that ๐ and๐๐ represent the same element of ๐. (We can choose ๐๐ to be any wordin (๐๐|๐ต)(๐+)โ1.) Thus we have a map ๐ โถ ๐ต โ ๐ถ+ such that ๐+๐+ = ๐|+๐ต .(Figure 2.2 shows the relationship between ๐|+๐ต , ๐+, ๐+, and ๐+.)
๐ต ๐ถ
๐ต+ ๐ถ+
๐
๐ ๐
๐|+๐ต
๐+
๐+๐+
FIGURE 2.2Maps used in the proof of Pro-
position 2.12
Let
๐ = { (๐๐+, ๐๐+) โถ (๐, ๐) โ ๐ } โช { (๐, ๐๐+๐+) โถ ๐ โ ๐ต }.
Note first that ๐ โ ๐ต+ร๐ต+. Now, if (๐, ๐) โ ๐, then ๐ satisfies this definingrelation with respect to ๐, so ๐๐+ = ๐๐+, and hence ๐๐+๐|+๐ต = ๐๐+๐|+๐ต .Furthermore, if ๐ โ ๐ต, then ๐๐|+๐ต = ๐๐+๐+ = ๐๐+๐+๐|+๐ต . So ๐ satisfiesevery defining relation in ๐ with respect to ๐|๐ต.
It remains to prove that if ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ต+ are such that ๐ข๐|+๐ต = ๐ฃ๐|+๐ต , then(๐ข, ๐ฃ) is a consequence of ๐. So suppose ๐ข๐|+๐ต = ๐ฃ๐|+๐ต . Then ๐ข๐+๐+ =๐ฃ๐+๐+. So (๐ข๐+, ๐ฃ๐+) is a consequence of ๐. That is, there is a sequenceof elementary ๐-transitions
๐ข๐+ = ๐ค0 โ๐ ๐ค1 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ๐+.
So, applying ๐+ to this sequence, we see that by the definition of ๐, thereis a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions
๐ข๐+๐+ = ๐ค0๐+ โ๐ ๐ค1๐+ โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐๐+ = ๐ฃ๐+๐+. (2.8)
48 โขFree semigroups & presentations
Suppose ๐ข = ๐ข1๐ข2โฏ๐ข๐ and ๐ฃ = ๐ฃ1๐ฃ2โฏ๐ฃโ, where ๐ข๐, ๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ต. By thedefinition of ๐, there are also sequences of elementary ๐-transitions
๐ข = ๐ข1๐ข2โฏ๐ข๐ โ๐ (๐ข1๐+๐+)๐ข2โฏ๐ข๐ โ๐ โฆโ๐ (๐ข1๐+๐+)(๐ข2๐+๐+)โฏ (๐ข๐๐+๐+) = ๐ข๐+๐+
} (2.9)
and๐ฃ๐+๐+ = (๐ฃ1๐+๐+)(๐ฃ2๐+๐+)โฏ (๐ฃโ๐+๐+) โ๐ โฆ
โ๐ (๐ฃ1๐+๐+)๐ฃ2โฏ๐ฃโ โ๐ ๐ฃ1๐ฃ2โฏ๐ฃโ = ๐ฃ.} (2.10)
Concatenating the sequences (2.8), (2.9), and (2.10) shows that (๐ข, ๐ฃ) is aconsequence of ๐ and so completes the proof. 2.12
We now give two more important examples. Example 2.13 showsthat a semigroup can be finitely generated but not finitely presented.Example 2.14 then shows that cancellativity is not a sufficient conditionfor group-embeddability.
E x ampl e 2 . 1 3. Let๐ = {๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง, ๐ฆ๐ง, ๐ฆ๐ก, ๐ฅ๐ฆ, ๐ง๐ฆ, ๐ง๐ฆ๐ก} โ {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก}+. Let Finitely generated butnot finitely presented๐ be the subsemigroup of {๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก}+ generated by๐.
Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐ is finitelypresented. Let ๐ด = {๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐} and let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be given by
๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง, ๐๐ = ๐ฆ๐ง, ๐๐ = ๐ฆ๐ก,๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ, ๐๐ = ๐ง๐ฆ, ๐๐ = ๐ง๐ฆ๐ก.
Clearly ๐ is presented by Sgโจ๐ด | ker๐+โฉ, since ๐ด+/ker๐+ โ ๐ by Theo-rem 1.24. Thus, by Proposition 2.12, ๐ is defined by a finite presentationSgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ. Assume without loss of generality that ๐ contains no definingrelations of the form (๐ข, ๐ข).
Let ๐ผ be greater than the maximum length of a side of a definingrelation in ๐. Now,
(๐๐๐ผ๐)๐+ = ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง)๐ผ+1๐ฆ๐ก = (๐๐๐ผ๐)๐+.
That is, ๐๐๐ผ๐ =๐ ๐๐๐ผ๐. By Proposition 2.7, there is a sequence of element-ary ๐-transitions
๐๐๐ผ๐ โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐๐๐ผ๐. (2.11)
For any ๐ฝ โ โโช{0}, the word ๐๐๐ฝ is the unique word over๐ด representing(๐๐๐ฝ)๐ = ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง)๐ฝ+1, the word ๐๐ฝ๐ is the unique word over ๐ด representing(๐๐ฝ๐)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ง)๐ฝ๐ฆ๐ก, and for ๐ฝ โ 0 the word ๐๐ฝ is the unique word over๐ด representing (๐๐ฝ)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ง)๐ฝ. Hence ๐ cannot contain any definingrelation of the form (๐๐๐ฝ, ๐ข) or (๐๐ฝ๐, ๐ฃ) or (๐๐ฝ, ๐ค). Thus in the sequenceof elementary ๐-transitions (2.11), the first step must involve applying adefining relation of which one side is ๐๐๐ผ๐. This contradicts the fact that๐ผ is greater than the maximum length of a side of a defining relation in ๐.Therefore ๐ is not finitely presented.
Semigroup presentations โข 49
Example 2.5 showed that it is possible for a free semigroup to containsubsemigroups that are not themselves free. By showing that a free sem-igroup can contain finitely generated subsemigroups that are not evenfinitely presented, Example 2.13 provides an even stronger contrast to theNielsenโSchreier theorem.
E x ampl e 2 . 1 4. Let ๐ be the semigroup presented by Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ, whereCancellative but notgroup-embeddable ๐ด = {๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, โ} and let ๐ = {(๐๐, ๐๐), (๐๐, ๐๐), (๐๐, ๐โ)}. We will
prove that ๐ is cancellative but not group-embeddable.Proving that ๐ is cancellative involves many cases, so we prove the
left-cancellativity condition for the generator represented by ๐; the othercases are similar. Suppose that ๐๐ข =๐ ๐๐ฃ; we aim to prove that ๐ข =๐ ๐ฃ.Then there is a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions
๐๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐๐ฃ. (2.12)
Without loss of generality, assume that ๐ is minimal among all suchsequences. Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that atsome step in this sequence the initial symbol ๐ is altered.Thismust involveapplying one of the defining relations (๐๐, ๐๐) or (๐๐, ๐โ). Assume theformer; the latter case is similar. Thus (2.12) is of the form
๐๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐๐ฃ.
Now, no defining relation has one side starting with a symbol ๐, so thesymbol ๐ must remain in the terms of the sequence until the definingrelation (๐๐, ๐๐) is applied again to alter the initial symbol ๐. (We knowthat this relation must be applied because the sequence of elementary๐-transitions ends with ๐ค๐ = ๐๐ฃ.) Thus (2.12) is of the form
๐๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐๐๐คโณ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโณ โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐๐ฃ.
Since the distinguished symbol ๐ is present throughout the subsequence๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐๐๐คโณ, so does the symbol ๐. Because the symbols ๐๐ arenot involved in any of the intermediate steps, there is no need to includethe two elementary ๐-transitions ๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโฒ and ๐๐๐คโณ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโณ.That is, we can remove the elementary ๐-transitions ๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโฒ and๐๐๐คโณ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโณ and replace the prefixes ๐๐ by ๐๐ in the subsequence๐๐๐คโฒ โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐๐๐คโณ and obtain a strictly shorter sequence of ele-mentary ๐-transitions from ๐๐ข to ๐๐ฃ. This contradicts the minimality of ๐.Therefore the initial symbol ๐ is never altered. Thus we can delete the ini-tial symbol ๐ from each step in (2.12) to obtain a sequence of elementary๐-transitions from ๐ข to ๐ฃ. Hence ๐ข =๐ ๐ฃ.
This argument proves that the left-cancellativity condition holds forthe generator ๐. Reasoning similarly for the symbols in ๐ด โ {๐} shows
50 โขFree semigroups & presentations
that ๐ is left-cancellative; symmetrical arguments show that ๐ is rightcancellative. Thus ๐ is cancellative.
Suppose ๐ is group-embeddable. Then there is a monomorphism๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ, where ๐บ is a group. Then
(๐๐)๐ = (๐๐)(๐๐)= (๐๐)(๐๐)(๐๐)โ1(๐๐)= (๐๐)(๐๐)(๐๐)โ1(๐๐) [since ๐๐ =๐ ๐๐]= (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1(๐๐)(๐๐)(๐๐)โ1(๐๐)= (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1(๐๐)(๐๐)(๐๐)(๐๐) [since ๐๐ =๐ ๐๐]= (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1(๐๐)(๐๐)= (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1(๐๐)(โ๐) [since ๐๐ =๐ ๐โ]= (๐๐)(โ๐)= (๐โ)๐.
But ๐๐ โ ๐ ๐โ, since there is no sequence of elementary ๐-transitions from๐๐ to ๐โ because ๐๐ does not contain a subword that forms one side of adefining relation in ๐. This contradicts ๐ being a monomorphism and so๐ is not group-embeddable.
Several of the syntactic arguments used in this chapter and in the exer-cises could be simplified by using the tools of string-rewriting. However,presenting the necessary theory is beyond the scope of this course.
Exercises
[See pages 209โ215 for the solutions.]โด2.1 A semigroup ๐ is equidivisible if for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐, the following Equidivisibility
holds:
๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐ก โ (โ๐ โ ๐)(๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ โง ๐ก = ๐๐ฆ)โจ (โ๐ โ ๐)(๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ โง ๐ฆ = ๐๐ก).
a) Prove that groups are equidivisible.b) Prove that free monoids are equidivisible.
โด2.2 Let ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+. Prove that
๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ข โ (โ๐ค โ ๐ด+)(โ๐, ๐ โ โ)(๐ข = ๐ค๐ โง ๐ฃ = ๐ค๐).
[Hint: to prove the left-hand side implies the right-hand side, useinduction on |๐ข๐ฃ|.]
2.3 Let ๐ข, ๐ฃ, ๐ค โ ๐ด+ be such that ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ค.
Exercises โข 51
a) Using induction on |๐ฃ|, prove that there exist ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ดโ and ๐ โโ โช {0} such that ๐ข = ๐ ๐ก, ๐ฃ = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ , and ๐ค = ๐ก๐ .
b) Prove part a) in a different way by letting ๐ be maximal (possibly๐ = 0) such that ๐ฃ = ๐ข๐๐ for some ๐ โ ๐ดโ.
2.4 Let ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+. Show that the subsemigroup โจ๐ข, ๐ฃโฉ is free if and only if๐ข๐ฃ โ ๐ฃ๐ข.
2.5 Let ๐ be a semigroup and let ๐ be a generating set for ๐, with |๐| โฉพ2. Suppose that for all ๐ฅ๐, ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ โ, we have ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ =๐ฆ1โฏ๐ฆ๐ โ (โ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐})(๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐). Prove that ๐ is free with basis๐.
โด2.6 Let ๐ โ โ. Let ๐ = {๐ฅ1, ๐ฅ2,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐}. Let๐ be the set โ๐ under theoperation of union; then๐ is a monoid with identity โ . The aimof this exercise is to use Method 2.9 to prove that๐ is defined byMonโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ, where ๐ด = {๐1,โฆ , ๐๐} and ๐ = { (๐2๐ , ๐๐), (๐๐๐๐, ๐๐๐๐) โถ๐, ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐} }.a) Do step 1 of Method 2.9: define an assignment of generators ๐ โถ๐ด โ ๐ and show that ๐ satisfies the defining relations in ๐with respect to ๐. [Hint: the monoid๐ is generated by elements{๐ฅ1}, {๐ฅ2},โฆ , {๐ฅ๐}.]
b) Do step 2 of Method 2.9: let ๐ = { ๐๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ โถ ๐๐ โฉฝ 1 } and
prove that for every ๐ค โ ๐ดโ there is a word ๐ค โ ๐ such that(๐ค, ๐ค) is a consequence of ๐.
c) Do step 3 of Method 2.9: prove that ๐โ|๐ is injective.โด2.7 Prove that Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐๐, ๐)โฉ defines (โค, +).2.8 Let๐ be defined byMonโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ, where๐ด = {๐, ๐, ๐} and๐ = {(๐๐๐, ๐)}.
Let๐ = ๐ดโ โ ๐ดโ๐๐๐๐ดโ, so that๐ consists of all words over ๐ด thatdo not contain a subword ๐๐๐. Prove that every element of๐ has aunique representative in ๐, and that this representative can be ob-tained by taking any word representing that element and iterativelydeleting subwords ๐๐๐.
โด2.9 Let ๐ต2 be the semigroup consisting of the following five matrices:
[0 00 0] , [0 10 0] , [
0 01 0] , [
1 00 0] , [
0 00 1] .
Show that ๐ต2 is presented by Sgโจ๐ด | ๐ โช ๐โฉ, where ๐ด = {๐, ๐, ๐ง} and
๐ = {(๐2, ๐ง), (๐2, ๐ง), (๐๐๐, ๐), (๐๐๐, ๐)},๐ = {(๐ง๐, ๐ง), (๐๐ง, ๐ง), (๐ง๐, ๐ง), (๐๐ง, ๐ง), (๐ง2, ๐ง)}.
[Hint: note that the defining relations in ๐ imply that ๐ง is mapped tothe zero of ๐ต2.]
2.10 Let ๐ต be the bicyclic monoid Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐)โฉ.a) Prove that ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ is idempotent if and only if ๐ฝ = ๐พ.
52 โขFree semigroups & presentations
b) Prove that ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ is right-invertible if and only if ๐พ = 0. [Dualreasoning will show that ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ is left-invertible if and only if๐ฝ = 0.]
โด2.11 Let ๐ต be the bicyclic monoid Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐)โฉ. Draw a part of theCayley graph ๐ค(๐ต, {๐, ๐}) including all elements ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ with ๐พ, ๐ฝ โฉฝ 4.
โด2.12 Let ๐ be a semigroup and let ๐, ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ be such that ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ,๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฆ, ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐, and ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐.a) Prove that all powers of ๐ฅ and all powers of ๐ฆ are distinct. (That
is, ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ are not periodic elements.)b) Prove that if ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆโ for some ๐, โ โ โ โช {0}, then ๐ = โ = 0.c) Prove that if ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ = ๐ for some ๐, โ โ โ โช {0}, then ๐ = โ = 0.d) Prove that if ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ = ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ๐ for some ๐, โ, ๐, ๐ โ โ โช {0}, then๐ = ๐ and โ = ๐.
e) Deduce that the subsemigroup โจ๐ฅ, ๐ฆโฉ of ๐ is isomorphic to thebicyclic monoid.
โด2.13 Let ๐ต be the bicyclic monoid and ๐ โถ ๐ต โ ๐ a surjective homomor-phism. Prove that ๐ is either isomorphic to the bicyclic monoid or agroup.
Notes
The section on properties of free semigroups and monoidsis largely based on Howie, Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory, ch. 7. โ Thediscussion of semigroup presentations is partly based on Ruลกkuc, โSemigroupPresentationsโ, chs 1 & 3. โ For further reading on free semigroups and monoidssee Harju, โLecture Notes on Semigroupsโ, ยง 4.1โ2 and Howie, Fundamentalsof SemigroupTheory, ยง 7.2 on submonoids of free monoids and connections tocoding theory. Lothaire, Combinatorics on Words is a broad study of words andcontains a great deal of relevant material. For further reading on semigrouppresentations, Ruลกkuc, โSemigroup Presentationsโ is an essential text, but see alsoHiggins,Techniques of SemigroupTheory, ยง 1.7& ch. 5 for an introduction to usingdiagrams to reason about semigroup presentations. โ For string-rewriting andits application to semigroup theory, see Book & Otto, String Rewriting Systems;for rewriting more generally, see Baader&Nipkow, Term Rewriting and All That.โ Example 2.14 is derived from the criterion for group-embeddability in Malcev,โOn the immersion of an algebraic ring into a fieldโ. โ Exercise 2.5 is adaptedfromGallagher, โOn the Finite Generation and Presentability of Diagonal Actsโฆโ,Proof of Proposition 3.1.12.
โข
Notes โข 53
54 โข
3Structure of semigroups
โ structure can be considered as a complex ofrelations, and ultimately as multi-dimensional order. โ
โ Alfred KorzybskiScience and Sanity, bk I, pt. I, ch. 2.
โข The aim of this chapter is to understand better thestructure of semigroups. We want to divide the semigroup into sectionsin such a way that we can understand the semigroup in terms of thoseparts and their interaction. One goal is to understand the semigroup interms of groups; then we assume that our work is done and we hand onthe problem to a group theorist.
Greenโs relations
The most fundamental tools in understanding a semi- Greenโs relationsgroup are its Greenโs relations. These relate elements depending on theideals they generate, and, as we shall see, give a lot of information aboutthe structure of a semigroup and how its elements interact. On a sem-igroup, there are five Greenโs relations: H, L, R, D, and J. We start bydefining L, R, and J: for a semigroup ๐, define L, R, and J
๐ฅ L ๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฅ = ๐1๐ฆ,๐ฅ R ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ๐1 = ๐ฆ๐1,๐ฅ J ๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฅ๐1 = ๐1๐ฆ๐1.
}}}}}
(3.1)
It is easy to see that L, R, and J are all equivalence relations. Usefulcharacterizations of these relations, which we will use at least as often asthe definitions in (3.1), are given by the following result:
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 1. The relations L, R, and J on a semigroup ๐ satisfy Characterization of L, R, Jthe following:
๐ฅ L ๐ฆ โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐1)((๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ) โง (๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ));๐ฅ R ๐ฆ โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐1)((๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ) โง (๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ));๐ฅ J ๐ฆ โ (โ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐1)((๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ) โง (๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ)).
โข 55
Proof of 3.1. We prove the result for L; similar reasoning applies for Rand J.
Suppose ๐ฅ L ๐ฆ. Then by (3.1), ๐1๐ฅ = ๐1๐ฆ. Since ๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฆ, it followsthat ๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฅ and so there exists ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. Similarly, thereexists ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ.
Now suppose that there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ and ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ.Then ๐1๐ฅ = ๐1๐๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฆ, and similarly ๐1๐ฆ = ๐1๐๐ฅ โ ๐1๐ฅ. Hence๐1๐ฅ = ๐1๐ฆ and so ๐ฅ L ๐ฆ. 3.1
Pro p o s i t i on 3 . 2. L โ R = R โ L.L and R commute
Proof of 3.2. Let (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ L โ R. Then there exists ๐ง โ ๐ such that ๐ฅ L ๐งand ๐ง R ๐ฆ. By Proposition 3.1, there exist ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ฅ = ๐ง,๐๐ง = ๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ = ๐ฆ, and ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ง.
Let ๐งโฒ = ๐๐ง๐. Then ๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ง๐ = ๐งโฒ and ๐งโฒ๐ = ๐๐ง๐๐ = ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐๐ง = ๐ฅ, so๐ฅ R ๐งโฒ, and ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ง๐ = ๐งโฒ and ๐๐งโฒ = ๐๐๐ง๐ = ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ง๐ = ๐ฆ, so ๐งโฒ L ๐ฆ.Hence (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ R โ L.
Thus L โ R โ R โ L. Similarly R โ L โ L โ R and so L โ R =R โ L. 3.2
As a consequence of Propositions 1.31 and 3.2, we see that L โR =L โR. Recall from page 26 that the meet of two equivalence relations istheir intersection, soL โR = L โฉR. The meet and join ofL andR playan important role, so they are also counted as Greenโs relations and haveparticular notations:H and D
H = L โR = L โR,D = L โR = L โฉR.
From either (3.1) or Proposition 3.1, one sees that L โ J and R โ J.So J is an upper bound for {L,R} and so D = L โ R โ J. Furthermore,it is immediate that H โ L and H โ R. In fact, all of these inclusionsare in general strict by Exercises 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7, or by Exercise 3.11; seeFigure 3.1. However, in some special classes of semigroups we do haveequality of some of the relations.
J
D
L R
HFIGURE 3.1
Hasse diagram of Greenโs rela-tions in a general semigroup
For instance, let ๐บ be a group. Then in ๐บ, all of Greenโs relations areequal to the universal relation ๐บร๐บ. That is, all elements of ๐บ areH-,L-,R-, D-, and J-related.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 3. In a periodic semigroup, the Greenโs relations DD = J for periodic
semigroupsand J coincide.
Proof of 3.3. Suppose ๐ is periodic. We already know D โ J, so we haveto prove the opposite inclusion.
Let ๐ฅ J ๐ฆ. Then there exist ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ and๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. So ๐ฅ = ๐๐๐ฅ๐๐ and so ๐ฅ = (๐๐)๐๐ฅ(๐๐ )๐ for all ๐ โ โ, and
56 โขStructure of semigroups
similarly ๐ฆ = (๐๐)๐๐ฆ(๐ ๐)๐ for all ๐ โ โ. Since ๐ is periodic, there exist๐, โ โ โ such that (๐๐)๐ and (๐ ๐)โ are idempotent. Let ๐ง = ๐๐ฅ. Then
๐ฅ = (๐๐)๐๐ฅ(๐๐ )๐ = (๐๐)2๐๐ฅ(๐๐ )๐
= (๐๐)๐((๐๐)๐๐ฅ(๐๐ )๐) = (๐๐)๐๐ฅ = ((๐๐)๐โ1๐)๐ง.
Hence ๐ฅ L ๐ง. Furthermore, ๐ง๐ = ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ and
๐ง = ๐๐ฅ = ๐(๐๐)โ+1๐ฅ(๐๐ )โ+1 = (๐๐)โ+1๐๐ฅ๐(๐ ๐)โ๐ = (๐๐)โ+1๐๐ฅ๐(๐ ๐)2โ๐ = (๐๐)โ+1๐ฆ(๐ ๐)2โ๐ = (๐๐)โ+1๐ฆ(๐ ๐)โ+1(๐ ๐)โโ1๐ = ๐ฆ((๐ ๐)โโ1๐ ).
Hence ๐ง R ๐ฆ.Therefore ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ. Thus J โ D and so D = J. 3.3
P r o p o s i t i o n 3 . 4. a) The relation L is a right congruence.b) The relation R is a left congruence.
Proof of 3.4. For any ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐,
๐ฅ L ๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฅ = ๐1๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฅ๐ง = ๐1๐ฆ๐ง โ ๐ฅ๐ง L ๐ฆ๐ง,
and so L is a right congruence. Dual reasoning shows that R is a leftcongruence. 3.4
In general,L is not a left congruence andR is not a right congruence;see Exercise 3.4.
For ๐ โ ๐, denote by๐ป๐, ๐ฟ๐, ๐ ๐, ๐ท๐, and ๐ฝ๐ the H-, L-, R-, D, and ๐ป๐, ๐ฟ๐, ๐ ๐, ๐ท๐, and ๐ฝ๐J-classes of ๐, respectively. By the containment between Greenโs relationsdescribed above,
๐ป๐ โ ๐ฟ๐, ๐ป๐ โ ๐ ๐, ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐ท๐, ๐ ๐ โ ๐ท๐, and ๐ท๐ โ ๐ฝ๐.
There are natural partial orders on the collection ofL-classes ๐/L, the Partial order of๐/L, ๐/R, and ๐/Jcollection of R-classes ๐/R, and the collection of J-classes ๐/J induced
by inclusion order of ideals:
๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฟ๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฅ โ ๐1๐ฆ,๐ ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ๐1 โ ๐ฆ๐1,๐ฝ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ฆ โ ๐1๐ฅ๐1 โ ๐1๐ฆ๐1.
}}}}}}}
(3.2)
It follows immediate from (3.2) that for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐, ๐ โ ๐1,
๐ฟ๐๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฟ๐ฅ, ๐ ๐ฅ๐ โฉฝ ๐ ๐ฅ, ๐ฝ๐๐ฅ๐ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ฅ.
Greenโs relations โข 57
Simple and 0-simple semigroups
A semigroup is simple if it contains no proper ideals; thusSimple/0-simple๐ is simple if its only ideal is ๐ itself. A semigroup ๐ with a zero is 0-simpleif it is not a null semigroup and its only proper ideal is {0}; thus ๐ is0-simple if ๐2 โ โ and ๐ and {0} are the only ideals of ๐.
The notion of a simple semigroup is not a generalization of a โsimplegroupโ, in the sense of a group that contains no proper non-trivial normalsubgroups. Groups never contains proper ideals, so groups are alwayssimple semigroups.Let ๐ be a semigroup and let ๐ผ be an ideal (respectively, left ideal,Minimal/0-minimal ideal
right ideal) of ๐. Then ๐ผ is minimal if there is no ideal (respectively, leftideal, right ideal) ๐ฝ of ๐ that is strictly contained in ๐ผ. Suppose now that๐ contains a zero. Then ๐ผ is 0-minimal if ๐ผ โ {0} and there is no ideal(respectively, left ideal, right ideal) ๐ฝ โ {0} of ๐ that is strictly containedin ๐ผ.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 5. A semigroup contains at most one minimal ideal.Uniqueness ofminimal ideals
Proof of 3.5. Suppose ๐ผ and ๐ฝ are minimal ideals of a semigroup ๐.Then ๐ผ๐ฝis an ideal of ๐ and ๐ผ๐ฝ โ ๐ผ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ผ๐ฝ โ ๐๐ฝ โ ๐ฝ. Hence, by the minimalityof ๐ผ and ๐ฝ, we have ๐ผ = ๐ผ๐ฝ and ๐ฝ = ๐ผ๐ฝ and hence ๐ผ = ๐ฝ. 3.5
A semigroup ๐might not contain a minimal ideal. For example, theKernel of a semigroupideals ๐ผ๐ of (โ, +) defined in Example 1.10(a) form an infinite descendingchain: โ = ๐ผ1 โ ๐ผ2 โ ๐ผ3 โ โฆ. But Proposition 3.5 shows that if asemigroup ๐ contains aminimal ideal, it is unique. Such a uniqueminimalideal is called the kernel of ๐ and is denoted ๐พ(๐). Notice that if ๐ is a๐พ(๐)semigroup with zero, ๐พ(๐) = {0}.
L emma 3 . 6. If a semigroup ๐ is 0-simple, then ๐2 = ๐.๐2 = ๐ for 0-simplesemigroups
Proof of 3.6. Note that ๐2 is an ideal of ๐, since ๐๐2 โ ๐2 and ๐2๐ โ ๐2.Now, ๐2 โ {0} since ๐ is not null (by the definition of 0-simple). Hence๐2 = ๐ since ๐ is 0-simple. 3.6
L emma 3 . 7. A semigroup ๐ is 0-simple if and only if ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ for all๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {0}.
Proof of 3.7. Suppose ๐ is 0-simple. Then ๐2 = ๐ by Lemma 3.6 and so๐3 = ๐2๐ = ๐๐ = ๐.
For any ๐ฅ โ ๐, the principal ideal ๐๐ฅ๐ is either {0} or ๐ since ๐ is0-simple. Let ๐ = { ๐ฅ โ ๐ โถ ๐๐ฅ๐ = {0} }. It is easy to prove that ๐ is anideal of ๐. Since ๐ is 0-simple, it follows that ๐ = ๐ or ๐ = {0}. Supposethat ๐ = ๐. Then ๐๐ฅ๐ = {0} for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, which implies ๐3 = {0}, which isa contradiction since ๐3 = ๐ by the previous paragraph. Hence ๐ = {0},and so ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {0}.
58 โขStructure of semigroups
For the converse, suppose ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {0}. Note first that๐ cannot be null. Let ๐ผ be some ideal of ๐. Suppose ๐ผ โ {0}. Then thereexists some ๐ฆ โ ๐ผโ {0}, and ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐. Hence ๐ = ๐๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ผ โ ๐ and so ๐ผ = ๐.So for any ideal ๐ผ of ๐, either ๐ผ = {0} or ๐ผ = ๐, and so ๐ is 0-simple. 3.7
P r o p o s i t i o n 3 . 8. a) A 0-minimal ideal of a semigroup with a 0-minimal idealsare 0-simple or nullzero is either null or 0-simple.
b) A minimal ideal of a semigroup is simple.
Proof of 3.8. a) Let ๐ be a semigroup with a zero, and let ๐ผ be a 0-minimalideal of ๐. Suppose ๐ผ is not null. Then ๐ผ2 โ {0}. Hence, since ๐ผ2 โ ๐ผ isan ideal of ๐ and ๐ผ is 0-minimal, we have ๐ผ2 = ๐ผ and so ๐ผ3 = ๐ผ.
Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ผ โ {0}. Then ๐1๐ฅ๐1 is an ideal of ๐ contained in ๐ผ. Since๐ฅ โ ๐1๐ฅ๐1, we have ๐1๐ฅ๐1 โ {0}; hence ๐1๐ฅ๐1 = ๐ผ since ๐ผ is 0-minimal.Thus ๐ผ = ๐ผ3 = ๐ผ๐1๐ฅ๐1๐ผ โ ๐ผ๐ฅ๐ผ โ ๐ผ. Therefore ๐ผ๐ฅ๐ผ = ๐ผ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ผโ {0}and so ๐ผ is 0-simple by Lemma 3.7. So ๐ผ is either null or 0-simple.
b) First, note that if ๐ has a zero 0, its unique minimal ideal is {0}, whichis simple. So suppose that ๐ผ is a minimal ideal of a semigroup ๐ thatdoes not contain a zero. Then ๐ผ2 is an ideal of ๐ and ๐ผ2 โ ๐ผ. So ๐ผ2 = ๐ผsince ๐ผ is minimal. Hence ๐ผ3 = ๐ผ.
Suppose ๐ฝ is an ideal of ๐ผ. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ฝ. Then ๐ผ๐ฅ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ since ๐ฝ is anideal of ๐ผ. Then ๐1๐ฅ๐1 is an ideal of ๐ and ๐1๐ฅ๐1 โ ๐ผ; hence ๐1๐ฅ๐1 = ๐ผsince ๐ผ is minimal. Therefore ๐ฝ โ ๐ผ = ๐ผ3 = ๐ผ๐1๐ฅ๐1๐ผ โ ๐ผ๐ฅ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ and so๐ฝ = ๐ผ. So ๐ผ is simple. 3.8
For any ๐ฅ โ ๐, recall that ๐ฝ(๐ฅ) = ๐1๐ฅ๐1, and that the J-class of ๐ฅ,denoted ๐ฝ๐ฅ, is the set of all elements of the semigroup that generate (asa principal ideal) ๐ฝ(๐ฅ). Let ๐ผ(๐ฅ) = ๐ฝ(๐ฅ) โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Notice that ๐ผ(๐ฅ) = { ๐ฆ โ ๐ โถ ๐ผ(๐)๐ฝ๐ฆ < ๐ฝ๐ฅ }.
L emma 3 . 9. Let ๐ be a semigroup and ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐ผ(๐ฅ) is either emptyor an ideal of ๐.
Proof of 3.9. Suppose ๐ผ(๐ฅ) โ โ . Let ๐ฆ โ ๐ผ(๐ฅ) and ๐ง โ ๐. Then ๐ฆ๐ง โ ๐ฝ(๐ฅ)since ๐ฝ(๐ฅ) is an ideal. But ๐ฝ(๐ฆ๐ง) โ ๐ฝ(๐ฆ) โ ๐ฝ(๐ฅ) (since ๐ฝ(๐ฆ) = ๐ฝ(๐ฅ) wouldimply ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ). Hence ๐ฆ๐ง โ ๐ผ(๐ฅ). Similarly ๐ง๐ฆ โ ๐ผ(๐ฅ). Hence ๐ผ(๐ฅ) is anideal. 3.9
The factor semigroups ๐ฝ(๐ฅ)/๐ผ(๐ฅ) (where ๐ฅ is such that ๐ผ(๐ฅ) โ 0) and Principal factorsthe kernel ๐พ(๐) are called the principal factors of ๐.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 1 0. Let ๐ be a semigroup. If the kernel ๐พ(๐) exists, Principal factors arenull or 0-simpleit is simple. All other principal factors of ๐ are either null or 0-simple.
Proof of 3.10. By Proposition 3.8(b), if ๐พ(๐) exists, it is simple.The principal factor ๐ฝ(๐ฅ)/๐ผ(๐ฅ) is a 0-minimal ideal of ๐/๐ผ(๐ฅ) and so
is 0-simple by Proposition 3.8(a). 3.10
Simple and 0-simple semigroups โข 59
A principal series of a semigroup ๐ is a finite chain of idealsPrincipal series
๐พ(๐) = ๐1 โ ๐2 โ โฆ โ ๐๐ = ๐ (3.3)
that is maximal in the sense that there is no ideal ๐ผ such that ๐๐ โ ๐ผ โ ๐๐+1.Not all semigroups admit principal series. Indeed, even if a semigrouphas a kernel, it may not admit a principal series: for example, let ๐ bethe semigroup (โ, +). Then ๐0 has a minimal ideal {0} but no principalseries.We now have an analogy for semigroups of the JordanโHรถlder the-
orem for groups, which states that any composition series for a groupcontains the the same composition factors in some order.
T h eorem 3 . 1 1. Let ๐ be a semigroup admitting a principal seriesโJordanโHรถlder theoremโfor semigroups (3.3). Then the factors ๐๐+1/๐๐ are, in some order, isomorphic to the principal
factors of ๐.
Proof of 3.11. [Not especially difficult, but technical and omitted.] 3.11
D-class structure
Since L โ D and R โ D, every D-class must be botha union of L-classes and a union of R-classes. On other hand, supposethat anL-class ๐ฟ๐ฅ and aR-class ๐ ๐ฆ intersect. Then there is some element๐ง โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ. So ๐ฅ L ๐ง R ๐ฆ and so ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ. Hence ๐ฟ๐ฅ and ๐ ๐ฆ are bothcontained within the same D-class. Therefore an L-class and an R-classintersect if and only if they are contained within the same D-class.
Thus we can visualize a D-class in the following useful way: Imaginethe elements of thisD-class arranged in a rectangular pattern.This patternis divided into a grid of cells. Each column of cells is an L-class; eachrow is an R-class, and every cell is the H-class that is the intersection ofthe L- and R-class forming the column and row that contain that cell.This visualization is called an egg-box diagram; see Figure 3.2. A usefulmnemonic for remembering the arrangement of an egg-box diagram is:R-classes are Rows and L-classes are coLumns. For a concrete exampleof an egg-box diagram, see Figure 3.7 on page 69, which is drawn usingthe result in Exercise 3.3.
G r e e n โ s L e m m a 3 . 1 2. a) Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ be such that ๐ฅ L ๐ฆ andGreenโs lemmalet ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 be such that ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ and ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ. Then the โleft multi-plicationโ maps ๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ and ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ (where ๐ก๐๐ง = ๐ง๐ก) are mutually inversebijections between๐ ๐ฅ and๐ ๐ฆ. Furthermore, both of these maps preserveL-classes, in the sense that ๐ก๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ L ๐ก and ๐ก๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ L ๐ก, and so ๐๐|๐ป๐ฅand ๐๐|๐ป๐ฆ are mutually inverse bijections between ๐ป๐ฅ and ๐ป๐ฆ. (SeeFigure 3.3.)
60 โขStructure of semigroups
๐ฟ๐ฅ
๐ ๐ฅ ๐ป๐ฅ๐ฅ
FIGURE 3.2An egg-box diagram for theD-class ๐ท๐ฅ . The R-class ๐ ๐ฅ andtheL-class ๐ฟ๐ฅ are representedby the row and column thatintersect in the box represent-ing theH-class๐ป๐ฅ , which con-tains the element ๐ฅ.
๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฆ
๐ ๐ฅ
๐ ๐ฆ
๐ฅ
๐ฆ
๐๐๐๐ ๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ
๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ = id๐ ๐ฅ
๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ = id๐ ๐ฆ
๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ
FIGURE 3.3Greenโs lemma: if ๐ and ๐ re-spectively left-multiply ๐ฅ togive ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ to give ๐ฅ, thenthe left multiplication maps ๐๐and ๐๐ restrict to mutually in-verse bijections between theR-classes๐ ๐ฅ and๐ ๐ฆ (the rowscontaining ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ), and bothof these restricted maps pre-serveL-classes (columns).
b) Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ be such that ๐ฅ R ๐ฆ and let ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 be such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆand ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ.Then the โright multiplicationโ maps ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ and ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฆ (where๐ก๐๐ง = ๐ก๐ง) are mutually inverse bijections between ๐ฟ๐ฅ and ๐ฟ๐ฆ, and bothof these maps preserve R-classes.
Proof of 3.12. We prove only part a); the other part is proved by a dualargument.
First, notice that
๐ง โ ๐ ๐ฅ โ ๐ง R ๐ฅโ ๐ง๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ = ๐๐ง R ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ [since R is a left congruence]
โ ๐ง๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐ฆ.
So ๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ maps ๐ ๐ฅ to ๐ ๐ฆ and similarly ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ maps ๐ ๐ฆ to ๐ ๐ฅ.Second, suppose ๐ง โ ๐ ๐ฅ. Then there exists ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ง.
Then ๐ง๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐)๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ = ๐๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ง. Hence
D-class structure โข 61
๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ = id๐ ๐ฅ . Similarly ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ = id๐ ๐ฆ . So ๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ and ๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ aremutually inverse bijections.
Finally, if ๐ง = ๐ก๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ , then ๐ง = ๐๐ก and ๐ก = ๐ง(๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ )โ1 = ๐ง๐๐|๐ ๐ฆ = ๐๐ง
and so ๐ง L ๐ก. Hence ๐๐|๐ ๐ฅ preserves L-classes. 3.12
Prop o s i t i on 3 . 1 3. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ be such that ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ. Then |๐ป๐ฅ| =H-classes in thesame D-class have
the same cardinality|๐ป๐ฆ|.
Proof of 3.13. Assume ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ. So there exists ๐ง such that ๐ฅ L ๐ง and ๐ง R ๐ฆ.Let ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 be such that ๐๐ฅ = ๐ง, ๐๐ง = ๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ = ๐ฆ, and ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ง. ByLemma 3.12, ๐๐|๐ป๐ฅ โถ ๐ป๐ฅ โ ๐ป๐ง is a bijection, and ๐๐|๐ป๐ง โถ ๐ป๐ง โ ๐ป๐ฆ isa bijection. So ๐๐|๐ป๐ฅ๐๐|๐ป๐ง โถ ๐ป๐ฅ โ ๐ป๐ฆ is a bijection, and hence |๐ป๐ฅ| =|๐ป๐ฆ|. 3.13
Pro p o s i t i on 3 . 1 4. Let๐ป be an H-class of ๐. Then either:Two types of H-class
a) ๐ป2 โฉ ๐ป = โ , orb) the following equivalent statements hold:
i) ๐ป2 โฉ ๐ป โ โ ;ii) ๐ป contains an idempotent;iii) ๐ป2 = ๐ป;iv) ๐ป is a subsemigroup of ๐;v) ๐ป is a subgroup of ๐.
Proof of 3.14. If๐ป2 โฉ๐ป = โ there is nothing further to prove. So supposethat๐ป2 โฉ๐ป โ โ . Then there exist ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ป such that ๐ ๐ก โ ๐ป. Then ๐ H ๐ ๐ก.In particular, ๐ R ๐ ๐ก. So by Lemma 3.12(b), ๐๐ก|๐ป is a bijection from ๐ปto itself. Similarly ๐ก L ๐ ๐ก, and thus, by Lemma 3.12(a), ๐๐ |๐ป is a bijectionfrom๐ป to itself.
Now let ๐ง โ ๐ป. Then ๐ ๐ง = ๐ง๐๐ |๐ป and ๐ง๐ก = ๐ง๐๐ก|๐ป are both in๐ป. Againby Lemma 3.12, ๐๐ง|๐ป and ๐๐ง|๐ป are bijections from๐ป to itself. Since ๐ง โ ๐ปwas arbitrary, it follows that ๐ง๐ป = ๐ป๐ง = ๐ป for all ๐ง โ ๐ป. Therefore๐ป isa subgroup by Lemma 1.9.
We have shown that statement i) implies statement v). Statement v)clearly implies statements ii), iii), and iv), and each of these implies state-ment i). So all five statements are equivalent. 3.14
A maximal subgroup is a subgroup that does not lie inside any largersubgroup.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 1 5. The maximal subgroups of ๐ are precisely theMaximal subgroup =H-classcontaining an idempotent H-classes of ๐ that contain idempotents.
Proof of 3.15. Since every element of a subgroup is H-related, it followsthat any subgroup is contained within a single H-class. So a maximalsubgroup ๐บ is contained within a single H-class ๐ป. But ๐ป thereforecontains an idempotent 1๐บ and so is itself a subgroup by Proposition 3.14.Hence๐ป = ๐บ. 3.15
62 โขStructure of semigroups
C oro l l a ry 3 . 1 6. AnH-class contains at most one idempotent. 3.16
Prop o s i t i on 3 . 1 7. Let ๐ โ ๐ be idempotent. Then ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ for all Idempotents areโleft/right identitiesโfor their R/L-classes
๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐ and ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฆ for all ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐.
Proof of 3.17. Suppose ๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐. Then there exists ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ = ๐ฅ.Hence ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ฅ. Hence ๐ is a left identity for ๐ ๐. Similarly ๐ isa right identity for ๐ฟ๐. 3.17
Pro p o s i t i on 3 . 1 8. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ with ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ. Then ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฆ โฉ ๐ ๐ฅ if Products locatedby idempotentsand only if ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ contains an idempotent. (See Figure 3.4.)
๐ฟ๐ฅ ๐ฟ๐ฆ
๐ ๐ฅ
๐ ๐ฆ
๐ฅ
๐
๐ฅ๐ฆ
๐ฆ
FIGURE 3.4Products are located by idem-potents: ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฆ โฉ ๐ ๐ฅ if andonly if ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ contains ๐ โ๐ธ(๐).
Proof of 3.18. Suppose that ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฆ โฉ ๐ ๐ฅ. In particular ๐ฅ๐ฆ R ๐ฅ. Hencethere exists ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. By Lemma 3.12, ๐๐ฆ|๐ฟ๐ฅ โถ ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ๐ฆand ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ๐ฆ โถ ๐ฟ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ are mutually inverseR-class preserving bijectionsbetween ๐ฟ๐ฅ and ๐ฟ๐ฅ๐ฆ. Since ๐ฅ๐ฆ L ๐ฆ, these maps are in fact mutuallyinverse R-class preserving bijections between ๐ฟ๐ฅ and ๐ฟ๐ฆ
Hence (๐ฆ๐)2 = ๐ฆ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฆ๐๐ฆ|๐ฟ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐. Hence ๐ฆ๐ isidempotent. Furthermore, ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ.
Now suppose that ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ contains an idempotent ๐. Then ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆby Proposition 3.17. Since ๐ R ๐ฆ, the map ๐๐ฆ|๐ฟ๐ โถ ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐ฟ๐ฆ is an R-classpreserving bijection by Lemma 3.12. Hence ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ฆ. 3.18
Inverses and D-classes
Proposition 3.18 shows a close relationship between theproduct of two elements of a D-class and idempotents in that D-class. Itis thus not surprising that idempotents and inverses in a D-class are alsoconnected.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 1 9. If ๐ฅ โ ๐ is regular, then every element of ๐ท๐ฅ is Either every element of๐ท๐ฅ is regular or none areregular.
Proof of 3.19. Suppose ๐ฅ is regular. Then there exists ๐ฆ โ ๐ such that๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Suppose ๐ง L ๐ฅ. Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ง = ๐ฅand ๐๐ฅ = ๐ง. Hence ๐ง = ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ๐๐ง and so ๐ง is regular. So everyelement of ๐ฟ๐ฅ is regular. A dual argument shows that if ๐ก โ ๐ is regular,every element of ๐ ๐ก is regular. Combining these, we see that if ๐ฅ is regular,every element of๐ท๐ฅ is regular. 3.19
A D-class is regular if all its elements are regular, and otherwise is Regular/irregular D-classirregular.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 2 0. In a regular D-class, every L-class and every Idempotents in aregular D-classR-class contains an idempotent.
Inverses and D-classes โข 63
Proof of 3.20. Let๐ฅ โ ๐ be such that๐ท๐ฅ is regular. In particular,๐ฅ is regularand so ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ for some ๐ฆ โ ๐. Now, ๐ฆ๐ฅ L ๐ฅ and (๐ฆ๐ฅ)2 = ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ.So ๐ฆ๐ฅ is an idempotent in ๐ฟ๐ฅ. Similarly ๐ฅ๐ฆ is an idempotent in ๐ ๐ฅ. Thusevery L-class and R-class contains an idempotent. 3.20
Recall that ๐(๐ฅ) denotes the set of inverses of ๐ฅ.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 2 1. If ๐ฅ lies in a regular D-class, then:a) if ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐(๐ฅ), then ๐ฅ R ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ L ๐ฅโฒ and ๐ฅ L ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ R ๐ฅโฒ and so ๐ฅ D ๐ฅโฒ;b) if ๐ง โ ๐ท๐ฅ is such that ๐ฟ๐ง โฉ ๐ ๐ฅ contains an idempotent ๐ and ๐ ๐ง โฉ ๐ฟ๐ฅ
contains an idempotent ๐, then๐ป๐ง contains some ๐ก โ ๐(๐ฅ) with ๐ฅ๐ก = ๐and ๐ก๐ฅ = ๐;
c) an H-class contains at most one member of ๐(๐ฅ).
Proof of 3.21. a) Let ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐(๐ฅ). Then ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ. Then๐ฅ R ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ L ๐ฅโฒ and so ๐ฅ D ๐ฅโฒ; furthermore ๐ฅ L ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ R ๐ฅโฒ. (SeeFigure 3.5.)
๐ฟ๐ฅ ๐ฟ๐ฅโฒ
๐ ๐ฅ
๐ ๐ฅโฒ
๐ฅ
๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ
๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ
๐ฅโฒ
FIGURE 3.5๐ฅ and ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐(๐ฅ) in a regular
D-class
b) Since ๐ฅ R ๐, there exists ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 with ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐ฅ. Let๐ก = ๐๐๐. Then
๐ฅ๐ก๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฅ [by definition of ๐ก]= ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ [since ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ and ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ by Proposition 3.17]= ๐๐ฅ [since ๐ฅ๐ = ๐]= ๐ฅ [since ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ by Proposition 3.17]
and
๐ก๐ฅ๐ก = ๐๐๐๐ฅ๐๐๐ [by choice of ๐ก]= ๐๐๐ฅ๐๐ [since ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ and ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ by Proposition 3.17]= ๐๐๐2 [since ๐ฅ๐ = ๐]= ๐๐๐ [since ๐ is idempotent]= ๐ก. [by definition of ๐ก]
Hence ๐ก โ ๐(๐ฅ). Furthermore, ๐ฅ๐ก = ๐ฅ๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐2 = ๐. Finally,note that ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ โถ ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ๐ and ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ โถ ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ are mutually inverseR-class preserving bijections by Lemma 3.12(b). Hence
๐ก๐ฅ = ๐๐๐๐ฅ [by definition of ๐ก]= (๐๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ )๐๐ฅ [by definition of ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ ]
= (๐๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ )๐2๐ [since ๐๐ = ๐ฅ]
= (๐๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ )๐๐ [since ๐ is idempotent]
= (๐๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ )๐ [by Proposition 3.17, since ๐๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ๐]
= ๐๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ [by definition of ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ ]
= ๐. [since ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ฅ and ๐๐|๐ฟ๐ are mutually inverse]
64 โขStructure of semigroups
Now combine some of the facts we have established: from ๐ก = ๐๐๐and ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ก, we see that ๐ก L ๐; from ๐ก = ๐๐๐ and ๐ = ๐ก๐ฅ, we see that๐ก R ๐. Hence ๐ก โ ๐ฟ๐ โฉ ๐ ๐ = ๐ป๐ง. (See Figure 3.6.)
๐ฟ๐ฅ ๐ฟ๐ง
๐ ๐ฅ
๐ ๐ง
๐ฅ
๐
๐
๐ง, ๐ก
FIGURE 3.6Inverse ๐ก corresponding toidempotents ๐ and ๐ in aregularD-class
c) Suppose ๐ฅโฒ, ๐ฅโณ โ ๐(๐ฅ) and ๐ฅโฒ H ๐ฅโณ; we aim to show ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโณ. Then๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ and ๐ฅ๐ฅโณ are idempotents lying inside ๐ฟ๐ฅโฒ โฉ๐ ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฅโณ โฉ๐ ๐ฅ. Hence๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโณ by Corollary 3.16. Similarly ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐ฅโณ๐ฅ. Therefore ๐ฅโฒ =๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ๐ฅโณ = ๐ฅโณ๐ฅ๐ฅโณ = ๐ฅโณ. 3.21
Example 1.7 noted that every element of a rectangular band is aninverse of every element. Exercise 3.5 shows that the H-classes of a rect-angular band are the singleton sets. Thus it is possible for an element ๐ฅto have an inverse in every H-class. Exercise 3.5 also notes that a rectan-gular band consists of a single D-class (which must be regular, since allelements of a rectangular band are idempotent), so all these inverses of ๐ฅare D-related to ๐ฅ, which fits with Proposition 3.21(a).
C oro l l ary 3 . 2 2. Let ๐, ๐ โ ๐ be idempotents. Then ๐ D ๐ if andonly if there exist ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐(๐ฅ) such that ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ and ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐.
Proof of 3.22. Suppose ๐ D ๐. Then๐ท๐ = ๐ท๐ is a regular D-class since itcontains the regular elements ๐ and๐. Choose ๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐โฉ๐ฟ๐ and ๐ง โ ๐ฟ๐โฉ๐ ๐.Then by Proposition 3.21(b), ๐ป๐ง contains some ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐(๐ฅ) such that๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ and ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐.
Suppose now that ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐(๐ฅ) are such that ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ and๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐. Since ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ and ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, it follows that ๐ฅ R ๐. A dualargument shows that ๐ฅ L ๐. Thus ๐ R ๐ฅ L ๐ and so ๐ D ๐. 3.22
Schรผtzenberger groups
Let ๐ be a semigroup and let ๐ป be an H-class of ๐. LetStab(๐ป) = { ๐ฅ โ ๐1 โถ ๐ป๐ฅ = ๐ป }. Clearly, the adjoined identity 1 lies in Stab(๐ป)Stab(๐ป). If ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ Stab(๐ป), then๐ป๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ป๐ฆ = ๐ป and so ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ Stab(๐ป);thus Stab(๐ป) is a submonoid of ๐1. Define a relation ๐๐ป on Stab(๐ป) by ๐๐ป
๐ฅ ๐๐ป ๐ฆ โ (โโ โ ๐ป)(โ๐ฅ = โ๐ฆ).
Let ๐ฅ ๐๐ป ๐ฆ and ๐ง ๐๐ป ๐ก. Let โ โ ๐ป. Then โ๐ฅ = โ๐ฆ by the definition of ๐๐ป.Since ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ Stab(๐ป), we have โ๐ฅ = โ๐ฆ = โโฒ โ ๐ป. Thus โโฒ๐ง = โโฒ๐ก, againby the definition of ๐๐ป, and so โ(๐ฅ๐ง) = โ(๐ฆ๐ก). Since โ โ ๐ป was arbitrary,๐ฅ๐ง ๐๐ป ๐ฆ๐ก. Therefore ๐๐ป is a congruence on Stab(๐ป). Let ๐ค(๐ป) denote ๐ค(๐ป)the factor semigroup Stab(๐ป)/๐๐ป.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 2 3. Let๐ป be an H-class of a semigroup. Then ๐ค(๐ป)is a group.
Schรผtzenberger groups โข 65
Proof of 3.23. First of all note that ๐ค(๐ป) is a monoid with identity [1]๐๐ป ,since it is a quotient of the monoid Stab(๐ป).
Let ๐ฅ โ Stab(๐ป) and let โ โ ๐ป. Then โ๐ฅ โ ๐ป. In particular, โ๐ฅ R โand so there exists ๐ โ ๐1 such that โ๐ฅ๐ = โ. Hence by Lemma 3.12, ๐๐ฅ|๐ปand ๐๐|๐ป are mutually inverse bijections. In particular,๐ป๐ = ๐ป๐๐ = ๐ป,and so ๐ โ Stab(๐ป).
Thus for any โโฒ โ ๐ป, we have
โโฒ๐ฅ๐ = โโฒ๐๐ฅ|๐ป๐๐|๐ป = โโฒ = โโฒ1,โโฒ๐๐ฅ = โโฒ๐๐|๐ป๐๐ฅ|๐ป = โโฒ = โโฒ1.
Hence๐ฅ๐ ๐๐ป 1 and ๐๐ฅ ๐๐ป 1, and so [๐ฅ]๐๐ป [๐]๐๐ป = [1]๐๐ป and [๐]๐๐ป [๐ฅ]๐๐ป =[1]๐๐ป . Since ๐ฅ โ Stab(๐ป) was arbitrary, this proves that ๐ค(๐ป) is a group.
3.23
The group ๐ค(๐ป) is called the Schรผtzenberger group of๐ป. This notionSchรผtzenberger groupassociates a group to every H-class, not just those for which๐ป2 โฉ๐ป โ โ (see Proposition 3.14). We will see that when๐ป is a group H-class, ๐ค(๐ป)is actually isomorphic to๐ป.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 2 4. Let๐ป be an H-class of a semigroup. Then the๐ค(๐ป) acts regularly on๐ปSchรผtzenberger group ๐ค(๐ป) acts regularly on๐ป via โ โ [๐ฅ]๐๐ป = โ๐ฅ.
Proof of 3.24. First of all, note that the action โโ [๐ฅ]๐๐ป = โ๐ฅ is well-defined,since if [๐ฅ]๐๐ป = [๐ฆ]๐๐ป , then ๐ฅ ๐๐ป ๐ฆ and so โ๐ฅ = โ๐ฆ by the definition of๐๐ป.
Let โ, โโฒ โ ๐ป. Since in particular โ R โโฒ, there exists ๐ โ ๐1 suchthat โ๐ = โโฒ. By Lemma 3.12, ๐๐|๐ป is a bijection from๐ป to itself, and so๐ โ Stab(๐ป), and hence [๐]๐๐ป โ ๐ค(๐ป). Furthermore, โ โ [๐]๐๐ป = โ๐ = โโฒ.So ๐ค(๐ป) acts transitively on๐ป.
To show that ๐ค(๐ป) acts freely on๐ป, we have to show that [๐]๐๐ป is theunique element that acts on โ to give โโฒ. So suppose โ โ [๐ฆ]๐๐ป = โโฒ. Let๐ โ ๐ป. Since ๐ L โ, there exists ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐โ = ๐. Then
๐๐ฆ = ๐โ๐ฆ = ๐โ โ [๐ฆ]๐๐ป = ๐โโฒ = ๐โ โ [๐]๐๐ป = ๐โ๐ = ๐๐.
Since this holds for all ๐ โ ๐ป, it follows that ๐ฆ ๐๐ป ๐ and so [๐ฆ]๐๐ป = [๐]๐๐ป .Hence ๐ค(๐ป) acts freely on๐ป.
Thus the action of ๐ค(๐ป) on๐ป is regular. 3.24
C oro l l a ry 3 . 2 5. Let๐ป be anH-class of a semigroup.Then |๐ค(๐ป)| =An H-class and itsSchรผtzenberger group
have the same size|๐ป|.
Proof of 3.25. Since ๐ค(๐ป) acts regularly on๐ป, there is a one-to-one cor-respondence between the elements of๐ป and the elements of ๐ค(๐ป) andso |๐ป| = |๐ค(๐ป)|. 3.25
66 โขStructure of semigroups
Strictly speaking, ๐ค(๐ป) is the right Schรผtzenberger group of๐ป, be- Left Schรผtzenberger groupcause the definitions of Stab(๐ป) and ๐๐ป are in terms of right multiplic-ation of elements of ๐ป. This seems arbitrary, because we could makesimilar definitions using left multiplication:
Stabโฒ(๐ป) = { ๐ฅ โ ๐1 โถ ๐ฅ๐ป = ๐ป };๐ฅ ๐โฒ๐ป ๐ฆ โ (โโ โ ๐ป)(๐ฅโ = ๐ฆโ);๐คโฒ(๐ป) = Stabโฒ(๐ป)/๐โฒ๐ป.
Clearly, reasoning dual to the proofs of Propositions 3.23 and 3.24 showsthat ๐คโฒ(๐ป) is a group that acts regularly on๐ป on the left via [๐ฅ]๐โฒ๐ป โ โ = ๐ฅโ.The group ๐คโฒ(๐ป) is called the left Schรผtzenberger group of๐ป.
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 2 6. ๐ค(๐ป) โ ๐คโฒ(๐ป). Right and leftSchรผtzenberger groupsare isomorphicProof of 3.26. Fix some โ โ ๐ป. Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ค(๐ป) โ ๐คโฒ(๐ป) as
follows. For any ๐ โ ๐ค(๐ป), since ๐คโฒ(๐ป) acts regularly on ๐ป, there is aunique ๐ โฒ โ ๐คโฒ(๐ป) such that โ โ ๐ = ๐ โฒ โ โ. Define ๐ ๐ to be this ๐ โฒ. Similarly,since ๐ค(๐ป) acts regularly on๐ป, we can define a map ๐ โถ ๐คโฒ(๐ป) โ ๐ค(๐ป)by letting ๐ก๐ be the unique element of ๐ค(๐ป) such that ๐ก โ โ = โ โ (๐ก๐).Clearly ๐ and ๐ are mutually inverse and thus are bijections.
Let [๐ฅ]๐๐ป โ ๐ค(๐ป) and [๐ฆ]๐โฒ๐ป โ ๐คโฒ(๐ป). Let ๐ โ ๐ป. Then
[๐ฆ]๐โฒ๐ป โ (๐ โ [๐ฅ]๐๐ป ) = [๐ฆ]๐โฒ๐ป โ (๐๐ฅ)= ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ= (๐ฆ๐) โ [๐ฅ]๐๐ป= ([๐ฆ]๐โฒ๐ป โ ๐) โ [๐ฅ]๐๐ป .
}}}}}}}}}}}
(3.4)
Let ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ค(๐ป). Then
(๐ ๐)(๐ก๐) โ โ = (๐ ๐) โ (โ โ ๐ก) [by definition of ๐]= ((๐ ๐) โ โ) โ ๐ก [by (3.4)]= (โ โ ๐ ) โ ๐ก [by definition of ๐]= โ โ (๐ ๐ก) [by definition of an action; see (1.15)]= ((๐ ๐ก)๐) โ โ. [by definition of ๐]
Since๐คโฒ(๐ป) acts regularly on๐ป, it follows that (๐ ๐)(๐ก๐) = (๐ ๐ก)๐.Therefore๐ is an isomorphism. 3.26
Pro p o s i t i on 3 . 2 7. Let ๐ be a semigroup and let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. If ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ, Schรผtzenbergergroups are the samethroughout a D-class
then ๐ค(๐ป๐ฅ) โ ๐ค(๐ป๐ฆ).
Proof of 3.27. Suppose first that ๐ฅ L ๐ฆ.Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ and ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ. So by Lemma 3.12, ๐๐|๐ป๐ฅ โถ ๐ป๐ฅ โ ๐ป๐ฆ and ๐๐|๐ป๐ฆ โถ๐ป๐ฆ โ ๐ป๐ฅ are mutually inverse bijections. Hence ๐๐ป๐ฅ = ๐ป๐ฆ and ๐๐ป๐ฆ =
Schรผtzenberger groups โข 67
๐ป๐ฅ. Suppose that ๐ง โ Stab(๐ป๐ฅ). Then๐ป๐ฆ๐ง = ๐๐ป๐ฅ๐ง = ๐๐ป๐ฅ = ๐ป๐ฆ andso ๐ง โ Stab(๐ป๐ฆ). Thus Stab(๐ป๐ฅ) โ Stab(๐ป๐ฆ) and similarly Stab(๐ป๐ฆ) โStab(๐ป๐ฅ). So Stab(๐ป๐ฅ) = Stab(๐ป๐ฆ).
Now let ๐ง, ๐ก โ Stab(๐ป๐ฅ). Suppose ๐ง ๐๐ป๐ฅ ๐ก. Then ๐ฅ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ก. Let ๐ฆโฒ โ ๐ป๐ฆ.Since ๐ฅ L ๐ฆโฒ, there exists ๐โฒ โ ๐1 such that ๐ฆโฒ = ๐โฒ๐ฅ and so ๐ฆโฒ๐ง = ๐โฒ๐ฅ๐ง =๐โฒ๐ฅ๐ก = ๐ฆโฒ๐ก. Since ๐ฆโฒ โ ๐ป๐ฆ was arbitrary, ๐ง ๐๐ป๐ฆ ๐ก. Hence ๐๐ป๐ฅ โ ๐๐ป๐ฆ . Sim-ilarly ๐๐ป๐ฆ โ ๐๐ป๐ฅ and so ๐๐ป๐ฅ = ๐๐ป๐ฆ . Therefore the Schรผtzenberger groups๐ค(๐ป๐ฅ) = Stab(๐ป๐ฅ)/๐๐ป๐ฅ and ๐ค(๐ป๐ฆ) = Stab(๐ป๐ฆ)/๐๐ป๐ฆ are isomorphic.
On the other hand, if ๐ฅ R ๐ฆ, dual reasoning shows that the leftSchรผtzenberger groups ๐คโฒ(๐ป๐ฅ) and ๐คโฒ(๐ป๐ฆ) are isomorphic. The resultfollows from Proposition 3.26. 3.27
Notice that from Corollary 3.25 and Proposition 3.27 we immediatelyrecover the result that if ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ are such that ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ, then |๐ป๐ฅ| = |๐ป๐ฆ|(Proposition 3.13).
P ro p o s i t i on 3 . 2 8. Let ๐ be a semigroup and let๐ป be an H-class of๐. If๐ป is a subgroup of ๐, then ๐ค(๐ป) โ ๐ป.
Proof of 3.28. Suppose๐ป is a group. Then๐ป โ Stab(๐ป). The restrictionof the natural map ๐โฎ๐ป|๐ป โถ ๐ป โ Stab(๐ป)/๐๐ป, which maps โ to [โ]๐๐ป , is ahomomorphism.
Let ๐ โ ๐ค(๐ป). Let โ = 1๐ป โ ๐ . Then since 1๐ป โ [โ]๐๐ป = โ and ๐ค(๐ป) actsfreely on๐ป, we have ๐ = [โ]๐๐ป . Hence ๐โฎ๐ป|๐ป is surjective.
Let ๐, โ โ ๐ป with ๐๐โฎ๐ป|๐ป = โ๐โฎ๐ป|๐ป. Then [๐]๐๐ป = [โ]๐๐ป and so
๐ = 1๐ป โ [๐]๐๐ป = 1๐ป โ [โ]๐๐ป = โ. Hence ๐โฎ๐ป|๐ป is injective.So ๐โฎ๐ป|๐ป is an isomorphism from๐ป to ๐ค(๐ป). Hence ๐ค(๐ป) โ ๐ป. 3.28
Propositions 3.27 and 3.28 have the following consequence:
C o ro l l a ry 3 . 2 9. If๐ป and๐ปโฒ areH-classes that are subgroups withinthe same D-class, then๐ป โ ๐ปโฒ. 3.29
Exercises
[See pages 215โ219 for the solutions.]โด3.1 Prove that any two elements of a subgroup of a semigroup are H-
related.3.2 Prove that in a free monoid๐ดโ, we haveH = L = R = D = J = id๐ดโ .
โด3.3 Let๐ be a set and let ๐, ๐ โ T๐. Prove the following:a) ๐ L ๐ โ im๐ = im ๐;b) ๐ R ๐ โ ker๐ = ker ๐;
68 โขStructure of semigroups
(1 2 31 2 3) (1 2 32 3 1) (
1 2 33 1 2)
(1 2 31 3 2) (1 2 32 1 3) (
1 2 33 2 1)
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโim๐ = {1, 2, 3}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
Kernel classes{1}, {2}, {3}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
|im๐| = 3
(1 2 31 1 2) (1 2 31 1 3) (
1 2 32 2 3)
(1 2 32 2 1)
(1 2 31 2 1)
(1 2 32 1 2)
(1 2 31 2 2)
(1 2 32 1 1)
(1 2 33 3 1) (1 2 33 3 2)
(1 2 31 3 1) (1 2 32 3 2)
(1 2 33 1 3) (1 2 33 2 3)
(1 2 31 3 3) (1 2 32 3 3)
(1 2 33 1 1) (1 2 33 2 2)
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโim๐ = {1, 2}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโim๐ = {1, 3}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโim๐ = {2, 3}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
Kernel classes{1, 2}, {3}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
Kernel classes{1, 3}, {2}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
Kernel classes{1}, {2, 3}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
|im๐| = 2
(1 2 31 1 1) (1 2 32 2 2) (
1 2 33 3 3)
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโim๐ = {1}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโim๐ = {2}
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโim๐ = {3}
โโโโโโโโโโโKernel class
{1, 2, 3}
โโโโโโโโโโโ |im๐| = 1
FIGURE 3.7The egg-box diagrams of thethree D-classes of T{1,2,3} .Idempotents are shaded.
c) ๐ D ๐ โ ๐ J ๐ โ |im๐| = |im ๐|.Note that the eggbox diagrams for the D-classes of T{1,2,3} are asshown in Figure 3.7.
โด3.4 Give examples to show that L is not in general a left congruence andR is not in general a right congruence. [Hint: Use Exercise 3.3.]
โด3.5 Let ๐ต = ๐ฟ ร ๐ be a rectangular band. Prove that the R-classes of ๐ตare the sets {โ} ร ๐ where โ โ ๐ฟ, that the L-classes of ๐ต are the sets๐ฟ ร {๐} where ๐ โ ๐ , that ๐ต consists of a single D-class, and that H isthe identity relation.
โด3.6 Prove that if ๐ is a cancellative semigroup and does not contain anidentity element, then H = L = R = D = id๐.
โด3.7 Let
๐ = {[๐ ๐0 1] โถ ๐, ๐ โ โ, ๐, ๐ > 0} โ ๐2(โ).
Exercises โข 69
Prove that ๐ is a subsemigroup of๐2(โ). Prove that ๐ is cancellativeand has no identity, so that H = L = R = D = id๐ by Exercise 3.6.Prove that ๐ is simple, so that J = ๐ ร ๐.
3.8 Let๐ = {1,โฆ , ๐} for some ๐ โ โ. In the semigroup T๐, prove thattheH-class containing ๐ is a subgroup if and only if |im ๐| = |im(๐2)|.
3.9 Recall that the bicyclic monoid ๐ต is presented by Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐)โฉand that every element of ๐ต has a unique representative of the form๐๐พ๐๐ฝ. Prove that the R-classes of ๐ต are sets { ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ โถ ๐ฝ โ โ โช {0} }(where ๐พ โ โ โช {0} is fixed) and L-classes of ๐ต are sets { ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ โถ ๐พ โโ โช {0} } (where ๐ฝ โ โ โช {0} is fixed). Deduce that ๐ต has a singleD-class.
3.10 Let ๐ be an R-class and ๐ฟ an L-class of a semigroup ๐ and suppose๐ฟ โฉ ๐ contains an idempotent. Let๐ท be theD-class containing ๐ฟ and๐ . Prove that ๐ฟ๐ = ๐ท.
3.11 Let๐ be defined by Monโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ, where ๐ด = {๐, ๐, ๐} and ๐ = (๐๐๐, ๐).Prove that for any ๐ค โ ๐,
๐ค H ๐ โ ๐ค =๐ ๐;๐ค L ๐ โ ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ;๐ค R ๐ โ ๐ค โ Monโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ;๐ค D ๐ โ ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉMonโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ;๐ค J ๐ โ ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉMonโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ
โชMonโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ๐Monโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ.
[Hint: Recall from Exercise 2.8 that every element of๐ has a uniquerepresentative in ๐ = ๐ดโ โ ๐ดโ๐๐๐๐ดโ, and that such a representat-ive can be obtained by iteratively deleting subwords ๐๐๐.] Note that,consequently, all Greenโs relations are distinct in๐.
3.12 Let ๐ be a regular semigroup containing a unique idempotent. Provethat ๐ is a group.
3.13 Let๐ be a group-embeddable monoid.a) Prove that an element of ๐ฅ is right- and left-invertible if and only
if it is R-related to 1๐.b) Prove that๐ either has one R-class or infinitely many R-classes.
Notes
The exposition of Greenโs relations in this chapter owes muchto Clifford & Preston, The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups, ยงยง 2.1โ2.4 and Howie,Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory, ยงยง 2.1โ2.4. The discussions of Schรผtzen-berger groups in Clifford & Preston, The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups, ยง 2.6
70 โขStructure of semigroups
and Grillet, Semigroups, ยง ii.3 use a different, but equivalent, definition. โ Theexample in Exercise 3.7 is due to Andersen, โEin bericht รผber die Struktur ab-strakter Halbgruppenโ. โ The definition of the relations L, R, and J, the resultson principal series, Greenโs lemma, and the basic structure of D-classes areall from Green, โOn the structure of semigroupsโ. The interaction of inversesand D-classes is due to Miller & Clifford, โRegular D-classes in semigroupsโ.Schรผtzenberger groups first appear, in a rather different form, in Schรผtzenberger,โD reprรฉsentation des demi-groupesโ. โ For a proof of Theorem 3.11, see Clifford& Preston, The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups, ยง 2.6. For background readingon the JordanโHรถlder theorem for groups, see Robinson, A Course in the Theoryof Groups, ยง 3.1.
โข
Notes โข 71
72 โข
4Regular semigroups
โ It looks just a little more mathematical and regularthan it is; its exactitude is obvious, but itsinexactitude is hidden; its wildness lies in wait. โ
โ G.K. Chesterton, Orthodoxy, ch. vi.
โข Groups are semigroups that have many of the prop- Properties of groupserties we have encountered in previous chapters. For example, groupsare cancellative, regular, simple, and all of their elements have uniqueinverses. In this chapter, we begin to study regular semigroups, becausewithin the class of regular semigroups there is a very interesting hierarchyof classes of semigroups that are more or less โgroup-likeโ, some of whichhave very neat structure theorems (in the sense that there is a neat de-scription of the structure of a semigroup in this class). Figure 4.1 outlinesthe relationship between these classes, and it is useful to refer back to thischart to see how new definitions and results fit into the general setting.(Note that we have not yet defined many of the terms in this figure.)
Recall two basic properties of a group ๐บ: every element ๐ฅ โ ๐บ has aunique inverse ๐ฅโ1; and the identity 1๐บ is the unique idempotent, and thisidempotent commutes with every element of ๐บ. A semigroup is regular ifand only if every element has an inverse (Proposition 1.6), but there is norequirement that these inverses are unique: in a rectangular band, everyelement is an inverse of every element (Example 1.7(e)). Furthermore,every element of a rectangular band is idempotent, but they do not com-mute. As we shall see, the class of semigroups in which every element hasa unique inverse, which are called โinverse semigroupsโ, is very important,and this turns out to be the class of regular semigroups in which idem-potents commute (Theorem 5.1). If we impose another condition andrequire that the idempotents are central (that is, they commute with everyelement), we obtain the class of Clifford semigroups, which turn out to tohave a very neat characterization as โstrong semilattices of groupsโ. If werestrict further, and require that there is only one idempotent, we arriveat the class of groups. This is just an example; Figure 4.1 shows other waysin which we can impose properties that groups satisfy and obtain classesof more โgroup-likeโ semigroups.
However, we are going to begin by defining some of these classes ofsemigroups in terms of properties that the inverse operation satisfies; thishelps prepare the way for the study of varieties in Chapter 8. Later, we
โข 73
FIGURE 4.1Chart of the classes ofsemigroup considered in thischapter and the followingone. Labels on arrows indicatea possible extra condition(there may be others) thatrestricts the larger class to thesmaller. Grey text summarizesthe structure theorem for theadjacent class. (Some of theseclasses have not yet been
defined.)
Semigroup
Regularsemigroup
Completelyregular
semigroup
Inversesemigroup
Completely0-simple
semigroup
Completelysimple
semigroup
Cliffordsemigroup
Leftgroup
Rightgroup
Group
Sem
ilatti
ceof
com
pletely
simpl
ese
migro
ups
Rees
matrix
sem
igro
upov
eragr
oup
0-Re
esm
atrix
sem
igro
upov
eragr
oup
Strongsem
ilatticeofgroups
Dire
ctpr
oduc
tof
grou
pan
dleft
zero
sem
igro
up
Directproductofgroup
andrightzerosem
igroup
All elementsregular
Unique inverses0-simpleand has
primitiveidempotents
Simple andhas primitiveidempotents
All elementsin subgroups
Idempotentscentral
Idempotentscommute
Simple
Idempotentscentral
Idempotentscentral
Only oneL-class
Only oneR-class
Uniqueidempotent
Only oneR-class
Only oneL-class
will show how these classes fit into the chart in Figure 4.1.Let ๐ be a semigroup. If ๐ is a group, the map ๐ฅ โฆ ๐ฅโ1 that sends
an element to its inverse is a unary operation on ๐ that satisfies certainproperties. For instance, by definition ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = 1๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐.But โ1 also satisfies other properties: for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐,
(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)โ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1, ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1,๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1.
If we require that a semigroup with an operation โ1 satisfies only someof these properties, we may no longer have a group. Instead, we obtaindifferent types of semigroup depending on which conditions are required.
Let ๐ be a semigroup equipped with an operation โ1. If ๐ satisfies theRegular semigroupcondition that for all ๐ฅ โ ๐,
๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ,
then ๐ is clearly regular, as defined on page 6. [Note that in a regularsemigroup, an element may have many different inverses. However, wecan always define an operation โ1 by choosing a particular inverse for
74 โขRegular semigroups
each element.] If ๐ satisfies the two conditions that for all ๐ฅ โ ๐,
(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, (4.1)
then again ๐ is regular and for any ๐ฆ โ ๐, we have ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ = ๐ฆ and๐ฆโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆโ1(๐ฆโ1)โ1๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆโ1 and so ๐ฆโ1 is an inverse of ๐ฆ. If ๐ Completely
regular semigroupsatisfies the three conditions that for all ๐ฅ โ ๐,
(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, (4.2)
it is a completely regular semigroup. We will look at regular and completelyregular semigroups in this chapter. If ๐ satisfies the four conditions that Inverse semigroupfor all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐,
(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)โ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1,๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1,
} (4.3)
it is an inverse semigroup. Finally, if ๐ satisfies the four conditions that for Clifford semigroupall ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐,
(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1,๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1,
} (4.4)
it is a Clifford semigroup. We will look at inverse semigroups and Cliffordsemigroups in Chapter 5.
Completely 0-simple semigroups
The aim of this section is to introduce the concept of acompletely 0-simple semigroup and to present a classification result forsuch semigroups, the ReesโSuschkewitsch theorem, which was one ofthe most important results in the early development of semigroup the-ory. We study completely 0-simple semigroups for two reasons. First,we saw in Proposition 3.10 that the principal factors of a semigroup areeither 0-simple or null, and completely 0-simple semigroup are an import-ant subclass of 0-simple semigroups. Furthermore, studying completely0-simple semigroups will lead naturally to studying completely simplesemigroups, and we will see that both completely 0-simple and completelysimple semigroups are regular (Lemma 4.6(b) and Proposition 4.13), andthat a simple semigroup is completely simple if and only if it is completelyregular (Theorem 4.16).
Recall that the set of idempotents ๐ธ(๐) of a semigroup ๐ admits a Primitive idempotentnatural partial order given by ๐ โผ ๐ โ ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐. (See Proposition1.19.) In a semigroup with a zero, 0 is the unique minimal idempotent; insuch a semigroup, an idempotent is primitive if it is minimal within theset of non-zero idempotents of the semigroup. A semigroup is completely Completely
0-simple semigroup0-simple if it is 0-simple and contains at least one primitive idempotent.
Completely 0-simple semigroups โข 75
Pro p o s i t i on 4 . 1. A finite 0-simple semigroup is completely 0-simple.Finite 0-simpleโcompletely 0-simple
Proof of 4.1. Let ๐ be a finite 0-simple semigroup. Now, if there are non-zero idempotents in ๐, there must be a primitive idempotent in ๐, sinceotherwise there would be infinite descending chains of idempotents, andthis is impossible since ๐ is finite. Sowemust simply rule out the possibilitythat 0 is the only idempotent.
So suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that the onlyidempotent in ๐ is 0. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {0}. Then by Lemma 3.7 there exist๐, ๐ โ ๐ with ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ. Hence ๐๐๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ โ โ. Since ๐ is finiteand thus periodic, ๐๐ is idempotent for some ๐ โ โ. Thus ๐๐ = 0since 0 is the only idempotent in ๐. Therefore ๐ฅ = ๐๐๐ฅ๐๐ = 0๐ฅ๐๐ = 0,which contradicts the choice of ๐ฅ. So it is impossible for 0 to be the onlyidempotent of ๐. This completes the proof. 4.1
We are now going to show how to construct examples of completelyRees matrix semigroup0-simple semigroups. Let ๐บ be a group, let ๐ผ and ๐ฌ be abstract index sets,and let ๐ be a regular ๐ฌ ร ๐ผ matrix with entries from ๐บ0. (Recall thata matrix is regular if every row and every column contains at least onenon-zero entry. By a โ๐ฌ ร ๐ผmatrixโ we mean simply a matrix whose rowsare indexed by ๐ฌ and whose columns are indexed by ๐ผ.) Let ๐๐๐ be the(๐, ๐)-th entry of ๐. Let ๐ be the set ๐ผ ร ๐บ0 ร ๐ฌ. Define a multiplicationon ๐ by
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ, ๐).
This multiplication is associative since
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)((๐, ๐ฆ, ๐)(๐, ๐ง, ๐)) = (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ๐๐๐๐ง, ๐)= (๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ๐๐๐๐ง, ๐)= (๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ, ๐)(๐, ๐ง, ๐)= ((๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐))(๐, ๐ง, ๐),
and so ๐ is a semigroup. Let ๐ = ๐ผ ร {0} ร ๐ฌ. It is easy to see that ๐ is anideal of ๐. Clearly, ๐โ๐ = ๐ผร๐บร๐ฌ. Notice that if (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐), (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) โ ๐โ๐,then (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) โ ๐ if and only if ๐๐๐ = 0.
Let M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] be the Rees factor semigroup ๐/๐. Then the sem-igroup M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] can be viewed as the set (๐ โ ๐) โช {0}: that is,M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] can be viewed as the set (๐ผ ร ๐บ ร ๐ฌ) โช {0} under themultiplication
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) = {(๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ, ๐) if ๐๐๐ โ 0,0 if ๐๐๐ = 0,
0(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)0 = 00 = 0.
The semigroup M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] is called the ๐ผ ร ๐ฌ Rees matrix semigroupover ๐บ0 with regular sandwich matrix ๐.
76 โขRegular semigroups
(3, ๐ฅ, 5)
(1, ๐ฆ, 2)
0 if ๐23 = 0
(1, ๐ฅ๐23๐ฆ, 5) if ๐23 โ 0
๐ =[[[[[
[
๐11 ๐12 ๐13๐21 ๐22 ๐23๐31 ๐32 ๐33๐41 ๐42 ๐43๐51 ๐52 ๐53
]]]]]
]
๐T =[
[
๐11 ๐21 ๐31 ๐41 ๐51๐12 ๐22 ๐32 ๐42 ๐52๐13 ๐23 ๐33 ๐43 ๐53
]
]
FIGURE 4.2Multiplication in a Rees mat-rix semigroup M0[๐บ; ๐ผ,๐ฌ;๐].The product (1,๐ฆ, 2)(3,๐ฅ, 5) iseither (1,๐ฆ๐23๐ฅ, 5) or 0, de-pending on the value of ๐23 .The shape of ๐T is the sameas the shape of the grid, andthe cells containing the multi-plicands, the cell correspond-ing to ๐23 , and cell containingthe product (if it is non-zero)form the corners of a rectangle.
Diagrammatically, we can place the non-zero elements of this Reesmatrix semigroup in a rectangular pattern, divided into a grid of cellsindexed by the sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, so that the (๐, ๐)-th cell contains all elementsof the form (๐, ๐, ๐), where ๐ โ ๐บ. Figure 4.2 illustrates how the multiplic-ation works in terms of this diagram. Compare this with Figure 1.1. Thisis of course reminiscent of an egg-box diagram, and we will see that itactually is an egg-box diagram: the columns, rows, and cells of this gridare the non-zero L-, R-, and H-classes of the Rees matrix semigroup.
P ro p o s i t i on 4 . 2. For any group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and matrix Rees matrixโcompletely 0-simple๐ over ๐บ0, the semigroup M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] is completely 0-simple.
Proof of 4.2. For brevity, let ๐ =M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐].Let (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) โ ๐ โ {0}. Let (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) โ ๐ โ {0}. Since ๐ is regular, we can
choose ๐ โ ๐ฌ and ๐ โ ๐ผ such that ๐๐๐ โ 0 and ๐๐๐ โ 0. Then
(๐, 1๐บ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐โ1๐๐๐ฅโ1๐โ1๐๐ ๐ฆ, ๐)= (๐, 1๐บ๐๐๐๐ฅ๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐๐ฅโ1๐โ1๐๐ ๐ฆ, ๐)= (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐).
Hence, since (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) โ ๐ โ {0} was arbitrary, and since 0 = 0(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)0, wehave ๐ โ ๐(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐. Since (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) โ ๐ โ {0} was arbitrary, ๐ is 0-simple byLemma 3.7.
Now, (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) โ ๐โ{0} is an idempotent if and only if (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) =(๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฅ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐), which is true if and only if ๐๐๐ โ 0 and ๐ฅ = ๐โ1๐๐ .Hence the idempotents in ๐ โ {0} are elements of the form (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐).Furthermore,
(๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) โผ (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)โ (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)(๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)(๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)โ (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ ๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)โ (๐ = ๐) โง (๐ = ๐)โ (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐).
Completely 0-simple semigroups โข 77
Hence every idempotent in ๐ โ {0} is primitive. Thus ๐ certainly containsprimitive idempotents and so is completely 0-simple. 4.2
Proposition 4.2 gives a method for constructing completely 0-simplesemigroups. In fact, all completely 0-simple semigroups arise in this way:
P ro p o s i t i on 4 . 3. Let ๐ be a completely 0-simple semigroup. ThenCompletely 0-simpleโ Rees matrix ๐ โ M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] for some group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and regular
sandwich matrix ๐.
Proof of 4.3. Let ๐ be completely 0-simple.We have to define a Reesmatrixsemigroup M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] and show it is isomorphic to ๐.
Since ๐ is completely 0-simple, it contains a primitive idempotent. Wefirst describe the R-classes and L-classes of primitive idempotents:
L emma 4 . 4. For any primitive idempotent ๐ of ๐,a) ๐ ๐ = ๐๐ โ {0},b) ๐ฟ๐ = ๐๐ โ {0}.
Proof of 4.4. We prove part a); a dual argument gives part b). Note that bydefinition ๐ โ 0. Every element of ๐ ๐ is a right multiple of ๐ and cannotbe 0. Hence ๐ ๐ โ ๐๐ โ {0}.
Let ๐ฅ โ ๐๐โ{0}. So ๐ฅ = ๐๐ for some ๐ โ ๐โ{0}. Hence ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ =๐ฅ. Since ๐ is 0-simple, by Lemma 3.7 there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐ with ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐.Let ๐โฒ = ๐๐๐. Then ๐โฒ๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ = ๐.
Let ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ. Then ๐2 = ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐โฒ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ =๐ฅ๐๐โฒ = ๐. So ๐ is idempotent. Furthermore, ๐๐ = ๐๐ฅ๐๐โฒ = ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ = ๐and ๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ = ๐. So ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ andhence ๐ โผ ๐. Suppose that ๐ = 0; then ๐ = ๐2 = ๐โฒ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ๐ฅ๐ = ๐โฒ๐๐ฅ๐ = 0,which is a contradiction. Hence ๐ โ 0. But ๐ is primitive and therefore โผ-minimal among non-zero idempotents; thus ๐ = ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ. Since ๐ฅ = ๐๐ ,it follows that ๐ฅ R ๐ and so ๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐. Hence ๐๐ โ {0} โ ๐ ๐. 4.4
L emma 4 . 5. For any ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {0},a) ๐ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ โ {0},b) ๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ โ {0}.
Proof of 4.5. We prove part a); a dual argument gives part b). As in theproof of Lemma 4.4(a), ๐ ๐ฅ โ ๐ฅ๐ โ {0}. So let ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ๐ โ {0}. Then ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ for some ๐ โ ๐ โ {0}. Let ๐ be a primitive idempotent of ๐. Since ๐ is 0-simple, by Lemma 3.7 there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐ with ๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ. So ๐ฆ = ๐๐๐๐ . ByLemma 4.4(a), ๐๐๐ , ๐๐ โ ๐ ๐. SinceR is a left congruence by Propostion 3.4,๐ฆ = ๐๐๐๐ R ๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ. So ๐ฆ โ ๐ ๐ฅ and hence ๐ฅ๐ โ {0} โ ๐ ๐ฅ. 4.5
We can now deduce information about the D-class structure of ๐:
L e m m a 4 . 6. a) TheD-classes of ๐ are 0 and ๐ โ {0}.b) The semigroup ๐ is regular.
78 โขRegular semigroups
c) For all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ โ {0}, if ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ contains an idempotent, then ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ๐ ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ฆ; otherwise, ๐ฅ๐ฆ = 0.
Proof of 4.6. a) Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ โ {0}. Suppose ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = {0}. Then
๐2 = ๐๐ฅ๐๐๐ฆ๐ โ ๐(๐ฅ๐๐ฆ)๐ = ๐{0}๐ = {0},
which contradicts the fact that 0-simple semigroups are (by definition)not null. Hence ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ contains some non-zero element ๐ก. Now, ๐ก โ๐ฅ๐ โ {0} and ๐ก โ ๐๐ฆ โ {0}. Hence ๐ก โ ๐ ๐ฅ and ๐ก โ ๐ฟ๐ฆ by Lemma 4.5.Thus ๐ฅ R ๐ก L ๐ฆ and so ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ. So the D-classes of ๐must be ๐ โ {0}and {0}.
b) The primitive idempotent ๐ lies in ๐โ{0} and so every element of ๐โ{0}is regular by Proposition 3.19. Since 0 is also regular, the semigroup ๐is regular.
c) Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ โ {0}. By part b), ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ. Suppose ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ containsan idempotent. Then ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ฆ by Proposition 3.18. Suppose๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ ๐ฆ does not contain an idempotent. Then ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ฆ, and so๐ฅ๐ฆ = 0, since if ๐ฅ๐ฆ = 0, then by Lemma 4.6 ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ๐ โ {0} = ๐ ๐ฅ and๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฆ โ {0} = ๐ฟ๐ฆ, contradicting ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ฆ. 4.6
Let๐ป be anH-class of ๐ contained in theD-class ๐โ{0}. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ป.Then either ๐ฅ๐ฆ = 0 or ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ ๐ฅ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ฆ = ๐ป by Lemma 4.6(c).
Suppose first that ๐ฅ๐ฆ = 0. Let ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐ป. Since ๐ง L ๐ฅ and ๐ก R ๐ฆ, wehave ๐ง = ๐๐ฅ and ๐ก = ๐ฆ๐ for some ๐, ๐ โ ๐1. Then ๐ง๐ก = ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ = ๐0๐ = 0.Since ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐ป were arbitrary,๐ป2 = {0}.
On the other hand, suppose that ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ป. Then๐ป is a subgroup byProposition 3.14. So we can divide the H-classes in the D-class ๐ โ {0}into zero H-classes and group H-classes.
Let ๐ผ be the set ofR-classes and let๐ฌ be the set ofL-classes in ๐โ {0}.Write the R- and L-classes as ๐ (๐) and ๐ฟ(๐) for ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ฌ, and write๐ป(๐๐) for ๐ (๐) โฉ ๐ฟ(๐). We will treat ๐ผ and ๐ฌ as abstract index sets, and thesewill ultimately be the index sets for the Rees matrix semigroup we areconstructing.
Since ๐ โ {0} is a regular D-class by Lemma 4.6(b), every R-classand every L-class contains an idempotent by Proposition 3.20 and thuscontains some group H-class. Therefore assume without loss that there issome element 1 โ ๐ผ โฉ ๐ฌ such that๐ป(11) is a group H-class. For brevity,write๐ป for๐ป(11).
For each ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ฌ, fix arbitrary elements ๐๐ โ ๐ป(1๐) โ ๐ (1) and๐๐ โ ๐ป(๐1) โ ๐ฟ(1). Since 1๐ป is idempotent, it is a left identity for ๐ (1) anda right identity for ๐ฟ(1) by Proposition 3.17. So 1๐ป๐๐ = ๐๐ and ๐๐1๐ป = ๐๐.Therefore, by Lemma 3.12, ๐๐๐ |๐ฟ(1) โถ ๐ฟ
(1) โ ๐ฟ(๐) restricts to a bijectionbetween ๐ป and ๐ป(๐1) and ๐๐๐ |๐ (1) โถ ๐
(1) โ ๐ (1) restricts to a bijectionbetween๐ป(๐1) and๐ป(๐๐) for each ๐ โ ๐ฌ. Thus there is a unique expression๐๐๐ฅ๐๐, where ๐ฅ โ ๐ป, for every element of๐ป(๐๐).
๐ฟ(1) ๐ฟ(๐)
๐ (๐)
๐ (1)
๐๐
๐ฅ
๐๐๐ฅ๐๐
๐๐๐๐๐ |๐ฟ(1)
๐๐๐ |๐ (1)
FIGURE 4.3
Choosing ๐๐ โ ๐ป(1๐) and ๐๐ โ๐ป(๐1) gives bijections ๐๐๐ |๐ฟ(1)and ๐๐๐ |๐ (1) and so a uniqueexpression ๐๐๐ฅ๐๐ for each ele-ment of๐ป(๐๐0 .
Completely 0-simple semigroups โข 79
Therefore the map ๐ โถ (๐ผ ร ๐ป ร ๐ฌ) โช {0} โ ๐ defined by (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐ =๐๐๐ฅ๐๐ and 0๐ = 0 is a bijection.
To turn (๐ผ ร ๐ป ร ๐ฌ) โช {0} into a ๐ผ ร ๐ฌ Rees matrix semigroup over๐ป0, it remains to define a sandwich matrix ๐. For each ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ฌ,let ๐๐๐ = ๐๐๐๐, and let ๐ be the ๐ฌ ร ๐ผmatrix whose (๐, ๐)-th entry is ๐๐๐.By Lemma 4.6(c), ๐๐๐ = ๐๐๐๐ โ ๐ ๐๐ โฉ ๐ฟ๐๐ = ๐
(1) โฉ ๐ฟ(1) = ๐ป if and only if๐ ๐๐ โฉ ๐ฟ๐๐ contains an idempotent and is thus a group H-class; otherwise๐๐๐ = 0. Hence each ๐๐๐ lies in ๐ป0. Furthermore, since every R-classand every L-class contains an idempotent, for every ๐ โ ๐ผ there exists๐ โ ๐ฌ such that ๐ ๐๐ โฉ ๐ฟ๐๐ contains an idempotent and so ๐๐๐ โ ๐ป, andthus ๐๐๐ โ 0. Thus every column of ๐ contains a non-zero entry. Similarlyevery row of ๐ contains a non-zero entry. Therefore ๐ is a regular matrix.
So ๐ is now a bijection from M0[๐ป; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] to ๐. For any elements(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐), (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) โM0[๐ป; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] โ {0},
((๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐)((๐, ๐ฆ, ๐)๐) = (๐๐๐ฅ๐๐)(๐๐๐ฆ๐๐)= ๐๐๐ฅ(๐๐๐๐)๐ฆ๐๐= ๐๐๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ๐๐
= {(๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ, ๐)๐ if ๐๐๐ โ 00๐ if ๐๐๐ = 0= ((๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐))๐.
Furthermore, ((๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐)(0๐) = ๐๐๐ฅ๐๐0 = 0 = ((๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)0)๐ and similarlyfor other multiplications involving 0. Hence the map ๐ is a homomor-phism and hence an isomorphism between M0[๐ป; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] and ๐. 4.6
Combining Propositions 4.2 and 4.3, we get the following characteriz-ation of completely 0-simple semigroups:
R e e s โ S u s chk ew i t s ch Th eorem 4 . 7. A semigroup ๐ is com-ReesโSuschkewitschtheorem pletely 0-simple if and only if there exist a group ๐บ, index sets, ๐ผ and
๐ฌ, and a regular ๐ฌ ร ๐ผ matrix ๐ with entries from ๐บ0 such that ๐ โM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]. 4.7
One of the advantages of this characterization is that it gives us a neatdescription of the H, L, R, D, and J-classes:
P ro p o s i t i on 4 . 8. Let ๐ โM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ, ๐] be a completely 0-simpleGreenโs relationsin completely
0-simple semigroupssemigroup.a) In ๐, the relations D and J coincide, and ๐ has two D-classes {0} and๐ โ {0} = ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร ๐ฌ.
b) The L-classes of ๐ are {0} and sets of the form ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐}.c) TheR-classes of ๐ are {0} and sets of the form {๐} ร ๐บ ร ๐ฌ.d) TheH-classes of ๐ are {0} and sets of the form {๐} ร ๐บ ร {๐}.
80 โขRegular semigroups
Proof of 4.8. a) By Lemma 4.6, ๐ has twoD-classes, {0} and ๐โ{0}. Since๐ is 0-simple, it has only two ideals: ๐ and {0}. If ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {0}, then๐ฅ โ ๐1๐ฅ๐1, so ๐1๐ฅ๐1 = ๐. On the other hand, ๐10๐1 = {0}. So ๐ and{0} are also the J-classes of ๐.
b) Since {0} is the D-class of 0, it is alsoe the L-class of 0.Let (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)โ{0}. By Lemma 4.5(b), we have๐ฟ(๐,๐ฅ,๐) = ๐(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)โ{0}.
First, note that ๐(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) โ {0} โ ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐} โ {0} by the definition ofmultiplication in M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐].
On the other hand, let (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) โ ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐} โ {0}. Let ๐ =(๐, ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐โ1๐๐ , ๐), where ๐ is such that ๐๐๐ โ 0; such a ๐ exists because๐ is regular. Note that ๐๐๐ โ ๐บ, so ๐โ1๐๐ exists. Then
๐ (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)= (๐, ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐โ1๐๐ ๐๐๐๐ฅ, ๐)= (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐).
So ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐} โ {0} โ ๐(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) โ {0}.Thus ๐ฟ(๐,๐ฅ,๐) = ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐} โ {0}.
c) The reasoning is dual to part b).d) First, ๐ป0 = ๐ฟ0 โฉ ๐ 0 = {0}. For (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) โ ๐ โ {0}, we have ๐ป(๐,๐ฅ,๐) =๐ฟ(๐,๐ฅ,๐) โฉ ๐ (๐,๐ฅ,๐) = (๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐}) โฉ ({๐} ร ๐บ ร ๐ฌ) = {๐} ร ๐บ ร {๐}. 4.8
Ideals and completely0-simple semigroups
This section characterizes the 0-simple semigroups thatare also completely 0-simple. We require some definitions. A semigroup๐ is group-bound if every ๐ฅ โ ๐ has some power ๐ฅ๐ lying in a subgroup Group-bound semigroupof ๐. A semigroup satisfies the conditionminL (respectively, minR) if any minL, minRsubset of the partial order ๐/L (respectively, ๐/R) has a minimal element.
T h eorem 4 . 9. Let ๐ be 0-simple. The following are equivalent: Characterization of0-simple semigroups thatare completely 0-simple
a) ๐ is completely 0-simple;b) ๐ is group-bound;c) ๐ satisfies the conditionsminL andminR.
Proof of 4.9. Part 1 [a)โ b)]. Suppose ๐ is completely 0-simple. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐.Then either๐ป๐ฅ is a subgroup and ๐ฅ2 โ ๐ป๐ฅ, or else ๐ฅ2 = 0. In either case,๐ฅ2 lies in a subgroup. Thus ๐ is group-bound.
Part 2 [b) โ c)]. Suppose ๐ is group-bound. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ โ {0} besuch that ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฟ๐ฆ. We are going to show that ๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฆ. First, no-tice that ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ for some ๐ โ ๐1. Furthermore, ๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ๐ for some
Ideals and completely 0-simple semigroups โข 81
๐, ๐ โ ๐ by Lemma 3.7, since ๐ is 0-simple. Then ๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐๐ฆ๐ and so๐ฆ = (๐๐)๐๐ฆ๐๐ for all ๐ โ โ. Fix ๐ so that ๐ = (๐๐)๐ lies in a subgroup๐บ. Then 1๐บ๐ฆ = 1๐บ๐๐ฆ๐๐ = ๐๐ฆ๐๐ = ๐ฆ and so ๐ฆ = ๐โ1๐๐ฆ = ๐โ1(๐๐)๐๐ฆ =๐โ1(๐๐)๐โ1๐๐๐ฆ = ๐โ1(๐๐)๐โ1๐๐ฅ. Hence ๐ฟ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฟ๐ฅ and so ๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฆ. There-fore ๐ฟ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฟ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฆ, and this certainly implies that any subset of๐/L is has a minimal element. So ๐ satisfiesminL. Similarly, ๐/R satisfiesminR.Part 3 [c)โ a)]. Suppose ๐ satisfies minL and minR. Suppose, with theaim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐ does not contain a primitiveidempotent. Then ๐ contains an infinite descending chain of non-zeroidempotents
๐1 โป ๐2 โป ๐3 โป โฆ .
Notice that for ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), by the definition of the partial order โผ on ๐ธ(๐)and the relation R, we have
๐ โผ ๐ โ ๐ = ๐๐ โ ๐๐ = ๐๐๐ โ ๐๐ โ ๐ ๐ โฉฝ ๐ ๐and similarly ๐ โผ ๐ โ ๐ฟ๐ โฉฝ ๐ฟ๐. Hence
๐ฟ๐1 โฉพ ๐ฟ๐2 โฉพ ๐ฟ๐3 โฉพ โฆ and ๐ ๐1 โฉพ ๐ ๐2 โฉพ ๐ ๐3 โฉพ โฆ ,
Since ๐ satisfies minL and minR, the set of L-classes { ๐ฟ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ โ }contains a minimal element ๐ฟ๐๐ and the set of R-classes { ๐ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ โ }contains a minimal element ๐ ๐๐ . Let โ = max{๐, ๐}; then ๐ฟ๐โ = ๐ฟ๐โ+1 and๐ ๐โ = ๐ ๐โ+1 , and so ๐ป๐โ = ๐ป๐โ+1 . By Corollary 3.16, ๐โ = ๐โ+1, whichis a contradiction. Thus ๐ contains a primitive idempotent and so iscompletely 0-simple. 4.9
Completely simple semigroups
An idempotent of a semigroup without zero is primitive ifPrimitive idempotentit is minimal. A semigroup without zero is completely simple if it is simpleCompletely
simple semigroup and contains a primitive idempotent.โPrimitive idempotentโ has different meanings for semigroups with andwithout zero: in a semigroup with a zero, a primitive idempotent is aminimal non-0 idempotent; in a semigroup without zero, a primitiveidempotent is a minimal idempotent.
Pro p o s i t i on 4 . 1 0. A finite simple semigroup is completely simple.Finite simpleโcompletely simple
Proof of 4.10. Let ๐ be a finite simple semigroup. Since ๐ is finite, everyelement has a power which is an idempotent. So ๐ contains at least oneidempotent. Furthermore, theremust be a primitive idempotent in ๐, sinceotherwise there would be an infinite descending chain of idempotents,and this is impossible since ๐ is finite. 4.10
82 โขRegular semigroups
Define a new version of the Rees matrix construction as follows. Let๐บ be a group, let ๐ผ and ๐ฌ be abstract index sets, and let ๐ be a ๐ฌ ร ๐ผmatrix with entries from ๐บ, with the (๐, ๐)-th entry of ๐ being ๐๐๐. LetM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] be the set ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร ๐ฌ with multiplication
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ, ๐).
Then we have the following characterization of completely simple semi-groups, paralleling the ReesโSuschkewitsch theorem:
Th eorem 4 . 1 1. A semigroup ๐ is completely simple if and only if there Characterizationof completelysimple semigroups
exist a group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and a ๐ฌร ๐ผmatrix ๐ with entries from๐บ such that ๐ โM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]. 4.11
Theorem 4.11, and many other properties of completely simple semi-groups, are consequences of the following observations:โ ๐ is simple if and only if ๐0 is 0-simple;โ an idempotent is primitive in ๐ if and only if it is primitive in ๐0โ;โ for any group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and ๐ฌ ร ๐ผmatrix ๐ with entries
from ๐บ, we have (M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐])0 =M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐].
Notice that in the second condition above, โprimitiveโ means โminimalโin ๐ and โminimal non-0โ in ๐0.
The proof of the following characterization of Greenโs relations incompletely simple semigroups is similar to the proof of Proposition 4.8.
P ro p o s i t i on 4 . 1 2. Let ๐ โ M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ, ๐] be a completely simple Greenโs relationsin completelysimple semigroups
semigroup.a) In ๐, the relations D and J coincide, and ๐ consists of a single D-class.b) The L-classes of ๐ are sets of the form ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐}.c) TheR-classes of ๐ are sets of the form {๐} ร ๐บ ร ๐ฌ.d) TheH-classes of ๐ are sets of the form {๐} ร ๐บ ร {๐}. 4.12
Pro p o s i t i on 4 . 1 3. A semigroup is completely simple if and only if Characterization ofregular semigroups thatare completely simple
it is regular and every idempotent is primitive.
Proof of 4.13. Suppose ๐ is completely simple. Then ๐ โ M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐].So ๐ consists of a single D-class. Furthermore, ๐ contains idempotents,which are regular elements. Hence ๐ is regular by Proposition 3.19. Byfollowing the reasoning in the proof of Proposition 4.2 (and ignoringmentions of the zero), every idempotent in ๐ is primitive.
Now suppose that ๐ is regular and every idempotent is primitive. Wehave to show that ๐ is simple. Since ๐ is regular, everyD-class contains anidempotent. So every J-class contains an idempotent. Let ๐ฝ๐ be a J-class
Completely simple semigroups โข 83
and let ๐ฝ๐ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐, where ๐ and ๐ are idempotents. Then ๐ = ๐๐๐ for some๐, ๐ โ ๐1. Let ๐ = ๐๐๐๐๐. Then
๐2 = ๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐ [by definition of ๐]= ๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐ [since ๐ is idempotent]= ๐๐๐๐๐๐๐ [since ๐ = ๐๐๐]= ๐๐๐๐๐ [since ๐ is idempotent]= ๐; [by definition of ๐]
thus ๐ is idempotent. Furthermore ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ and so ๐ โผ ๐. Since ๐ isprimitive (since all idempotents are primitive), it follows that ๐ = ๐.
Therefore ๐ = ๐๐๐ and ๐ = ๐ = ๐๐๐๐๐. Hence ๐ฝ๐ = ๐ฝ๐. Since allJ-classes contain idempotents, ๐ contains only one J-class. Hence allelements๐ฅ โ ๐ generates the same principal ideal, ๐1๐ฅ๐1, and so ๐ = ๐1๐ฅ๐1for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Thus ๐ is the only ideal of ๐ and so ๐ is simple. 4.13
Pro p o s i t i on 4 . 1 4. A completely simple semigroup is a group if andCharacterization ofcompletely simple
semigroups that are groupsonly if it contains exactly one idempotent.
Proof of 4.14. One direction of this result is obvious: a group containsexactly one idempotent.
Suppose ๐ is completely simple and contains exactly one idempotent.By Proposition 4.13, ๐ is regular. Hence, by Proposition 3.20, every L-and every R-class of ๐ contains an idempotent. Since ๐ contains only oneidempotent, it contains only one L-class and only one R-class and soconsists of a single H-class, which is a group by Proposition 3.14. 4.14
Completely regular semigroups
Recall that a semigroup ๐ is completely regular if it isequipped with a unary operation โ1 satisfying the conditions in (4.2);namely that for all ๐ฅ โ ๐,
(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ, ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ.
Th eorem 4 . 1 5. Let ๐ be a semigroup. Then the following are equival-Characterizationof completely
regular semigroupsent:a) ๐ is completely regular;b) every element of ๐ lies in a subgroup of ๐;c) every H-class of ๐ is a subgroup.
Proof of 4.15. Part 1 [a)โ b)]. Suppose ๐ is completely regular. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐.Then ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ is an idempotent, since ๐2 = (๐ฅ๐ฅโ1)(๐ฅ๐ฅโ1) =
84 โขRegular semigroups
(๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐. By Proposition 3.18, ๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ = ๐ป๐, which isa subgroup. So every element of ๐ lies in a subgroup.
Part 2 [b)โ c)]. Suppose every element of ๐ lies in a subgroup. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐.Then ๐ฅ โ ๐บ for some subgroup ๐บ of ๐. Then ๐ฅ H 1๐บ and so๐ป๐ฅ = ๐ป1๐บ ,which contains an idempotent and is thus a subgroup. So every H-classof ๐ is a subgroup.
Part 3 [c)โ a)]. Suppose every H-class of ๐ is a subgroup. Define โ1 byletting ๐ฅโ1 (where ๐ฅ โ ๐) be the unique inverse of ๐ฅ in the subgroup๐ป๐ฅ.It is clear that โ1 satisfies the conditions (4.2) and ๐ is thus completelyregular. 4.15
The next result is analogous to Theorem 4.9:
T h eorem 4 . 1 6. Let ๐ be simple. The following are equivalent: Characterization ofsimple semigroups thatare completely simple
a) ๐ is completely simple;b) ๐ is completely regular;c) ๐ satisfies the conditionsminL andminR;
Proof of 4.16. Part 1 [a)โ b)]. Suppose ๐ is completely simple. Then byTheorem 4.11, every element of ๐ lies in a subgroup of ๐. So ๐ is completelyregular by Theorem 4.15.
Part 2 [b)โ c)]. Suppose ๐ is completely regular. Then every element of๐ lies in a subgroup of ๐ by Theorem 4.15. So every element of ๐0 lies ina subgroup and so ๐0 is group-bound and therefore satisfies minL andminR by Theorem 4.9.
Part 3 [c)โ a)]. Suppose ๐ satisfies minL and minR. Then so does ๐0and so ๐0 is completely 0-simple by Theorem 4.9. Hence ๐ is completelysimple. 4.16
A semilattice of semigroups is a semigroup ๐ for which there exists a Semilattice of semigroupssemilattice ๐ and a collection of disjoint subsemigroups ๐๐ผ of ๐, where๐ผ โ ๐, such that ๐ = โ๐ผโ๐ ๐๐ผ and ๐๐ผ๐๐ฝ โ ๐๐ผโ๐ฝ (see Figure 4.4). Asemilattice of completely simple semigroups is one in which every ๐๐ผ iscompletely simple; a semilattice of groups is one in which every ๐๐ผ is agroup.
T h eorem 4 . 1 7. Every completely regular semigroup is a semilattice of Characterizationof completelyregular semigroups
completely simple semigroups.
Proof of 4.17. Let ๐ be a completely regular semigroup.By Theorem 4.15, each H-class of ๐ is a subgroup. So for any ๐ฅ โ ๐,
we have ๐ฅ2 H ๐ฅ and hence ๐ฅ2 J ๐ฅ. Hence for any ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐, we have๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฝ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)2 = ๐ฝ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ฆ๐ฅ. By symmetry, ๐ฝ๐ฆ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ and so ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฝ๐ฆ๐ฅ.
Let ๐ฅ J ๐ฆ. Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 with ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. Let ๐ง โ ๐. Then
๐ฝ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ฝ๐ง๐๐ฆ๐ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ง๐๐ฆ = ๐ฝ๐๐ฆ๐ง โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฝ๐ง๐ฆ.
Completely regular semigroups โข 85
FIGURE 4.4Multiplying in a semilattice ofsemigroups: the product of๐ฅ โ๐๐ผ and ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฝ lies in the sub-
semigroup ๐๐ผโ๐ฝ .
๐๐ผ ๐๐ฝ
๐๐ผโ๐ฝ
๐ฅ ๐ฆ
๐ฅ๐ฆ
By symmetry ๐ฝ๐ง๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ง๐ฅ and hence ๐ฝ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ฝ๐ง๐ฆ. So ๐ง๐ฅ J ๐ง๐ฆ. Similarly๐ฅ๐ง J ๐ฆ๐ง. Therefore J is a congruence. The factor semigroup ๐/J is acommutative semigroup of idempotents since ๐ฅ2 J ๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ฆ J ๐ฆ๐ฅ for all๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Hence ๐/J is a semilattice by Theorem 1.21.
Since J is a congruence, ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฝ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ. In particular, ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฝ๐ฅ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฝ๐ฅ, soeach ๐ฝ๐ฅ is a subsemigroup.
The aim is to show ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฝ๐ฅ = ๐ฝ๐ฅ for all ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ, and so deduce that๐ฝ๐ฅ is simple. Let ๐ง โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Since ๐ฆ J ๐ง, there exist ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ง and ๐๐ง๐ = ๐ฆ. [We cannot immediately deduce that ๐ง โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฝ๐ฅ,because ๐ and ๐may not lie in ๐ฝ๐ฅ.] Write 1๐ฆ for the identity of๐ป๐ฆ and1๐ง for the identity of๐ป๐ง. Since ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ, it follows that 1๐ฆ, 1๐ง โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Then(1๐ง๐)๐ฆ(๐1๐ง) = 1๐ง๐ง1๐ง = ๐ง and (1๐ฆ๐)๐ง(๐ 1๐ฆ) = 1๐ฆ๐ฆ1๐ฆ = ๐ฆ. Furthermore,๐ฝ1๐ง๐ โฉพ ๐ฝ(1๐ง๐)๐ฆ(๐1๐ง) = ๐ฝ๐ง = ๐ฝ๐ฅ and ๐ฝ1๐ง๐ โฉฝ ๐ฝ1๐ง = ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Hence 1๐ง๐ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ.Similarly ๐1๐ง โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Hence ๐ง = (1๐ง๐)๐ฆ(๐1๐ง) โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Since ๐ง โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ wasarbitrary, ๐ฝ๐ฅ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Clearly ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฝ๐ฅ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ and so ๐ฝ๐ฅ = ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Since ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ๐ฅwas arbitrary, ๐ฝ๐ฅ is simple.
Thus, since ๐ฝ๐ฅ is completely regular, it is completely simple byTheorem4.16.
To see ๐ is a semilattice of completely simple semigroups, let ๐ be thesemilattice ๐/J and write ๐๐ผ instead of ๐ผ โ ๐/J. 4.17
Left and right groups
This section discusses left and right groups, which aresemigroups that are very close to being groups, andwhich have a very easycharacterization, which we will deduce from our results on completely0-simple semigroups.
A semigroup is left simple if it contains no proper left ideals, and rightLeft/right simple semigroupsimple if it contains no proper right ideals.
P ro p o s i t i on 4 . 1 8. Let ๐ be left or right simple. Then ๐ is simple.
86 โขRegular semigroups
Proof of 4.18. Suppose ๐ is left simple; the reasoning for the right simplecase is parallel. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐๐ฅ = ๐ since ๐ is left simple. So ๐2 = ๐๐ โ๐๐ฅ = ๐ and so ๐ = ๐2 = ๐๐ฅ. Hence ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐3 = ๐2 = ๐ and so the onlyideal of ๐ is ๐ itself. Thus ๐ is simple. 4.18
Note that Proposition 4.18 shows that being left simple (or right simple)is a stronger condition than being simple. This contrasts (for example)cancellativity: being left-cancellative is a weaker condition than beingcancellative.
A semigroup is a left group if is left simple and right cancellative, and Left/right groupa right group if it is right simple and left cancellative.
T h eorem 4 . 1 9. Let ๐ be a semigroup. The following are equivalent: Characterizationof left groupsa) ๐ is a left group;
b) ๐ is left simple and contains an idempotent;c) ๐ is completely simple semigroup and has only one L-class;d) ๐ โ ๐ ร ๐บ, where ๐ is a left zero semigroup and ๐บ is a group.
There is a natural analogue of Theorem 4.19 for right groups. Notethat taking ๐บ trivial in part d) shows that a left zero semigroup is a leftgroup.
Proof of 4.19. Part 1 [a)โ b)] Suppose ๐ is a left group. By definition, ๐ isleft simple. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Since ๐ is left simple, ๐๐ฅ = ๐. So there exists ๐ โ ๐such that ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Thus ๐2๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ. Since ๐ is right-cancellative, ๐2 = ๐.
Part 2 [b)โ c)] Suppose ๐ is left simple and ๐ธ(๐) โ โ . Since ๐ is leftsimple, ๐1๐ฅ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, and so ๐ consists of a single L-class andthus a single D-class. Since ๐ธ(๐) โ โ , some H-class in this L-classcontains an idempotent, which is a regular element. By Proposition 3.19, allelements of ๐ are regular. By Proposition 3.20, everyR-class of ๐ containsan idempotent. Since ๐ has only one L-class, this means that every H-class of ๐ contains an idempotent and so is a group by Proposition 3.14.Thus ๐ is completely regular by Theorem 4.15. Since ๐ is left simple andthus simple by Proposition 4.18, ๐ is completely simple by Theorem 4.16.
Part 3 [c)โ d)] Since ๐ is completely simple, ๐ =M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] for somegroup ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and matrix ๐. Since ๐ has only one L-class,๐ฌ = {1} by Proposition 4.12.
Make ๐ผ a left zero semigroup by defining ๐๐ = ๐ for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ. Definea map
๐ โถ ๐ผ ร ๐บ โ ๐; (๐, ๐)๐ = (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐, 1).
Note that in this definition, the pair (๐, ๐) is in the direct product ๐ผร๐บ, andthe triple (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐, 1) is in the Rees matrix semigroup M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] = ๐.
Left and right groups โข 87
Then
((๐, ๐)๐)((๐, โ)๐)= (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐, 1)(๐, ๐โ11๐ โ, 1) [by definition of ๐]
= (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐๐1๐๐โ11๐ โ, 1) [by multiplication in M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]]
= (๐, ๐โ1๐1 ๐โ, 1) [by multiplication in ๐บ]= (๐, ๐โ)๐ [by definition of ๐]= ((๐, ๐)(๐, โ))๐, [by multiplication in ๐ผ ร ๐บ]
so ๐ is a homomorphism.Furthermore,
(๐, ๐)๐ = (๐, โ)๐ โ (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐, 1) = (๐, ๐โ11๐ โ, 1) [by definition of ๐]
โ ๐ = ๐ โง ๐โ11๐ ๐ = ๐โ11๐ โโ ๐ = ๐ โง ๐โ11๐ ๐ = ๐โ11๐ โ [using ๐ = ๐]โ ๐ = ๐ โง ๐ = โ [by cancellation in ๐บ]โ (๐, ๐) = (๐, โ);
thus ๐ is injective.Finally, for any (๐, ๐, 1) โ ๐ = M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐], we have (๐, ๐1๐๐)๐ =(๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐1๐๐, 1) = (๐, ๐, 1), so ๐ is surjective. So ๐ is an isomorphism, and๐ โ ๐ผร๐บ. Since ๐ผ is a left zero semigroup and๐บ is a group, this completesthis part of the proof.
Part 4 [d)โ a)] Let (๐ฅ, ๐), (๐ฆ, โ), (๐ง, ๐) โ ๐ ร ๐บ. Then
(๐ฅ, ๐)(๐ฆ, โ) = (๐ฅ, ๐)(๐ง, ๐)โ (๐ฆ, ๐โ) = (๐ง, ๐๐) [since ๐ is a right zero semigroup]โ (๐ฆ = ๐ง) โง (๐โ = ๐๐)โ (๐ฆ = ๐ง) โง (โ = ๐) [since ๐บ is a group]โ (๐ฆ, โ) = (๐ง, ๐).
So ๐ ร ๐บ is right-cancellative. Furthermore, (๐ฅ, ๐)(๐ฆ, ๐โ1โ) = (๐ฆ, โ) andso (๐, ๐ฅ)(๐ร๐บ) = ๐ร๐บ for all (๐ฅ, ๐) โ ๐ร๐บ. Hence๐ร๐บ is left simple,and so ๐ ร ๐บ is a left group. 4.19
Homomorphisms
We close this chapter with the following result, show-ing that homomorphisms preserve regularity and that, within regularsemigroups, the preimage of an idempotent must contain an idempotent.
88 โขRegular semigroups
Pro p o s i t i on 4 . 2 0. Let ๐ be a regular semigroup, ๐ a semigroup (notnecessarily regular), and let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be a homomorphism.a) The subsemigroup im๐ of ๐ is a regular semigroup and that if ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐ is
an inverse of ๐ฅ โ ๐, then ๐ฅโฒ๐ is an inverse of ๐ฅ๐.b) If ๐ โ im๐ is idempotent, ๐๐ = ๐, and ๐ง โ ๐ is an inverse of ๐2, then๐๐ง๐ is idempotent and (๐๐ง๐)๐ = ๐.
Proof of 4.20. a) Clearly im๐ is a semigroup; we have to show it is in-verse. Let ๐ฆ โ im๐. Then there exists ๐ฅ โ ๐ with ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ. Since๐ is regular, there exists an inverse ๐ฅโฒ for ๐ฅ. Let ๐ฆโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ๐. Then๐ฆ๐ฆโฒ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฅโฒ๐)(๐ฅ๐) = (๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ and similarly ๐ฆโฒ๐ฆ๐ฆโฒ = ๐ฆ.So ๐ฆโฒ is an inverse for ๐ฆ. Since ๐ฆ โ im๐ was arbirary, im๐ is regular.
b) Let ๐ = ๐๐ง๐. Since ๐ง is an inverse of ๐2, we have ๐ง๐2๐ง = ๐ง and๐2๐ง๐2 = ๐2. Then ๐2 = ๐(๐ง๐2๐ง)๐ = ๐๐ง๐ = ๐ and so ๐ is idem-potent. Furthermore
๐๐ = (๐๐ง๐)๐ [by choice of ๐]= (๐๐)(๐ง๐)(๐๐) [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= ๐(๐ง๐)๐ [since ๐ = ๐๐]= ๐2(๐ง๐)๐2 [since ๐ is idempotent]= (๐๐)2(๐ง๐)(๐๐)2 [since ๐ = ๐๐]= (๐2๐ง๐2)๐ [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= (๐2๐) [since ๐2๐ง๐2 = ๐2]= (๐๐)2 [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= ๐2 [since ๐๐ = ๐]= ๐. [since ๐ is idempotent]
This completes the proof. 4.20
Exercises
[See pages 220โ225 for the solutions.]4.1 Let๐บ be a group, let ๐ผ = {1} and๐ฌ = {1} be index sets (each containing
only one element), and ๐ a ๐ฌ ร ๐ผmatrix over ๐บ.a) By defining a suitable isomorphism, prove thatM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] โ ๐บ.b) Give an example to show that if we replace ๐บ by a monoid๐ and
construct M[๐; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] using the same multiplication, we canhave M[๐; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] โ ๐.
4.2 Prove that every completely simple semigroup is equidivisible.4.3 Let ๐ be a completely simple semigroup. Prove that
Exercises โข 89
a) L, R, and H are congruences on ๐;b) ๐/L is a right zero semigroup and ๐/R is a left zero semigroup;c) ๐/H is isomorphic to the rectangular band ๐/R ร ๐/L.
4.4 Let ๐ be a completely simple semigroup.a) Suppose |๐| = ๐, where ๐ is a prime. Prove that ๐ is [isomorphic
to] either a right zero semigroup, a left zero semigroup, or a group.b) Suppose |๐| = ๐๐, where ๐ and ๐ are primes. Prove that ๐ is
[isomorphic to] either a rectangular band, a right group, or a leftgroup.
โด4.5 a) Let ๐ and ๐ be completely regular semigroups and ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ ahomomorphism. Show that (๐ง๐)โ1 = ๐งโ1๐ for all ๐ง โ ๐.
b) Give an example of regular semigroups ๐ and ๐ that have oper-ations โ1 satisfying (4.1), and a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ suchthat (๐ง๐)โ1 โ ๐งโ1๐ for some ๐ง โ ๐.
โด4.6 Let ๐บ and ๐ป be groups, ๐ผ, ๐ฝ, ๐ฌ, and๐ญ be index sets, ๐ be a ๐ฌ ร ๐ผregular matrix over ๐บ0, and ๐ be a ๐ฝ ร๐ญ regular matrix over๐ป0.a) Suppose ๐ โถ M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] โ M0[๐ป; ๐ฝ,๐ญ;๐] is an isomor-
phism.i) Prove that there exist bijections ๐ผ โถ ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ and ๐ฝ โถ ๐ฌ โ ๐ญ
such that (๐, ๐, ๐)๐ โ {๐๐ผ} ร๐ปร {๐๐ฝ} and such that ๐๐๐ = 0 โ๐(๐๐ฝ)(๐๐ผ) = 0.
ii) Assume without loss that 1 โ ๐ผ โฉ ๐ฌ. Define an isomorphism๐พ โถ ๐บ โ {1} ร ๐บ ร {1} โM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] and an isomorphism๐ โถ ๐ป โ {1๐ผ} ร ๐ป ร {1๐ฝ} โ M0[๐ป; ๐ฝ,๐ญ;๐]. Deduce that๐ = ๐พ๐๐โ1 is an isomorphism from ๐บ to๐ป.
iii) Check that (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) = (๐, 1๐บ, 1)(1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1)(1, ๐โ111 , ๐). Now let๐ข๐, ๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ป be such that
(๐, 1๐บ, 1)๐ = (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐, 1๐ฝ)
and
(1, ๐โ111 , ๐)๐ = (1๐ผ, ๐โ1(1๐ผ)(1๐ฝ)๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ).
Using the fact that (๐, ๐๐๐, ๐) = (๐, 1๐บ, ๐)(๐, 1๐บ, ๐), prove that
๐๐๐๐ = ๐ฃ๐๐(๐๐ฝ)(๐๐ผ)๐ข๐ (4.5)
for all ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ฌ.b) Suppose that there exists an isomorphism ๐ โถ ๐บ โ ๐ป, bijections๐ผ โถ ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ and ๐ฝ โถ ๐ฌ โ ๐ญ and elements ๐ข๐ and ๐ฃ๐ such that(4.5) holds for all ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ฌ. Show that M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] โM0[๐ป; ๐ฝ,๐ญ;๐].
90 โขRegular semigroups
โด4.7 Let ๐บ be a group, ๐ผ and ๐ฌ index sets, and let ๐ be a ๐ฌ ร ๐ผ matrixover ๐บ0 that is not necessarily regular (that is, ๐ can have rows orcolumns where all the entries are 0). Let ๐ = M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐], wherethe multiplication is the same as in the usual Rees matrix semigroup.Prove that ๐ is regular (as a semigroup) if and only if ๐ is regular (asa matrix).
4.8 Let ๐ be a 0-simple semigroup.a) Suppose ๐ satisfiesminL. By applying this condition to the set ofL-
classes that are not equal to {0}, show that ๐ contains a 0-minimalleft ideal. [Dually, if ๐ satisfiesminR, it contains a 0-minimal rightideal.]
b) Now suppose ๐ that ๐ contains a 0-minimal left ideal and a 0-minimal right ideal.i) Prove that if ๐พ is a 0-minimal left ideal of ๐ with ๐พ2 โ {0},
then ๐พ = ๐๐ฅ for any ๐ฅ โ ๐พ โ {0}.ii) Let ๐ฟ be a 0-minimal left ideal of ๐, and suppose ๐ฅ โ ๐ is such
that ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ {0}. Prove that ๐ฟ๐ฅ is a 0-minimal left ideal of ๐.[Hint: to prove ๐ฟ๐ฅ is 0-minimal, consider the set ๐ฝ = { ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ โถ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐พ }.]
iii) By considering the subset ๐ฟ๐ of ๐, prove that there exists ๐ฅ โ ๐with ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ {0}.
iv) Let๐ = โ{๐ฟ๐ฅ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐, ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ {0} }. Prove that๐ = ๐ anddeduce that ๐ is the union of its 0-minimal left ideals. [Dually,๐ is the union of its 0-minimal right ideals.]
v) Using part iii), the dual version of part iv), and Exercise 1.21,prove that there exists a 0-minimal right ideal ๐ such that๐ฟ๐ = ๐ and ๐ ๐ฟ is a group with a zero adjoined.
vi) Let ๐ be the identity of the group ๐ ๐ฟ โ {0}. Prove that ๐ is aprimitive idempotent.
This proves that ๐ is completely 0-simple.Since a completely 0-simple semigroup satisfies minL and minR byTheorem 4.9, this exercise has shown that a 0-simple semigroup iscompletely 0-simple if and only it has a 0-minimal left ideal and a0-minimal right ideal.
4.9 Let ๐ be a left-cancellative semigroup. Let ๐บ be a subgroup of ๐. Sup-pose ๐บ is also a left ideal of ๐. Prove that ๐ is a right group.
Notes
The exposition here is based on Howie, Fundamentals of Semi-group Theory, ch. 3 and Clifford & Preston, The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups,
Notes โข 91
ยง 2.5. โ The ReesโSuschkewitsch theorem (Theorem 4.7) was originally provedin Rees & Hall, โOn semi-groupsโ; the analogue for completely simple semi-groups (Theorem 4.11) is the earlier version, having been essentially proved inSuschkewitsch, โรber die endlichen Gruppenโฆโ โ The results on the structureof completely regular semigroups are due to Clifford, โSemigroups admittingrelative inversesโ. โ The analogy of Theorem 4.19 for right groups is due to Susch-kewitsch, โรber die endlichen Gruppenโฆโ; for a more accessible proof (whichdoes not use Greenโs relations or the ReesโSuschkewitsch theorem), see Clifford& Preston, The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups, Theorem 1.27 โ Exercise 4.9 isfrom Cain, Robertson & Ruลกkuc, โCancellative and Malcev presentations forfinite Rees index subsemigroups and extensionsโ, Proposition 8.3. โ For furtherreading, Petrich, Completely Regular Semigroups seems to be the most recentmonograph in the area.
โข
92 โขRegular semigroups
5Inverse semigroups
โ The sensibility of man to trifles, and his insensibilityto great things, indicates a strange inversion. โ
โ Blaise Pascal, Pensรฉes, ยง iii.198.
โข Recall that an inverse semigroup is one equipped with Inverse semigroupan operation โ1 satisfying the four conditions in (4.3): namely, that for all๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐,
(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ, (5.1)(๐ฅ๐ฆ)โ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1, (5.2)๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, (5.3)๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1. (5.4)
Clifford & Prestonโs 1961 view that โ[i]nverse semigroups constituteprobably the most promising class of semigroups for studyโ has provedaccurate, and the field has grown into a vast and active one. We can onlysurvey a minuscule part of it here.
Equivalent characterizations
We being by giving alternative characterizations of in-verse semigroups. Some texts define inverse semigroups using one ofthese alternative characterizations.
T h eorem 5 . 1. The following are equivalent: Characterizations ofinverse semigroupsa) ๐ is an inverse semigroup;
b) every element of ๐ has a unique inverse;
c) ๐ is regular and its idempotents commute;
d) every L-class and every R-class of ๐ contains exactly one idempotent.
Proof of 5.1. The plan is as follows: parts 1โ3 of this proof show that b),c), and d) are equivalent. Then parts 4 and 5 show, respectively, that a)implies c) and that b) implies a).
โข 93
Part 1 [b)โ c)]. Suppose every element of ๐ has a unique inverse. Then ๐is clearly regular. Let ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Then
(๐๐)(๐(๐๐)โ1๐)(๐๐)= ๐๐2(๐๐)โ1๐2๐ [rearranging brackets]= ๐๐(๐๐)โ1๐๐ [since ๐ and ๐ are idempotent]= ๐๐ [by definition of inverse]
and
(๐(๐๐)โ1๐)(๐๐)(๐(๐๐)โ1๐)= ๐(๐๐)โ1๐2๐2(๐๐)โ1๐ [rearranging brackets]= ๐(๐๐)โ1๐๐(๐๐)โ1๐ [since ๐ and ๐ are idempotent]= ๐(๐๐)โ1๐ [by definition of inverse]
and so ๐(๐๐)โ1๐ is an inverse of ๐๐. Since inverses are unique, (๐๐)โ1 =๐(๐๐)โ1๐. Hence
((๐๐)โ1)2
= ๐(๐๐)โ1๐๐(๐๐)โ1๐ [since (๐๐)โ1 = ๐(๐๐)โ1๐]= ๐(๐๐)โ1๐ [by definition of inverse]= (๐๐)โ1 [since (๐๐)โ1 = ๐(๐๐)โ1๐]
and so (๐๐)โ1 is idempotent. Thus (๐๐)โ1(๐๐)โ1(๐๐)โ1 = (๐๐)โ1 and sothe uniqueness of inverses implies that ๐๐ = ((๐๐)โ1)โ1 = (๐๐)โ1 andso ๐๐ is idempotent. A similar argument shows that ๐๐ is idempotent.Hence
(๐๐)(๐๐)(๐๐) = ๐๐2๐2๐ = ๐๐๐๐ = ๐๐
and
(๐๐)(๐๐)(๐๐) = ๐๐2๐2๐ = ๐๐๐๐ = ๐๐.
Hence ๐๐ = (๐๐)โ1 = ๐๐. Thus idempotents of ๐ commute.
Part 2 [c)โ d)]. Suppose that ๐ is regular and that its idempotents com-mute. Since ๐ is regular, everyL-class contains at least one idempotent byProposition 3.20. So suppose a particular L-class contains idempotents ๐and ๐. Then both ๐ and ๐ are right identities for this L-class by Proposi-tion 3.17. So ๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐. Since idempotents commute, ๐๐ = ๐๐and so ๐ = ๐. So each L-class contains a unique idempotent. Similarlyeach R-class contains a unique idempotent.
Part 3 [d)โ b)]. Suppose everyL-class and everyR-class of ๐ contains aunique idempotent. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. By Proposition 3.21, the inverses of ๐ฅ arein one-to-one correspondence with pairs of idempotents (๐, ๐) โ ๐ ๐ฅ ร๐ฟ๐ฅ.
94 โขInverse semigroups
Since ๐ ๐ฅ and ๐ฟ๐ฅ each contain a unique idempotent, ๐ฅ therefore has aunique inverse. So every element of ๐ has a unique inverse.
Part 4 [a)โ c)]. Suppose ๐ is an inverse semigroup. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ by (5.3) and so ๐ is regular. Let ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Then
๐โ1 = ๐โ1(๐โ1)โ1๐โ1 [by (5.3)]= ๐โ1๐๐โ1 [by (5.1)]= ๐โ1๐๐๐โ1 [since ๐ is idempotent]= ๐โ1(๐โ1)โ1๐๐โ1 [by (5.1)]= ๐๐โ1๐โ1(๐โ1)โ1 [by (5.4)]= ๐๐โ1๐โ1๐ [by (5.1)]= ๐(๐๐)โ1๐ [by (5.2)]= ๐๐โ1๐ [since ๐ is idempotent]= ๐. [by (5.3)]
Hence ๐๐โ1 = ๐2 = ๐ and ๐โ1๐ = ๐2 = ๐ for any ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Now let๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Then ๐๐ = ๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 = ๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 = ๐๐ by (5.4). Thusidempotents of ๐ commute.
Part 5 [b)โ a)]. Suppose every element of ๐ has a unique inverse. Thenfor any ๐ฅ โ ๐, we have ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ; thus (5.3) holds. By the uniqueness ofinverses, (๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ; thus (5.1) holds. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 and ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1are idempotents and so commute by parts 1 and 2 of this proof; thus (5.4)holds. Therefore
๐ฅ๐ฆ(๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1)๐ฅ๐ฆ= ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ฆโ1)(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐ฆ [rearranging brackets]= ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ [by (5.4), which holds]= ๐ฅ๐ฆ [by definition of inverse]
and
(๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1)๐ฅ๐ฆ(๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1)= ๐ฆโ1(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)(๐ฆ๐ฆโ1)๐ฅโ1 [rearranging brackets]= ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 [by (5.4), which holds]= ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1. [by definition of inverse]
Hence, by the uniqueness of inverses, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)โ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1; thus (5.2) holds.Thus ๐ is an inverse semigroup. 5.1
We now prove some consequences of these alternative characteriza-tions.
P ro p o s i t i on 5 . 2. Let ๐ be an inverse semigroup. Then ๐ธ(๐) is a ๐ธ(๐) is a semilatticewhen ๐ is inversesubsemigroup of ๐ and forms a semilattice.
Equivalent characterizations โข 95
Proof of 5.2. By Theorem 5.1, all elements of ๐ธ(๐) commute. Hence, if๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), then (๐๐)2 = ๐๐๐๐ = ๐2๐2 = ๐๐ and so ๐๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). So ๐ธ(๐)is a subsemigroup of ๐. Furthermore, ๐ธ(๐) is a commutative semigroupof idempotents and hence a semilattice by Theorem 1.21. 5.2
Pro p o s i t i on 5 . 3. Let ๐ be an inverse semigroup. Then ๐ is a groupCharacterization of inversesemigroups that are groups if and only if ๐ contains exactly one idempotent.
Proof of 5.3. In one direction, this result is obvious: if ๐ is a group, then itis an inverse semigroup and 1๐ is the unique idempotent in ๐.
So suppose ๐ is an inverse semigroup and ๐ is the unique idempotentin ๐. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 and ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ are idempotents and so ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 =๐ฅโ1๐ฅ. Thus ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. So ๐ is an identity for๐. Furthemore, since ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, every element of ๐ฅ isright- and left-invertible and so ๐ is a group. 5.3
Let ๐ and ๐ be inverse semigroups. A homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ isInverse semigrouphomomorphism an inverse semigroup homomorphism if ๐ฅโ1๐ = (๐ฅ๐)โ1 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐.
In Chapter 1, we saw the distinction between a [semigroup] homomor-phism and a monoid homomorphism: a homomorphism between twomonoids may preserve multiplication, but not preserve the identity (seeExercise 1.15). Thus it is conceivable that there exists a homomorphismbetween two inverse semigroups that is not an inverse semigroup ho-momorphism. However, the following result shows that the two notionscoincide:
P ro p o s i t i on 5 . 4. Let ๐ be an inverse semigroup and let ๐ a semi-Homomorphism froman inverse semigroup is
an inverse semigrouphomomorphism
group (not necessarily inverse), and let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be a homomorphism.Then im๐ is an inverse semigroup, and ๐ is an inverse semigroup homo-morphism.
Proof of 5.4. By Proposition 4.20(a), im๐ is regular and ๐ฅโ1๐ is an inverseof ๐ฅ๐ for any ๐ฅ โ ๐. Let ๐, ๐ โ im๐ be idempotents. By Proposition4.20(b), there are idempotents ๐, โ โ ๐ with ๐๐ = ๐ and โ๐ = ๐. Since ๐is an inverse semigroup, ๐โ = โ๐ by Theorem 5.1. Thus ๐๐ = (๐๐)(โ๐) =(๐โ)๐ = (โ๐)๐ = (โ๐)(๐๐) = ๐๐. Hence idempotents commute in im๐and so im๐ is an inverse semigroup by Theorem 5.1. Since inverses areunique in inverse semigroups, it follows that (๐ฅ๐)โ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐,so ๐ is an inverse semigroup homomorphism. 5.4
Coro l l a ry 5 . 5. Let ๐บ be a group and let ๐ a semigroup (not neces-Homomorphism froma group preserves
identity and inversessarily a group or inverse), and let ๐ โถ ๐บ โ ๐ be a homomorphism. Thenim๐ is a group, and ๐ โถ ๐บ โ im๐ is an inverse semigroup homomorphismand a monoid homomorphism. (That is, ๐ฅโ1๐ = (๐ฅ๐)โ1 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐บ and1๐บ๐ is an identity for im๐.)
Proof of 5.5. Proposition 5.4 shows that im๐ is an inverse semigroup and๐ is an inverse semigroup homomorphism. Let ๐ฆ โ im๐ and let ๐ฅ โ ๐บ be
96 โขInverse semigroups
such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ. Then (1๐บ๐)๐ฆ = ((๐ฅ๐ฅโ1)๐)(๐ฅ๐) = (๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ,and similarly ๐ฆ(1๐บ๐) = ๐ฆ. Hence 1๐บ๐ is an identity for im๐. 5.5
The last consequence we prove is more technical, but we will makeuse of it in the next section.
L emma 5 . 6. Let ๐ be an inverse semigroup.a) For any ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), we have ๐๐ = ๐๐ โ ๐ = ๐.b) For any ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), we have ๐๐ โฉ ๐๐ = ๐๐๐.c) For any ๐ฅ โ ๐, we have ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ.d) For ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), the element ๐ = ๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ is idempotent and๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐.
Proof of 5.6. a) Since ๐ = ๐๐ โ ๐๐ = ๐๐, we deduce that ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ for some๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐2 = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐. Similarly ๐๐ = ๐. Since idempotentscommute by Theorem 5.1, ๐ = ๐.
b) Obviously ๐๐๐ โ ๐๐ and, since idempotents commute, ๐๐๐ = ๐๐๐ โ๐๐. So ๐๐๐ โ ๐๐ โฉ ๐๐. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ โฉ ๐๐. Then ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ and ๐ฅ = ๐ง๐for some ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ = ๐ง๐2 = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐ โ ๐๐๐. So๐๐ โฉ ๐๐ โ ๐๐๐ and hence ๐๐ โฉ ๐๐ = ๐๐๐.
c) Obviously ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ โ ๐๐ฅ. But ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ โ ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ and so ๐๐ฅ =๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ.
d) Since ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 is an idempotent, and idempotents commute in ๐, ๐2 =๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ = ๐, so ๐ is idempotent. Fur-thermore, ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐. 5.6
VagnerโPreston theorem
Theorem 1.22 showed that every semigroup embeds intoT๐ for some ๐. Cayleyโs theorem shows that every group embeds intoS๐ for some ๐. The VagnerโPreston theorem, to which this section isdevoted, is an analogue of these results for inverse semigroups.
Let ๐ โ P๐. Recall from (1.3) that the domain of ๐, denoted dom ๐, is Partial bijectionthe subset of๐ on which ๐ is defined. If ๐ โถ dom ๐ โ im ๐ is a bijection,then ๐ is a partial bijection. The set of partial bijections on๐ is denotedI๐. (The symbol I stands for โinjectionโ.) Notice that if ๐, ๐ โ I๐, then I๐
๐ฅ โ dom(๐๐) โ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)((๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐๐)โ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐)(โ๐ง โ ๐)((๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐ โง (๐ง, ๐ฆ) โ ๐)โ (โ๐ง โ ๐)((๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐ โง ๐ง โ dom๐)โ (๐ฅ โ dom ๐) โง (๐ฅ๐ โ dom๐)โ (๐ฅ๐ โ im ๐) โง (๐ฅ๐ โ dom๐)
VagnerโPreston theorem โข 97
FIGURE 5.1The domain of the compositionof two partial bijections ๐ and๐; the shaded area is dom(๐๐).
๐
dom ๐ im ๐
dom๐ im๐
๐ฅ ๐ง๐ฆ
๐ ๐
โ (๐ฅ๐ โ im ๐ โฉ dom๐)โ ๐ฅ โ (im ๐ โฉ dom๐)๐โ1.
That is,
dom(๐๐) = (im ๐ โฉ dom๐)๐โ1. (5.5)
(See Figure 5.1.) For ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ dom ๐๐, we have ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ dom ๐ and ๐ฅ๐, ๐ฆ๐ โdom๐ and so
๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐ โ ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ [since ๐ is injective]โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. [since ๐ is injective]
Hence ๐๐ is a bijection from dom(๐๐) to im(๐๐) and so ๐๐ โ I๐. ThusI๐ is a subsemigroup of P๐.
For ๐ โ I๐, let ๐โ1 be the partial bijection with domain im ๐ andInverse of a partial bijectionimage dom ๐ defined by (๐ฅ๐)๐โ1 = ๐ฅ. (That is, ๐ is defined by invertingthe bijection ๐ โถ dom ๐ โ im ๐.) Note that
๐๐โ1 = iddom ๐ and ๐โ1๐ = idim ๐. (5.6)
P ro p o s i t i on 5 . 7. For any set๐, the semigroup of partial bijectionsI๐ is an inverse semigroupI๐ is an inverse semigroup.
Proof of 5.7. Let ๐ โ I๐. Since ๐๐โ1 = iddom ๐ and ๐โ1๐ = idim ๐ by (5.6),we have ๐๐โ1๐ = ๐ and ๐โ1๐๐โ1 = ๐โ1. Hence ๐โ1 is an inverse of ๐. ThusI๐ is regular.
Suppose ๐ โ I๐ is an inverse of ๐. Then ๐๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐๐ = ๐.Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that im ๐ โ dom(๐๐).So there exists ๐ก โ im ๐ โ dom(๐๐); thus ๐ก โ im ๐ but ๐ก โ im ๐ โฉ dom(๐๐).Hence im ๐ โฉ dom(๐๐) โ im ๐. Therefore
dom ๐ = dom(๐๐๐)= (im ๐ โฉ dom(๐๐))๐โ1 [by (5.5)]โ (im ๐)๐โ1
= dom ๐.
98 โขInverse semigroups
The strict inclusion is a contradiction; hence im ๐ โ dom(๐๐) โ dom๐.Similarly, from ๐๐๐ = ๐ we obtain dom๐ โ im ๐. Therefore dom๐ =im ๐ = dom ๐โ1. For any ๐ฅ โ dom๐, we have ๐ฅ โ im ๐ and so ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐for some ๐ฆ โ ๐. Hence ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐๐๐โ1 = ๐ฆ๐๐โ1 = ๐ฅ๐โ1. Hence๐ = ๐โ1. So ๐โ1 is the unique inverse of ๐.
Since each element of I๐ has a unique inverse, I๐ is an inverse semi-group by Theorem 5.1. 5.7
Let ๐ be an inverse semigroup and let ๐ be a subsemigroup of ๐. Then Inverse subsemigroup๐ is an inverse subsemigroup of ๐ if it is also an inverse semigroup, or,equivalently, if it is closed under taking inverses in ๐.
Vagn e r โ Pre s ton Th eorem 5 . 8. For any inverse semigroup ๐, VagnerโPreston theoremthere exists a set๐ and a monomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ I๐. Hence every inversesemigroup is isomorphic to some inverse subsemigroup of I๐.
Proof of 5.8. Let๐ = ๐. For each ๐ฅ โ ๐, let ๐๐ฅ be the partial transformationwith domain ๐๐ฅโ1 and defined by ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ. Thus ๐๐ฅ is simply ๐๐ฅ (asdefined on page 19) restricted to ๐๐ฅโ1. Note that im ๐๐ฅ = (dom ๐๐ฅ)๐๐ฅ =๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ, by Lemma 5.6(c).
Let us prove that ๐๐ฅ โ I๐. Let ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐๐ฅโ1, with ๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅโ1 and๐ง = ๐๐ฅโ1. Then
๐ฆ๐๐ฅ = ๐ง๐๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฅโ ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅโ ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1
โ ๐๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฅโ1
โ ๐ฆ = ๐ง.
So ๐๐ฅ is a partial bijection and so ๐๐ฅ โ I๐.Let us now prove that (๐๐ฅ)โ1 = ๐๐ฅโ1 . If ๐ง โ dom ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅโ1, then๐ง๐๐ฅ๐๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐๐ฅ. If ๐ง โ dom ๐๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฅ, then ๐ง๐๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ๐๐ฅโ1 =๐ง๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ง๐ฅโ1 = ๐ง๐๐ฅโ1 . Furthermore, dom ๐๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฅ = im ๐๐ฅ andim ๐๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฅโ1 = dom ๐๐ฅ. Hence (๐๐ฅ)โ1 = ๐๐ฅโ1 .
Define ๐ โถ ๐ โ I๐ by ๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ฅ. We first prove that ๐ is injective. Let๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then
๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ [by definition of ๐]
โ dom ๐๐ฅ = dom ๐๐ฆโ ๐๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฆโ1 [by definition of ๐๐ฅ and ๐๐ฆ]
โ ๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 [by Lemma 5.6(c)]โ ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 [by Lemma 5.6(a)]โ ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ [since ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ]
โ ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ [by definition of ๐๐ฅ and ๐๐ฆ]โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ;
VagnerโPreston theorem โข 99
thus ๐ is injective.Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then
dom(๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ) = (im ๐๐ฅ โฉ dom ๐๐ฆ)๐โ1๐ฅ [by (5.5)]
= (๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ โฉ ๐๐ฆโ1)๐โ1๐ฅ [by definition of ๐๐ฅ and ๐๐ฆ]
= (๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ โฉ ๐๐ฆ๐ฆโ1)๐โ1๐ฅ [by Lemma 5.6(c)]= (๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1)๐โ1๐ฅ [by Lemma 5.6(b)]= (๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1)๐๐ฅโ1 [since ๐โ1๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅโ1 ]= ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1 [by definition of ๐๐ฅโ1 ]= ๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1 [by Lemma 5.6(c)]= ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 [since idempotents commute]= ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1
= ๐(๐ฅ๐ฆ)(๐ฅ๐ฆ)โ1
= ๐(๐ฅ๐ฆ)โ1 [by Lemma 5.6(c)]= dom ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ, [by definition of ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ]
and for all ๐ง โ dom ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ, we have ๐ง๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ง๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐๐ฅ๐ฆ. Hence (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐) =๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ๐). Thus ๐ is a monomorphism. 5.8
Notice that the image of ๐ in I๐ is an inverse subsemigroup of I๐ byProposition 5.4. However, some subsemigroups of I๐ are not inverse; seeExercise 5.1.
The natural partial order
Elements of I๐ are maps, and thus relations, and thussimply subsets of๐ร๐. Sowe can apply the partial orderโ to I๐. However,โ can be characterized using the algebraic structure of I๐, since
๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ = ๐|dom๐โ ๐ = iddom๐๐โ ๐ = ๐๐โ1๐.
Since every inverse monoid embeds into I๐ for some๐ by Theorem 5.8,we can transfer this algebraic definition to arbitrary inverse semigroupsby defining ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ.
L emma 5 . 9. For ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐, the following are equivalent:Characterizing the relation โผ
a) ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ;b) ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ for some ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐);c) ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ for some ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐);
100 โขInverse semigroups
d) ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ.
Proof of 5.9. Part 1 [a) โ b)]. Suppose ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ. Then ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ, and๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 is an idempotent.Part 2 [b)โ c)]. Suppose ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ. Let ๐ = ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ. Then
๐2 = ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐2๐ฆ = ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ = ๐;
thus ๐ is idempotent. Furthermore, ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ = ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ.Part 3 [c)โ d)]. Suppose ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐. Then ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐2 = ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ and so๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ.Part 4 [d)โ a)]. Suppose๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ.Then๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ.Let ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆโ1, so that ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ. Then
๐2 = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆโ1 = ๐,
so ๐ is idempotent. Hence ๐๐ฅ = ๐2๐ฆ = ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ, and so ๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1.Thus
๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ,
and so ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ by definition. 5.9
Pro p o s i t i on 5 . 1 0. The relation โผ is a partial order. โผ is a partial order
Proof of 5.10. Since ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ, we have ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฅ for any ๐ฅ โ ๐; thus ๐ฅ isreflexive. If ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ โผ ๐ฅ, then by ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ and ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ. Hence๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฆ; thus โผ is anti-symmetric.If ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ โผ ๐ง, then ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ and ๐ฆ = ๐๐ง for some ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), and so๐ฅ = (๐๐)๐ง, and hence ๐ฅ โผ ๐ง (since ๐๐ is in the subsemigroup ๐ธ(๐)); thusโผ is transitive. 5.10
Proposition 5.10 justifies the choice of the symbol โผ for this relation, Natural partial orderwhich is called the natural partial order on an inverse semigroup. Noticethat if ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ are idempotents, then by the commutativity of idempotentsthis agrees with the definition of the natural partial order for idempotents(see Proposition 1.19). We are therefore justified in using the same symbolโผ for both relations.
P r o p o s i t i o n 5 . 1 1. a) The relation โผ is compatible (with multi-plication); that is, ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ โง ๐ง โผ ๐ก โ ๐ฅ๐ง โผ ๐ฆ๐ก for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐.
b) The relation โผ is compatible with inversion; that is, ๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅโ1 โผ ๐ฆโ1for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐.
Proof of 5.11. a) Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐. Then
(๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ) โง (๐ง โผ ๐ก)โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))((๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ) โง (๐ง = ๐ก๐)) [by Lemma 5.9]โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))((๐ฅ๐ง = ๐๐ฆ๐ง) โง (๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฆ๐ก๐))โ (๐ฅ๐ง โผ ๐ฆ๐ง) โง (๐ฆ๐ง โผ ๐ฆ๐ก) [by Lemma 5.9]โ ๐ฅ๐ง โผ ๐ฆ๐ก. [since โผ is transitive]
The natural partial order โข 101
b) Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then
๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆโ (โ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))(๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ) [by Lemma 5.9]โ (โ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))(๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐) [by (5.2) and ๐โ1 = ๐]โ (โ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))(๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐)โ (โ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))(๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ๐ฆโ1)โ (โ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))(๐ฅโ1 = ๐๐ฆโ1)
[since ๐ฆโ1๐๐ฆ โ ๐ธ(๐) by Lemma 5.6(d)]โ ๐ฅโ1 โผ ๐ฆโ1. [by Lemma 5.9] 5.11
The natural partial order can serve as a measure of how โcloseโ aninverse semigroup is to being a group:
P ro p o s i t i on 5 . 1 2. Let ๐ be an inverse semigroup. Then ๐ is a groupCharacterizing inversesemigroups that
are groups using โผif and only if โผ is the identity relation on ๐.
Proof of 5.12. Suppose ๐ is a group. Then
๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = 1๐๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ;
thus โผ is the identity relation.Now suppose that โผ is the identity relation. Let ๐, ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Then๐๐ โผ ๐ and ๐๐ โผ ๐; hence ๐ = ๐๐ = ๐. Thus ๐ contains a uniqueidempotent and so ๐ is a group by Proposition 5.3. 5.12
Clifford semigroups
Recall that a semigroup ๐ is a Clifford semigroup if itClifford semigroupsatisfies the conditions in (4.4). Thus ๐ is a Clifford semigroup if it iscompletely regular and, for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐,
๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1. (5.7)
We are going to prove a structure theorem for Clifford semigroups,but first we need to a stronger version of the notion of a semilattice ofsemigroups, which we introduced in the previous chapter. If we knowthat ๐ is a semilattice of semigroups ๐๐ผ, we know something of the coarsestructure of ๐: we know that if ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ and ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฝ, then ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ผโ๐ฝ (seeFigure 4.4).
The new version is stronger in that it describes precisely what productsare, rather than simply where they are in the semilattice. Suppose that we
102 โขInverse semigroups
have a semilattice ๐, disjoint semigroups ๐๐ผ for each ๐ผ โ ๐, and, for all๐ผ โฉพ ๐ฝ, homomorphisms ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ โถ ๐๐ผ โ ๐๐ฝ satisfying the conditions
(โ๐ผ โ ๐)(๐๐ผ,๐ผ = id๐ผ) (5.8)(โ๐ผ, ๐ฝ, ๐พ โ ๐)((๐ผ โฉพ ๐ฝ โฉพ ๐พ) โ (๐๐ผ,๐ฝ๐๐ฝ,๐พ = ๐๐ผ,๐พ)) (5.9)
Then we can define a multiplication on ๐ = โ๐ผโ๐ ๐๐ผ as follows: for each๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ and ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฝ, the product ๐ฅ๐ฆ is defined to be (๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)(๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ).That is, we use the homomorphisms to map ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ โdownโ into ๐๐ผโ๐ฝ andmultiply them there; see Figure 5.2. For any ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ, ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฝ, ๐ง โ ๐๐พ,
๐๐ผ ๐๐ฝ
๐๐ผโ๐ฝ
๐ฅ ๐ฆ
๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ ๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ
๐ฅ๐ฆ
๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ
FIGURE 5.2Multiplying in a strong semilat-tice of semigroups
๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง)= ๐ฅ((๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ฝโ๐พ)(๐ง๐๐พ,๐ฝโ๐พ)) [by definition of multiplication]
= (๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)((๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ฝโ๐พ)(๐ง๐๐พ,๐ฝโ๐พ))๐๐ฝโ๐พ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ[by definition of multiplication]
= (๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)(๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ฝโ๐พ๐๐ฝโ๐พ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)(๐ง๐๐พ,๐ฝโ๐พ๐๐ฝโ๐พ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)[since ๐๐ฝโ๐พ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ is a homomorphism]
= (๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)((๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)(๐ง๐๐พ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)) [by (5.9)]
= ((๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ)(๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ))(๐ง๐๐พ,๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ) [by associativity in ๐๐ผโ๐ฝโ๐พ]
= (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง, [by similar reasoning]
and so this multiplication is associative. This semigroup ๐ is a strong Strong semilattice ofsemigroups/groupssemilattice of semigroups and is denoted S[๐; ๐๐ผ; ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ]. If every ๐๐ผ is a
group, it is a strong semilattice of groups.An element ๐ฅ of a semigroup ๐ is central if ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ for all ๐ฆ โ ๐. Central element
Th eorem 5 . 1 3. The following are equivalent: Characterization ofClifford semigroupsa) ๐ is a Clifford semigroup;
b) ๐ is a semilattice of groups;c) ๐ is a strong semilattice of groups;d) ๐ is regular, and the idempotents of ๐ are central;e) ๐ is regular, and every D-class of ๐ contains a unique idempotent.
Proof of 5.13. Part 1 [a)โ b)]. Let ๐ be a Clifford semigroup. Then ๐ iscompletely regular and so is a semilattice of completely simple semigroups๐๐ผ by Theorem 4.17. Let ๐, ๐ be idempotents. Then ๐ = ๐๐โ1๐ = ๐๐๐โ1 =๐๐โ1 by (4.2) and similarly ๐ = ๐๐โ1 and so ๐๐ = ๐๐ by (5.7). So allidempotents of ๐ commute. Now, ๐๐ผ is completely simple and so ๐๐ผ โM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] for some group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and matrix ๐ over๐บ. Let ๐, ๐ โ ๐๐ผ be idempotents. Then ๐ = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) and ๐ = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐),and (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ ๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) = ๐๐ = ๐๐ = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐ , ๐). Hence ๐ = ๐ and๐ = ๐ and so ๐ = ๐. So each ๐๐ผ contains only one idempotent. Thus, byProposition 4.14, ๐๐ผ is a group. Therefore ๐ is a semilattice of groups.
Clifford semigroups โข 103
Part 2 [b)โ c)]. Let ๐ be a semilattice of groups ๐๐ผ, where ๐ผ โ ๐. To provethat ๐ is a strong semilattice of groups, we have to define homomorphisms๐๐ผ,๐ฝ for all ๐ผ, ๐ฝ โ ๐, prove that (5.8) and (5.9) hold, and show that thestrong semilattice of groups S[๐; ๐๐ผ; ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ] is isomorphic to ๐.
Write 1๐ผ for the identity of the group ๐๐ผ.Then for๐ผ โฉพ ๐ฝ and๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ, wehave 1๐ฝ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ฝ. Hence we can define amap ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ โถ ๐๐ผ โ ๐๐ฝ by ๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ = 1๐ฝ๐ฅ.For ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ผ,
(๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ)(๐ฆ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ)= 1๐ฝ๐ฅ1๐ฝ๐ฆ [by definition of ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ]
= 1๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ [since 1๐ฝ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ฝ and thus (1๐ฝ๐ฅ)1๐ฝ = 1๐ฝ๐ฅ]
= (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ผ,๐ฝ; [by definition of ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ]
hence ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ is a homomorphism. Clearly ๐๐ผ,๐ผ = id๐๐ผ , so (5.8) holds. For๐ผ โฉพ ๐ฝ โฉพ ๐พ, for any ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ
๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ๐๐ฝ,๐พ= (1๐ฝ๐ฅ)๐๐ฝ,๐พ [by definition of ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ]
= 1๐พ1๐ฝ๐ฅ [by definition of ๐๐ฝ,๐พ]
= (1๐ฝ๐๐ฝ,๐พ)๐ฅ [by definition of ๐๐ฝ,๐พ]
= 1๐พ๐ฅ [by Corollary 5.5]
= ๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐พ; [by definition of ๐๐ผ,๐พ]
hence (5.9) holds. Finally, for any ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ and ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฝ,
๐ฅ๐ฆ = 1๐ผโ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ [since ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ผโ๐ฝ]
= 1๐ผโ๐ฝ๐ฅ1๐ผโ๐ฝ๐ฆ [since 1๐ผโ๐ฝ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผโ๐ฝ]
= (๐ฅ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)(๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ). [by definition of ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ and ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ]
Therefore ๐ is isomorphic to S[๐; ๐๐ผ; ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ].
Part 3 [c) โ d)]. A strong semilattice of groups ๐ = S[๐; ๐๐ผ; ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ] iscertainly regular: for each ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ, let ๐ฅโ1 be the inverse of ๐ฅ in the group๐๐ผ. The idempotents of ๐ are the identities of the groups ๐๐ผ. Write 1๐ผ forthe identity of ๐๐ผ. Then for any ๐ฝ โ ๐ and ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ฝ,
1๐ผ๐ฅ = (1๐ผ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)(๐ฅ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ) = 1๐ผโ๐ฝ(๐ฅ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)= (๐ฅ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ) = (๐ฅ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)1๐ผโ๐ฝ = (๐ฅ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)(1๐ผ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ) = ๐ฅ1๐ผ.
Thus every idempotent of ๐ is central.
Part 4 [d)โ e)]. Each D-class๐ท๐ฅ must contain at least one idempotent,namely ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1. Suppose ๐ and ๐ are idempotent and ๐ D ๐. Then by
104 โขInverse semigroups
Proposition 3.21(b) there exists an element ๐ฅ and inverse ๐ฅโฒ such that๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ and ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐. Therefore
๐ = ๐2
= ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ [since ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐]= ๐ฅ๐๐ฅโฒ [since ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ = ๐]= ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ [since ๐ is central]= ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ [since ๐ = ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ]= ๐๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ [since ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ = ๐]= ๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฅ [since ๐ is central]= ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ [since ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ]= ๐2 = ๐. [since ๐ = ๐ฅโฒ๐ฅ]
Hence every D-class of ๐ contains a unique idempotent.Part 5 [e)โ a)]. Since everyD-class contains a unique idempotent, everyD-class consists of a single H-class by Proposition 3.20, and so D = H.Furthermore, each of these H-classes is a group by Proposition 3.14, andso every element of ๐ lies in a subgroup and thus ๐ is completely regularby Theorem 4.15. Thus, by Theorem 4.17, ๐ is a semilattice of completelysimple semigroups ๐๐ผ. Every element of a completely simple semigroup isD-related, and so every ๐๐ผ is contained within a singleD-class and is thusa group. So ๐ is a semilattice of groups and thus, by the second part of thisproof, a strong semilattice of groups S[๐; ๐๐ผ; ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ]. Hence for ๐ฅ โ ๐๐ผ and๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฝ, we have ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = 1๐ผ1๐ฝ = 1๐ผโ๐ฝ = 1๐ฝ1๐ผ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1. 5.13
In particular, Theorem 5.13(d) implies that in a Clifford semigroup,idempotents commute; hence, by Theorem 5.1, Clifford semigroups areinverse semigroups. Notice that this is not obvious from the conditions(4.3) and (4.4).
Let ๐ be a Clifford semigroup. By Theorem 5.13, ๐ is isomorphic to a Natural partial order onClifford semigroupsstrong semilattice of groups S[๐; ๐บ๐ผ; ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ]. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐บ๐ผ and ๐ฆ โ ๐บ๐ฝ. Then
๐ฅ โผ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฅโ1)๐ฆโ ๐ฅ = 1๐ผ๐ฆโ ๐ฅ = (1๐ผ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)(๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)โ (๐ฅ = (1๐ผ๐๐ผ,๐ผ)(๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผ)) โง (๐ผ โ ๐ฝ = ๐ผ)โ (๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ) โง (๐ผ โฉฝ ๐ฝ).
Thus the natural partial order โผ precisely corresponds to the homomor-phisms ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ and the order of the semilattice (๐, โฉฝ). In particular, we have
1๐ผ โผ 1๐ฝ โ 1๐ผ = 1๐ฝ๐๐ฝ,๐ผ โง (๐ผ โฉฝ ๐ฝ) โ ๐ผ โฉฝ ๐ฝ.
Since the identities of the groups ๐บ๐ผ are precisely the idempotents of๐, we see that (๐ธ(๐), โผ) and (๐, โฉฝ) are isomorphic. In particular, every
Clifford semigroups โข 105
semilattice (๐, โฉฝ) is a Clifford semigroup S[๐; ๐บ๐ผ, ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ] where the groups๐บ๐ผ are all trivial.
Free inverse semigroups
Let ๐ด be an alphabet. Let ๐ดโ1 be a set of new symbolsbijectionwith๐ด under themap ๐ โฆ ๐โ1. Extend thismap to an involutionof ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1 by defining (๐โ1)โ1 = ๐. For any word ๐1๐2โฏ๐๐ โ (๐ด โช๐ดโ1)โ, define (๐1๐2โฏ๐๐)โ1 = ๐โ1๐ โฏ๐โ12 ๐โ11 . Let FInvS(๐ด) be semigrouppresented by Sgโจ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1 | ๐โฉ, where
๐ = { (๐ข๐ขโ1๐ข, ๐ข) โถ ๐ข โ (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)+ }โช { (๐ข๐ขโ1๐ฃ๐ฃโ1, ๐ฃ๐ฃโ1๐ข๐ขโ1) โถ ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)+ }.
Pro p o s i t i on 5 . 1 4. The semigroup FInvS(๐ด) is an inverse semigroup,where the inverse of [๐ข]๐# โ FInvS(๐ด) is [๐ขโ1]๐# .
Proof of 5.14. Define ([๐ข]๐#)โ1 = [๐ขโ1]๐# . We aim to prove that the con-
ditions (5.1)โ(5.4) are satisfied. First of all, it is necessary to check thatthe operation โ1 is well-defined on FInvS(๐ด). Suppose [๐ข]๐# = [๐ฃ]๐# .Then there is a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions ๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ ๐ค1 โ๐โฆ โ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ. Apply โ1 (as an operation on (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)+) to everyterm in this sequence. This yields a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions๐ขโ1 = ๐คโ10 โ๐ ๐คโ11 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐คโ1๐ = ๐ฃโ1; hence [๐ขโ1]๐# = [๐ฃโ1]๐# .
Now let ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ FInvS(๐ด). It is immediate from the definition of โ1 that
([๐ข]โ1๐# )โ1 = [(๐ขโ1)โ1]๐# = [๐ข]๐#
and
[๐ข๐ฃ]โ1๐# = [(๐ข๐ฃ)โ1]๐# = [๐ฃโ1๐ขโ1]๐#
= [๐ฃโ1]๐# [๐ขโ1]๐# = [๐ฃ]โ1๐# [๐ข]โ1๐# ;
thus (5.1) and (5.2) hold. Furthermore,
[๐ข]๐# [๐ข]โ1๐# [๐ข]๐# = [๐ข]๐# [๐ขโ1]๐# [๐ข]๐#
= [๐ข๐ขโ1๐ข]๐# [by definition of ๐]
= [๐ข]๐#
and
[๐ข]๐# [๐ข]โ1๐# [๐ฃ]๐# [๐ฃ]โ1๐# = [๐ข]๐# [๐ข
โ1]๐# [๐ฃ]๐# [๐ฃโ1]๐#
= [๐ข๐ขโ1๐ฃ๐ฃโ1]๐#
106 โขInverse semigroups
= [๐ฃ๐ฃโ1๐ข๐ขโ1]๐# [by definition of ๐]
= [๐ฃ]๐# [๐ฃโ1]๐# [๐ข]๐# [๐ขโ1]๐#= [๐ฃ]๐# [๐ฃ]โ1๐# [๐ข]๐# [๐ข]
โ1๐# ;
thus (5.3) and (5.4) hold. Hence FInvS(๐ด) is an inverse semigroup. 5.14
Let ๐น be an inverse semigroup, let๐ด be an alphabet, and let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐น Free inverse semigroupbe an embedding of๐ด into๐น.Then the inverse semigroup๐น is a free inversesemigroup on ๐ด if, for any inverse semigroup ๐ and map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, thereis a unique homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐น โ ๐ that extends ๐ (that is, with๐๐ = ๐). Using diagrams, this definition says that ๐น is a free inversesemigroup on ๐ด if
for all๐ด ๐น
๐
๐
๐with ๐ inverse, there exists
a unique homomorphism ๐ such that๐ด ๐น
๐
๐
๐๐ .
}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}
(5.10)
This definition is analogous to the definition of the free semigroup on๐ด (see pages 38 f.). In Chapter 8, we will see definitions of โfree objectsโin a much more general setting. Like the free semigroup on ๐ด, the freeinverse semigroup on ๐ด is unique up to isomorphism:
Pro p o s i t i on 5 . 1 5. Let ๐ด be an alphabet and let ๐น be an inverse Uniqueness of the freeinverse semigroup on ๐ดsemigroup. Then ๐น is a free inverse semigroup on ๐ด if and only if ๐น โ
FInvS(๐ด).
Proof of 5.15. Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ FInvS(๐ด) be the natural map ๐๐ = [๐]๐# . Let ๐be a inverse semigroup and ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ a map. Extend ๐ to a map ๐โฒ โถ๐ดโช๐ดโ1 โ ๐ by defining ๐โ1๐โฒ = (๐๐)โ1 for ๐โ1 โ ๐ดโ1. Since (๐ดโช๐ดโ1)+ isthe free semigroup on๐ด, the map ๐โฒ extends to a unique homomorphism๐โณ โถ (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)+ โ ๐ with (๐1๐2โฏ๐๐)๐โณ = (๐1๐โฒ)(๐2๐โฒ)โฏ (๐๐๐โฒ),where ๐๐ โ ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1. Since ๐ is an inverse semigroup,
(๐ข๐ขโ1๐ข)๐โณ = (๐ข๐โณ)(๐ขโ1๐โณ)(๐ข๐โณ) [since ๐โณ is a homomorphism]= (๐ข๐โณ)(๐ข๐โณ)โ1(๐ข๐โณ) [by definition of ๐โฒ]= ๐ข๐โณ
and
(๐ข๐ขโ1๐ฃ๐ฃโ1)๐โณ = (๐ข๐โณ)(๐ขโ1๐โณ)(๐ฃ๐โณ)(๐ฃโ1๐โณ)= (๐ข๐โณ)(๐ข๐โณ)โ1(๐ฃ๐โณ)(๐ฃ๐โณ)โ1
= (๐ฃ๐โณ)(๐ฃ๐โณ)โ1(๐ข๐โณ)(๐ข๐โณ)โ1 [since ๐ is inverse]= (๐ข๐ขโ1๐ฃ๐ฃโ1)๐โณ
Free inverse semigroups โข 107
for all ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)+. Thus ๐ โ ker๐โณ and so there is a well-definedhomomorphism ๐ โถ FInvS(๐ด) โ ๐ with [๐ข]๐#๐ = ๐ข๐โณ. That is, thefollowing diagram commutes:
๐ด FInvS(๐ด)
๐ด โช ๐ดโ1 (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)+
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐โฒ
(๐#)โฎ
๐โณ
It remains to prove that ๐ is the unique homomorphism such that๐๐ = ๐. So let ๐ โถ FInvS(๐ด) โ ๐ be such that ๐๐ = ๐. Then for all ๐ โ ๐ด,we have [๐]๐#๐ = ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ and
[๐โ1]๐#๐ = ([๐]๐# )โ1๐ [by definition of โ1 in FInvS(๐ด)]
= ([๐]๐#๐)โ1 [by Proposition 5.4]
= (๐๐๐)โ1
= (๐๐)โ1
= ๐โ1๐. [by Proposition 5.4]
Hence for any ๐๐ โ ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1,
([๐1๐2โฏ๐๐]๐# )๐ = ([๐1]๐# [๐2]๐#โฏ[๐๐]๐# )๐= ([๐1]๐#๐)([๐2]๐#๐)โฏ ([๐๐]๐# )๐)= (๐1๐)(๐2๐)โฏ (๐๐๐)= ([๐1]๐#๐)([๐2]๐#๐)โฏ ([๐๐]๐# )๐)= ([๐1๐2โฏ๐๐]๐# )๐.
Thus ๐ = ๐. Therefore FInvS(๐ด) is a free inverse semigroup on ๐ด.Now let ๐น be a free inverse semigroup on ๐ด. Let ๐1 โถ ๐ด โ FInvS(๐ด)
and ๐2 โถ ๐ด โ ๐น be the embedding maps. Following the same argumentas for free semigroups on ๐ด (see the proof of Proposition 2.1), this leadsto ๐2 โถ FInvS(๐ด) โ ๐น and ๐1 โถ ๐น โ FInvS(๐ด) being mutually inverseisomorphisms. 5.15
We could repeat the discussion above for monoids instead of sem-Free inverse monoidigroups. The monoid FInvM(๐ด) is presented by Monโจ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1 | ๐โฉ. Amonoid ๐น is a free inverse monoid on ๐ด if, for any inverse monoid ๐ andmap ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, there is a unique monoid homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐น โ ๐extending ๐; that is, with ๐๐ = ๐. One can prove an analogy of Proposi-tion 5.15 for monoids, showing that an inverse monoid ๐น is a free inversemonoid on ๐ด if and only if ๐น โ FInvM(๐ด). Notice that because there is
108 โขInverse semigroups
no defining relation in ๐ that has the empty word ๐ as one of its two sides,there is no non-empty word that is equal to ๐ in FInvM(๐ด). ThereforeFInvM(๐ด) โ (FInvS(๐ด))1.
Since free inverse semigroups and monoids are such fundamentalobjects, we would like to be able to solve the word problem: given twowords in (๐ดโช๐ดโ1)+ (respectively, (๐ดโช๐ดโ1)โ), do they represent the sameelement of FInvS(๐ด) (respectively, FInvM(๐ด))? This appears difficult: forexample,
๐๐๐โ1๐โ1๐โ1๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1
=FInvS(๐ด) ๐โ1๐๐๐โ1๐๐๐โ1๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1๐โ1๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐,} (5.11)
but this not obvious. However, we now introduce a representation ofelements of FInvM(๐ด) that makes it easy to answer this question.
Let ๐ be a finite non-empty directed tree with edges labelled by sym- Tree with edgelabels from ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1bols in ๐ด. Extend the set of labels to ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1 by adopting the following
convention: for all ๐ โ ๐ด and vertices ๐ฝ and ๐พ,
๐ฝ ๐พ๐โ1 means the same as
๐ฝ ๐พ๐ (5.12)
Denote the set of vertices of ๐ by ๐(๐). By definition, |๐(๐)| โฉพ 1. Let๐ฝ, ๐พ โ ๐(๐). If ๐ฝ and ๐พ are adjacent, then ๐ฝ๐พ will denote the edge from ๐ฝto ๐พ. A (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walk on ๐ is a sequence ๐ฝ = ๐ฟ0, ๐ฟ1,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐ = ๐พ such that ๐ฟ๐โ1and ๐ฟ๐ are adjacent for ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐. A (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walk ๐ฝ = ๐ฟ0, ๐ฟ1,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐ = ๐พspans ๐ if every vertex of ๐ appears at least once among the ๐ฟ๐. The (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-path on ๐, denoted ๐(๐ฝ, ๐พ), is the unique (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walk ๐ฝ = ๐ฟ0, ๐ฟ1,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐ =๐พ such that no vertex of๐ occursmore than once among the ๐ฟ๐; the integer๐ is the length of ๐(๐ฝ, ๐พ). Notice that there is a trivial path at ๐ฝ, namely๐(๐ฝ, ๐ฝ), which has length 0.
For a (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walk ๐ = (๐ฝ = ๐ฟ0,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐ = ๐พ), definew(๐) = ๐ฅ1๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐,where๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ดโช๐ดโ1 is the label on the edge ๐ฟ๐โ1๐ฟ๐ for ๐ = 1,โฆ ,๐ (recallingthe convention (5.12)). Note that w(๐(๐ฝ, ๐ฝ)) = ๐.
A word tree over ๐ด is a finite non-empty directed tree ๐ with edges Word tree, Munn treelabelled elements of ๐ด (using the convention (5.12)), and where there isno vertex that has two distinct incoming edges with the same label or twodistinct outgoing edges with the same label. That is,
a word tree does not contain subgraphs
๐
๐or๐
๐
}}}}}
(5.13)
A Munn tree over ๐ด is a word tree ๐ with two distinguished vertices ๐ผ๐and ๐๐ (not necessarily distinct).
๐ผ๐
5
7
10
1
2 13
15
๐๐๐
๐๐
๐
๐๐๐
๐
FIGURE 5.3Munn tree ๐ for the words๐2๐โ3๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1and ๐โ1๐๐๐โ1๐2๐โ1๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ2๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐.
Figure 5.3 gives an example of a Munn tree. Notice it satisfies the con-dition (5.13). Furthermore, both words in (5.11) label spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walks in this Munn tree. This is how Munn trees allow us to solve the
Free inverse semigroups โข 109
word problem for FInvM(๐ด): we will prove that two words represent thesame element of FInvM(๐ด) if and only if they have isomorphic Munntrees.
To be precise, an isomorphism between two word trees ๐1 and ๐2 is abijection ๐ โถ ๐(๐1) โ ๐(๐2) such that there is an edge ๐ฃ๐ฃโฒ labelled by ๐in ๐1 if and only if there is an edge (๐ฃ๐)(๐ฃโฒ๐) labelled by ๐ in ๐2. If ๐1 and๐2 are Munn trees, then such a map is an isomorphism if, in addition,๐ผ๐1๐ = ๐ผ๐2 and ๐๐1๐ = ๐๐2 .
Suppose we have a word ๐ข = ๐ฅ1๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐, where ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1. Let usConstructing a Munntree from a word describe how to construct aMunn tree๐with a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk ๐
such thatw(๐) = ๐ข. We will initially construct a tree ๐ with distinguishedvertices ๐ผ๐ and ๐๐ such that there is a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk ๐ on ๐such that w(๐) = ๐ข. This tree may not satisfy (5.13). We will then modify๐ to turn it into a Munn tree.
To begin, let ๐ be the graph with ๐ + 1 vertices ๐ฟ0, ๐ฟ1, ๐ฟ2,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐โ1, ๐ฟ๐with edges ๐ฟ๐โ1๐ฟ๐ having label ๐ฅ๐ for ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐ (recall the convention(5.12)). Notice that this tree is simply a path. Let ๐ผ๐ = ๐ฟ0 and ๐๐ = ๐ฟ๐.Note that๐ is a treewith distinguished vertices๐ผ๐ and๐๐. Let๐ be uniquepath from ๐ผ๐ to ๐๐. Then w(๐) = ๐ข. (The graph at the top of Figure 5.4 isthe result of this construction for ๐ข = ๐2๐โ3๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1.) Notethat ๐ satisfies all the conditions we want except possibly (5.13). Now letus modify ๐.
If ๐ satisfies (5.13), then it is a word tree and so a Munn tree and weare finished. So suppose ๐ does not satisfy (5.13). Then by the convention(5.12), ๐ contains a subgraph
๐ฟ๐
๐ฟ๐๐ฟโ๐ฅ
๐ฅ
for some ๐ฅ โ ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1.Fix such a subgraph. Modify ๐ by folding the (identically-labelled)
edges ๐ฟ๐๐ฟโ and ๐ฟ๐๐ฟโ together and merging the vertices ๐ฟ๐ and ๐ฟ๐. If wemerge ๐ผ๐ (respectively,๐๐) with some vertex, the resultingmerged vertexis still ๐ผ๐ (respectively, ๐๐). Then ๐ is still a tree and the walk ๐ (which is,after all, simply a sequence of vertices) is still a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walkfor ๐. However, ๐ now contains one vertex fewer than before.
Repeat this process. Since each such modification reduces the numberof vertices of๐, then processmust halt with a tree๐ satisfying (5.13), whichis the desired Munn tree. (Figure 5.4 illustrates this process for the word๐ข = ๐2๐โ3๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1.)
We now establish four lemmata that lead up to the main result. Forbrevity, we write ๐น for FInvM(๐ด). First, we must make some more defini-tions.
Let ๐ = (๐ฝ = ๐ฟ0,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐ = ๐พ) and ๐ = (๐พ = ๐0,โฆ , ๐๐ = ๐) be,
110 โขInverse semigroups
๐ผ
5
7
10
1
2 13
15
๐๐
๐๐
๐
๐๐๐
๐
merging 1& 9
๐ผ1
2 5
7
9
10
13
15
๐๐
๐
๐
๐๐
๐
๐๐
๐
merging ๐ผ& 4
๐ผ 1
2
4
5
7
9
10
13
15
๐๐
๐
๐
๐
๐๐
๐
๐๐
๐
merging 1& 3; 4& 6; 6& 8; 9& 11; 12& 14; 14& ๐
๐ผ1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
12
13
14
15
๐
๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
FIGURE 5.4Folding a linear graph to pro-duce a Munn tree for the word๐2๐โ3๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 .
respectively, a (๐ฝ, ๐พ)- and a (๐พ, ๐)-walk on ๐. Define a (๐ฝ, ๐)-walk ๐๐ by
๐๐ = (๐ฝ = ๐ฟ0,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐โ1, ๐พ, ๐1,โฆ , ๐๐ = ๐).
Clearly one can extend this to products of three or more walks and thisproduct is associative (whenever it is defined). We also define ๐โ1 to bethe (๐พ, ๐ฝ)-walk (๐พ = ๐ฟ๐,โฆ , ๐ฟ0 = ๐ฝ). If ๐ is a (๐ฝ, ๐ฝ)-walk, then ๐๐ has theobvious meaning for all ๐ โ โ.
L emma 5 . 1 6. Let ๐ be a (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walk and ๐ a (๐พ, ๐)-walk on a word tree๐. Then:a) w(๐๐) = w(๐)w(๐);b) ๐ = ๐โ1 if and only if w(๐) = (w(๐))โ1.
Proof of 5.16. Part a) and the forward implication in part b) are immediatefrom the definition. It remains to prove the reverse implication in part b).So suppose w(๐) = (w(๐))โ1 = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ (where ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1). Then ๐and ๐ both contain ๐ + 1 vertices, with ๐ = (๐ฝ = ๐ฟ0,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐ = ๐พ) and๐ = (๐พ = ๐0,โฆ , ๐๐ = ๐). We will prove that ๐ฟ๐โ๐ = ๐๐ by induction on ๐.We already know that ๐ฟ๐ = ๐พ = ๐0; this is the base of the induction. Forthe induction step, suppose that ๐ฟ๐โ๐ = ๐๐. Now, ๐ฟ๐โ๐๐ฟ๐โ๐โ1 and ๐๐๐๐+1both have label ๐ฅ๐. So, since ๐ satisfies (5.13), ๐ฟ๐โ๐โ1 = ๐๐+1. This provesthe induction step. So ๐ฟ๐โ๐ = ๐๐ for all ๐ = 1,โฆ ,๐. Hence ๐ = ๐โ1. 5.16
Free inverse semigroups โข 111
The next lemma essentially says that each Munn tree is associatedwith a unique element of FInvM(๐ด):
L emma 5 . 1 7. If ๐ and ๐ are spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walks on a Munn tree๐, then w(๐) =๐น w(๐).
Proof of 5.17. If |๐(๐)| = 1, then ๐ and ๐ consist of the single vertex in๐(๐) and so w(๐) = ๐ = w(๐).
In the remaining cases, we use induction on |๐(๐)| โฉพ 2 to prove thefollowing statement: If ๐ and ๐ are spanning (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walks on a word tree๐, then w(๐) =๐น w(๐).
For the base of the induction, let |๐(๐)| = 2. Let ๐ be the uniquevertex in ๐ โ {๐ฝ}, let ๐ = ๐(๐ฝ, ๐) and let ๐ฅ = w(๐). Note that ๐ฅ โ ๐ด โช๐ดโ1since ๐ has length 1, because there are only two vertices in ๐. We nowconsider the cases ๐พ = ๐ฝ and ๐พ = ๐ separately:โ ๐พ = ๐ฝ. Then ๐ = (๐๐โ1)๐ and ๐ = (๐๐โ1)โ for some ๐, โ โ โ โช {0}
and so, by Lemma 5.16 and the defining relations in ๐,
w(๐) = (๐ฅ๐ฅโ1)๐ =๐น ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 =๐น (๐ฅ๐ฅโ1)โ = w(๐).
โ ๐พ = ๐. Then ๐ = (๐๐โ1)๐๐ and ๐ = (๐๐โ1)โ๐ for some ๐, โ โ โ โช {0}and so, by Lemma 5.16 and the defining relations in ๐,
w(๐) = (๐ฅ๐ฅโ1)๐๐ฅ =๐น ๐ฅ =๐น (๐ฅ๐ฅโ1)โ๐ฅ = w(๐).
In either case, the result holds for |๐(๐)| = 2.For the inductive step, let ๐ > 2. Suppose that if ๐ and ๐ are spanning(๐ฝ, ๐พ) walks on a tree ๐ such that |๐(๐)| < ๐, then w(๐) =๐น w(๐).
C l a im . If ๐0 is a (๐, ๐)-walk on a subtree ๐ of ๐ such that |๐(๐)| < ๐,then (w(๐0))2 =๐น w(๐0).
Proof of Claim. Let ๐0 be the subtree of ๐ spanned by ๐0. Then we have|๐(๐0)| โฉฝ |๐(๐)| < ๐ and both ๐0 and ๐20 are spanning (๐, ๐)-walks on ๐0.Thus, by the induction hypothesis, w(๐0) =๐น w(๐20 ) = (w(๐0))2. Claim
Now let๐ and ๐ be spanning (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walks on๐.We consider separatelythe case where ๐ฝ is an endpoint of ๐ and the case where ๐ฝ is not anendpoint of ๐.โ ๐ฝ is an endpoint (or leaf vertex) of ๐. Let ๐ be the unique vertex of ๐
adjacent to ๐ฝ and let ๐ be the subtree of ๐ obtained by deleting ๐ฝ andthe edge ๐ฝ๐. Let ๐ = ๐(๐ฝ, ๐) and let ๐ฅ = w(๐). Now we consider thesub-cases ๐ฝ = ๐พ and ๐ฝ โ ๐พ separately.โ ๐พ = ๐ฝ. Then for some (๐, ๐)-walks ๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐โ on ๐ and some๐๐ โ โ โช {0} (where ๐ = 0,โฆ , โ),
๐ = ๐(๐โ1๐)๐0๐1(๐โ1๐)๐1๐2โฏ๐โ(๐โ1๐)๐โ๐โ1.
112 โขInverse semigroups
Let ๐ข๐ = w(๐๐) for ๐ = 1,โฆ , โ. By Lemma 5.16,
w(๐) = ๐ฅ(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐0๐ข1(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐1๐ข2โฏ๐ขโ(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐โ๐ฅโ1
However, ๐ข2๐ = (w(๐๐))2 =๐น w(๐๐) = ๐ข๐ by the Claim. That is, each๐ข๐ is idempotent. Hence, since ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ is also an idempotent, andidempotents commute,
w(๐) =๐น ๐ฅ(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐0+๐1+โฏ+๐โ๐ข1๐ข2โฏ๐ขโ๐ฅโ1 =๐น ๐ฅ๐ข๐ฅโ1,
where ๐ข = ๐ข1๐ข2โฏ๐ขโ. Furthermore, we have ๐ข = w(๐), where๐ = ๐1๐2โฏ๐โ. Note that ๐ is a (๐, ๐)-walk. Moreover, since ๐spans ๐, it follows that ๐ spans ๐.
Similarly, w(๐) =๐น ๐ฅ๐ฃ๐ฅโ1, where ๐ฃ = w(๐) for some spanning(๐, ๐)-walk ๐ of๐. But |๐(๐)| = ๐โ1 and so๐ข =๐น ๐ฃ by the inductivehypothesis. Hence
w(๐) =๐น ๐ฅ๐ข๐ฅโ1 =๐น ๐ฅ๐ฃ๐ฅโ1 =๐น w(๐).
โ ๐พ โ ๐ฝ. Then ๐พ is a vertex of ๐. Therefore, for some (๐, ๐)-walks๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐โ and a (๐, ๐พ)-walk ๐โ on ๐ and some ๐๐ โ โ โช {0}(where ๐ = 0,โฆ , โ),
๐ = ๐(๐โ1๐)๐0๐1(๐โ1๐)๐1๐2โฏ๐โ(๐โ1๐)๐โ๐โ.
Let ๐ข๐ = w(๐๐) for ๐ = 1,โฆ , โ and ๐ขโ = w(๐โ). By Lemma 5.16,
w(๐) = ๐ฅ(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐0๐ข1(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐1๐ข2โฏ๐ขโ(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐โ๐ขโ
By the Claim, ๐ข2๐ =๐น ๐ข๐ is idempotent for ๐ = 1,โฆ , โ. Hence
w(๐) =๐น ๐ฅ(๐ฅโ1๐ฅ)๐0+๐1+โฏ+๐โ๐ข1๐ข2โฏ๐ขโ๐ขโ = ๐ฅ๐ข,
where ๐ข = ๐ข1๐ข2โฏ๐ขโ๐ขโ. Furthermore, we have ๐ข = w(๐), where๐ = ๐1๐2โฏ๐โ๐โ is a (๐, ๐พ)-walk that spans ๐ since ๐ spans๐. Similarly, w(๐) =๐น ๐ฅ๐ฃ, where ๐ฃ = w(๐) for some spanning(๐, ๐)-walk ๐ of ๐. By the inductive hypothesis, ๐ข =๐น ๐ฃ and sow(๐) = w(๐).
โ ๐ฝ is not an endpoint of๐.Thenwe can split๐ into two subtrees๐1 and๐2 such that |๐(๐1)| < ๐ and |๐(๐2)| < ๐, and ๐(๐1) โฉ ๐(๐2) = {๐ฝ}.Interchanging ๐1 and ๐2 if necessary, assume that ๐พ โ ๐(๐2). Then
๐ = ๐1๐2โฏ๐โ,
where โ is even, the ๐1, ๐3, ๐5,โฆ , ๐โโ1 are (๐ฝ, ๐ฝ)-walks (possibly trivi-al) on the subtree๐1, the ๐2, ๐4, ๐6,โฆ , ๐โโ2 are (๐ฝ, ๐ฝ)-walks (possiblytrivial) on the subtree ๐2, and ๐โ is a (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walk (possibly trivial) on
Free inverse semigroups โข 113
the subtree ๐2. Let ๐ข๐ = w(๐๐) for ๐ = 1,โฆ , โ. Then for ๐ = 1,โฆ , โโ1,by the Claim we have ๐ข2๐ =๐น ๐ข๐ and so ๐ข๐ is an idempotent. Hence
w(๐) = ๐ข1๐ข2๐ข3๐ข4โฏ๐ขโโ1๐ขโ=๐น ๐ข1๐ข3โฏ๐ขโโ1๐ข2๐ข4โฏ๐ขโ= ๐ข1๐ข2,
where ๐ข1 = w(๐1) and ๐ข2 = w(๐2), and ๐๐ = ๐1๐3โฏ๐โโ1 and ๐2 =๐2๐4โฏ๐โ. Note that ๐1 is a (๐ฝ, ๐ฝ)-walk on ๐1 and ๐2 is a (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walkon ๐2. Since ๐ spans ๐, it follows that ๐1 spans ๐1 and ๐2 spans ๐2.
Similarly, we can show that w(๐) =๐น ๐ฃ1๐ฃ2, where ๐ฃ1 = w(๐1) and๐ฃ1 = w(๐1) for some spanning (๐ฝ, ๐ฝ)-walk ๐1 of ๐1 and spanning(๐ฝ, ๐พ)-walk ๐2 of ๐2, respectively. Thus, by the inductive hypothesis,w(๐1) =๐น w(๐1) andw(๐2) =๐น w(๐2). Hencew(๐) = ๐ข1๐ข2 =๐น ๐ฃ1๐ฃ2 =๐นw(๐).
This completes the inductive step and so the result holds. Claim
Now we want to show each element of FInvM(๐ด) is associated to auniqueMunn tree. As a first step, the next lemma shows that each elementof (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)โ is associated to a unique Munn tree.
L emma 5 . 1 8. Let ๐ and ๐ be Munn trees. Let ๐ be a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk in ๐ and ๐ a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk in ๐ such that w(๐) = w(๐).Then ๐ and ๐ are isomorphic.
Proof of 5.18. Let ๐ฅ1๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐ = w(๐) = w(๐) and suppose
๐ = (๐ผ๐ = ๐ฟ0,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐ = ๐๐) and ๐ = (๐ผ๐ = ๐0,โฆ , ๐๐ = ๐๐),
where ๐ฅ๐ is the label on ๐ฟ๐โ1๐ฟ๐ and ๐๐โ1๐๐ for ๐ = 1,โฆ ,๐. Let ๐๐ and ๐๐ bethe subtrees of ๐ and ๐ spanned by the walks (๐ฟ0,โฆ , ๐ฟ๐) and (๐0,โฆ , ๐๐),respectively, for ๐ = 0,โฆ ,๐. Notice that ๐ = ๐๐ and ๐ = ๐๐ since ๐ and๐ span ๐ and ๐, respectively.
Clearly the map ๐0 โถ ๐0 โ ๐0 defined by ๐ฟ0๐0 = ๐0 is trivially anisomorphism of word trees.
Suppose that we have an isomorphism ๐๐โ1 โถ ๐๐โ1 โ ๐๐โ1 such that๐ฟ๐๐๐โ1 = ๐๐ for ๐ = 0,โฆ , ๐ โ 1. We show that this can be extended toan isomorphism ๐๐ โถ ๐๐ โ ๐๐. We consider the cases ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐(๐๐โ1) and๐ฟ๐ โ ๐(๐๐โ1) separately.โ ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐(๐๐โ1). Then ๐๐ = ๐๐โ1. Since ๐ฟ๐ is adjacent to ๐ฟ๐โ1 and ๐ฟ๐โ1๐ฟ๐
has label ๐ฅ๐, there exists ๐ โ ๐(๐๐โ1) such that ๐ = ๐ฟ๐๐๐โ1 and ๐ isadjacent to ๐๐โ1 with the edge ๐๐โ1๐ having label ๐ฅ๐. However, ๐๐ isadjacent to ๐๐โ1 in ๐ and ๐๐โ1๐๐ has label ๐ฅ๐. Since ๐ satisfies (5.13),๐๐ = ๐ = ๐ฟ๐๐๐โ1. Thus ๐๐ = ๐๐โ1. So define ๐๐ โถ ๐๐ โ ๐๐ by ๐๐ = ๐๐โ1;then ๐ฟ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ for ๐ = 0,โฆ , ๐ and so ๐๐ is an isomorphism of wordtrees.
114 โขInverse semigroups
โ ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐(๐๐โ1). Suppose with the aim of obtaining a contradiction that๐๐ โ ๐๐โ1. Since ๐๐ is adjacent to ๐๐โ1 and ๐๐โ1๐๐ has label๐ฅ๐, there exists๐ โ ๐(๐๐โ1) such that ๐ = ๐๐๐โ1๐โ1 and ๐ is adjacent to ๐ฟ๐โ1 with theedge ๐ฟ๐โ1๐ having label ๐ฅ๐. Since ๐ฟ๐ is adjacent to ๐ฟ๐โ1 in ๐ and ๐ฟ๐โ1๐ฟ๐has label ๐ฅ๐, and ๐ satisfies (5.13), we have ๐ฟ๐ = ๐ โ (๐(๐๐โ1))๐โ1๐โ1 =๐(๐๐โ1), which is a contradiction. Hence ๐๐ โ ๐๐โ1.
Thus we can extend ๐๐โ1 to an isomorphism of word trees ๐๐ โถ๐๐ โ ๐๐ by defining ๐ฟ๐๐๐ = ๐๐.
By induction on ๐, there exists an isomorphism ๐๐ โถ ๐๐ โ ๐๐. Note that๐ผ๐๐๐ = ๐ฟ0๐๐ = ๐0๐๐ = ๐ผ๐๐๐ and similarly ๐๐๐๐ = ๐๐๐๐. So ๐๐ is anisomorphism of Munn trees. 5.18
The next result strengthens the previous one, showing that each ele-ment of FInvM(๐ด) is associated to a unique Munn tree.
L emma 5 . 1 9. Let ๐ and ๐ be Munn trees. Let ๐ be a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk in ๐ and ๐ a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk in ๐ such that w(๐) =๐น w(๐).Then ๐ and ๐ are isomorphic.
Proof of 5.19. It is sufficient to prove the result when w(๐) and w(๐) differby a single elementary ๐-transition.โ w(๐) = ๐๐ข๐ and w(๐) = ๐๐ข๐ขโ1๐ข๐ for ๐, ๐ข, ๐ โ (๐ด โช ๐ดโ1)โ with ๐ข โ ๐.
So there exist (๐ผ๐, ๐ฝ)-, (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-, and (๐พ, ๐๐)-walks ๐1, ๐2, and ๐3 on ๐such that ๐ = ๐1๐2๐3, where w(๐1) = ๐, w(๐2) = ๐ข, and w(๐3) = ๐.Let ๐ be the (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk ๐1๐2๐โ12 ๐2๐3. Since ๐ spans ๐, so does ๐.By Lemma 5.16, w(๐) = ๐๐ข๐ขโ1๐ข๐ = w(๐). Therefore, by Lemma 5.18,the Munn trees ๐ and ๐ are isomorphic.
โ w(๐) = ๐๐ข๐ขโ1๐ฃ๐ฃโ1๐ andw(๐) = ๐๐ฃ๐ฃโ1๐ข๐ขโ1 for๐, ๐ข, ๐ฃ, ๐ โ (๐ดโช๐ดโ1)โwith ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐. So there exist (๐ผ๐, ๐ฝ)-, (๐ฝ, ๐พ)-, (๐ฝ, ๐ฟ)- and (๐ฝ, ๐๐)-walks๐1, ๐2, ๐3, and ๐4 on ๐ such that ๐ = ๐1๐2๐โ12 ๐3๐โ13 ๐4, wherew(๐1) =๐, w(๐2) = ๐ข, w(๐3) = ๐ฃ and w(๐4) = ๐. Let ๐ be the (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk๐1๐3๐โ13 ๐2๐โ12 ๐4. Since ๐ spans ๐, so does ๐. By Lemma 5.16, w(๐) =๐๐ฃ๐ฃโ1๐ข๐ขโ1๐ = w(๐). Therefore, by Lemma 5.18, the Munn trees ๐ and๐ are isomorphic. 5.19
Th eorem 5 . 2 0. Let ๐ and ๐ be Munn trees, and let ๐ be a spanning Equal in FInvM(๐ด) โisomorphic Munn trees(๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk on ๐, and let ๐ be a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐) walk on ๐. Then
w(๐) =๐น w(๐) if and only if ๐ and ๐ are isomorphic.
Proof of 5.20. If ๐ค(๐) = w(๐), then ๐ and ๐ are isomorphic by Lemma5.19.
On the other hand, suppose ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is an isomorphism. Then ๐maps ๐ to a spanning (๐ผ๐, ๐๐)-walk ๐ of ๐. Note that w(๐) = w(๐). Thenby Lemma 5.17, w(๐) = w(๐) and so w(๐) = w(๐). 5.20
We can use Munn trees to compute multiplications in FInvM(๐ด).Suppose we have two Munn trees ๐1 and ๐2. Pick a spanning (๐ผ๐1 , ๐๐1 )-walk ๐1 on๐1 and a spanning (๐ผ๐2 , ๐๐2 )-walk ๐1 with elements. Merge the
Free inverse semigroups โข 115
FIGURE 5.5Multiplying using Munntrees: from Munn trees for๐โ1๐๐๐โ1๐2๐โ1๐โ1๐ and๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1๐โ1๐๐โ1๐๐, wecompute a Munn tree for theproduct by merging the โ๐โof the first tree with the โ๐ผโ ofthe second and then folding
edges.
๐ผ๐1
1
2
4
๐๐1
3
7
๐ผ๐2
8
6
๐๐2
5
๐
๐๐
๐
๐ ๐
๐
๐๐
๐
2
๐ผ๐
1
4 7
โ
3 8
6
๐๐
5
๐
๐๐๐๐
๐๐๐๐
๐๐ผ๐
1
2
4
โ
3 5
6
๐๐๐
๐๐
๐
๐๐๐
๐
merging๐๐1 & ๐ผ๐2
mer
ging
๐ผ&8;4&7
the vertices ๐๐1 and ๐ผ๐2 to obtain a tree ๐, and let ๐ผ๐ = ๐ผ๐1 and ๐๐ = ๐๐2 .Let ๐ = ๐1๐2. Then ๐ is a spanning (๐ผ, ๐)-walk on ๐. It remains to foldedges together until (5.13) is satisfied, as we did to construct Munn treesinitially. Figure 5.5 illustrates the process.
Exercises
[See pages 225โ234 for the solutions.]โด5.1 Let ๐ = {1, 2}. Find a subsemigroup of I๐ that contains only two
elements and which is not an inverse subsemigroup.5.2 Let ๐บ be a group and let ๐ be the set of isomorphisms between sub-
groups of ๐บ. Prove that ๐ is an inverse subsemigroup of I๐บ.5.3 Let๐ be a set and let ๐, ๐ โ I๐. Prove the following:
a) ๐ L ๐ โ im๐ = im ๐;b) ๐ R ๐ โ dom๐ = dom ๐;c) ๐ D ๐ โ ๐ J ๐ โ |dom๐| = |dom ๐|.
โด5.4 Let๐ = {1,โฆ , ๐} with ๐ โฉพ 3. Let ๐ = (1 2) and ๐ = (1 2 โฆ ๐ โ 1 ๐).As remarked in Exercise 1.11, from elementary group theory, we knowthat S๐ = โจ๐, ๐โฉ. For ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐, let
๐ฝ๐ = { ๐ โ I๐ โถ |dom ๐| = ๐ }.
(Notice that ๐ฝ๐ = S๐.) Fix an element ๐ฝ of ๐ฝ๐โ1.a) Let ๐พ โ ๐ฝ๐โ1 and let ๐ โถ dom ๐พ โ dom๐ฝ be a bijection. Prove
that there exists ๐ โ S๐ such that ๐๐ฝ๐ = ๐พ. Deduce that ๐ฝ๐โ1 โโจ๐, ๐, ๐ฝโฉ.
b) Prove that ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝ๐+1๐ฝ๐โ1 for ๐ = 0, 1,โฆ , ๐ โ 2. Deduce thatI๐ = โจ๐, ๐, ๐ฝโฉ.
116 โขInverse semigroups
5.5 Let๐ be an infinite set.a) Let ๐ โ I๐ be such that dom ๐ = ๐ and im ๐ โ ๐. (So ๐ is a
bijection from๐ to a proper subset of itself.) Prove that โจ๐, ๐โ1โฉis isomorphic to the bicyclic monoid.
b) Let ๐ผ be an abstract index set with |๐ผ| โฉพ 2 and let { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โ I๐be a collection of partial bijections such that dom ๐๐ = ๐ and allthe images im ๐๐ are disjoint. (So the ๐๐ are bijections from ๐ todisjoint subsets of๐.) Prove that โจ{ ๐๐, ๐โ1๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }โฉ is an inversemonoid isomorphic to the monoid
Monโจ๐ง, ๐๐, ๐๐ for ๐ โ ๐ผ โฃ (๐๐๐๐, ๐), (๐๐๐๐, ๐ง),(๐๐๐ง, ๐ง), (๐ง๐๐, ๐ง),(๐๐๐ง, ๐ง), (๐ง๐๐, ๐ง), (๐ง๐ง, ๐ง)for ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ with ๐ โ ๐โฉ.
}}}}}}}}}}}
(5.14)
[These monoids are called the polycyclic monoids.] Polycyclic monoid
โด5.6 A semigroup is orthodox if it is regular and its set of idempotents form Orthodoxa subsemigroup.a) Prove that a Clifford semigroup is orthodox.b) Prove that a semigroup is completely simple and orthodox if and
only if it is isomorphic to the direct product of a rectangular bandand a group.
โด5.7 Prove that a completely 0-simple semigroup is inverse if and only if itis isomorphic to M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ผ; ๐] where ๐ is a diagonal ๐ผ ร ๐ผmatrix.
โด5.8 Let ๐ be a cancellative semigroup. An element ๐ of I๐1 is a partial right Partial right translationtranslation if dom ๐ is a left ideal of ๐1 and for any ๐ฅ โ dom ๐ and๐ฆ โ ๐1, we have (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐).a) Prove that if ๐ โ I๐1 is a partial right translation, then im ๐ is a left
ideal of ๐1.b) Note that for each๐ฅ โ ๐, themap ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐1 โ ๐1 (where ๐ก๐๐ฅ = ๐ก๐ฅ) is
injective and so lies in I๐1 . Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ I๐ be the homomorphismdefined by ๐ฅ โฆ ๐๐ฅ. Let ๐ be the inverse subsemigroup of I๐1generated by im๐. Prove that the set of partial right translationsin I๐1 is an inverse subsemigroup of of I๐1 and contains ๐.
โด5.9 Prove that the bicyclic monoid ๐ต = Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐)โฉ is an inversesemigroup. [Hint: use the characterization of idempotents in Exercise2.10(a).]
โด5.10 Let ๐ be an inverse semigroup, and let ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Prove that๐ฅ โผ ๐ โ ๐ฅ โ ๐ธ(๐).
5.11 Prove that the FInvM({๐}) is isomorphic to the set
๐พ = { (๐, ๐, ๐) โถ ๐, ๐, ๐ โ โค, ๐ โฉฝ 0, ๐ โฉพ 0, ๐ โฉฝ ๐ โฉฝ ๐ }
Exercises โข 117
with the operation
(๐, ๐, ๐)(๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ) = (min{๐, ๐โฒ + ๐}, ๐ + ๐โฒ,max{๐, ๐ + ๐โฒ}).
[Hint: each element of FInvM({๐}) corresponds to a Munn tree ๐ ofthe form
๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐๐ผ๐ ๐๐
View vertices along this path as having an โ๐ฅ-coordinateโ relative to๐ผ๐. Let ๐, ๐, and ๐ be, respectively, the ๐ฅ-coordinates of the leftmostendpoint, the vertex ๐๐, and the rightmost endpoint.]
5.12 Using Exercise 5.11 and the map
๐ โถ ๐พ โ ๐ต ร ๐ต; (๐, ๐, ๐)๐ = (๐โ๐๐โ๐+๐, ๐๐๐โ๐+๐).
prove that FInvM({๐}) is a subdirect product of two copies of thebicyclic monoid.
5.13 Let๐ be a monoid presented by Monโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be anBruckโReilly extensionsendomorphism. The BruckโReilly extension of๐ with respect to ๐,denoted BR(๐, ๐), is the monoid presented by
Monโจ๐ด โช {๐, ๐} โฃ๐ โช { (๐๐, ๐), (๐๐, (๐๐)๐), (๐๐, ๐(๐๐)) โถ ๐ โ ๐ด }โฉ,
} (5.15)
where we view ๐๐ in the defining relations as some word in ๐ดโ rep-resenting that element of๐.a) Prove that every element of BR(๐๐) is represented by a word of
the form ๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ, where ๐พ, ๐ฝ โ โ โช {0} and ๐ค โ ๐ดโ.b) i) Prove that if ๐พ = ๐พโฒ, and ๐ฝ = ๐ฝโฒ, and ๐ค =๐ ๐คโฒ, then we have๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ =BR(๐,๐) ๐๐พโฒ๐คโฒ๐๐ฝโฒ.
ii) Let
๐ = (โ โช {0}) ร ๐ ร (โ โช {0})= { (๐พ, ๐ค, ๐ฝ) โถ ๐พ, ๐ฝ โ โ โช {0}, ๐ค โ ๐ }.
Define
(๐พ, ๐ค, ๐ฝ)๐๐ = (๐พ, ๐ค(๐๐๐ฝ), ๐ฝ) for each ๐ โ ๐ด;(๐พ, ๐ค, ๐ฝ)๐๐ = (๐พ, ๐ค, ๐ฝ + 1);
(๐พ, ๐ค, ๐ฝ)๐๐ = {(๐พ + 1, ๐ค๐, 0) if ๐ฝ = 0,(๐พ, ๐ค, ๐ฝ โ 1) if ๐ฝ > 0.
Prove that the map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ T๐ given by ๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ฅ for all๐ฅ โ ๐ด โช {๐, ๐} extends to a well-defined homomorphism ๐ โถ
118 โขInverse semigroups
BR(๐, ๐) โ T๐. Prove that the homomorphism๐ is injective.Deduce that if ๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ =BR(๐,๐) ๐๐พโฒ๐คโฒ๐๐ฝโฒ, then ๐พ = ๐พโฒ, ๐ฝ = ๐ฝโฒ,and ๐ค =๐ ๐คโฒ.
[Note that, since๐ is injective,BR(๐, ๐) is isomorphic to aparticular subsemigroup of T๐. Since this subsemigroup is in-dependent of the choice of the presentationMonโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ for๐,the BruckโReilly extension BR(๐, ๐) is also is independentof the choice of the presentation for๐.]
c) Deduce that๐ embeds into BR(๐, ๐).5.14 Let๐ be a monoid and let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be defined by ๐ฅ๐ = 1 for
all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Prove that BR(๐, ๐) is simple. [Thus, as a consequenceof Exercise 5.13, every semigroup ๐ embeds into a simple semigroupBR(๐1, ๐).]
Notes
The exposition of the VagnerโPreston representation theoremis based on Clifford & Preston, The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups, ยง 1.9 andHowie, Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory, ยง 5.1. The discussion of Cliffordsemigroups is based on Howie, Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory, ยงยง 4.1โ2.โ The introduction of free inverse semigroups follows Lawson, Inverse Semi-groups, ch. 6; the explanation of Munn trees follows closely Munn, โFree InverseSemigroupsโ (which is a model of clarity) except that we consider free inversemonoids rather than free inverse semigroups. โ See Clifford & Preston, TheAlgebraic Theory of Semigroups, p. 28 for the quotation in the introduction. โThe VagnerโPreston theorem (Theorem 5.8), and much of the basic theory of in-verse semigroups, is found in Vagner, โGeneralized groupsโ and Preston, โInversesemi-groups with minimal right idealsโ; Preston, โRepresentations of inversesemi-groupsโ. The structure theorem for Clifford semigroups is due to Clifford,โSemigroups admitting relative inversesโ, though the terminology is later. โ Forfurther reading, the standard text on inverse semigroups remains Petrich, In-verse Semigroups, but Lawson, Inverse Semigroups provides a geometric andtopological perspective.
โข
Notes โข 119
120 โข
6Commutative semigroups
โ The two operations, suicide and going to MIT, didnโt commute โโ Murray Gell-Mann,
โThe Making of a Physicistโ. In: Edge.org.
โข Abelian groups (that is, commutative groups) have asimpler structure and are better understood than general groups, espe-cially in the finitely generated case. It is therefore unsurprising that com-mutative semigroups also have a well-developed theory. However, thereare still many more commutative semigroups than abelian groups. Forinstance, there are three essentially different (non-isomorphic) abeliangroups with 8 elements (the cyclic group ๐ถ8 and the direct products๐ถ4 ร ๐ถ2 and ๐ถ2 ร ๐ถ2 ร ๐ถ2), but there are 221 805 non-isomorphic com-mutative semigroups with 8 elements.
A large theory of commutative semigroups has developed, and wewill sample only two areas: first, in structure theory, how cancellativecommutative semigroups are group-embeddable; second, free commutat-ive semigroups and their congruences, leading to the result that finitelygenerated semigroups are always finitely presented.
Cancellativecommutative semigroups
Example 2.14 showed that a cancellative semigroup is notnecessarily group-embeddable. However, in this section we will see thata cancellative commutative semigroup is always group-embeddable. Themethod used to construct the group from the cancellative semigroupis essentially the same as that used to construct a field from an integraldomain (for example, to construct (โ, +, โ ) from (โค, +, โ )).
T h eorem 6 . 1. Let ๐ be a cancellative commutative semigroup. Then Cancellative commutativesemigroups aregroup-embeddable.
๐ embeds into a group ๐บ via a monomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ such that๐บ = (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1 = { ๐ฅ๐ฆโ1 โถ ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ }.
Proof of 6.1. First of all, note that ๐ embeds into ๐1 and that if ๐บ = ๐๐โ1,then ๐บ = ๐1(๐1)โ1, and so we assume without loss of generality that ๐ is amonoid.
โข 121
Define a relation ๐ on ๐ ร ๐ by (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) ๐ (๐ง, ๐ก) โ ๐ฅ๐ก = ๐ง๐ฆ. It is trivialto prove ๐ is reflexive and symmetric since ๐ is commutative, and ๐ istransitive since
(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) ๐ (๐ง, ๐ก) โง (๐ง, ๐ก) ๐ (๐, ๐)โ ๐ฅ๐ก = ๐ง๐ฆ โง ๐ง๐ = ๐๐กโ ๐ฅ๐ก๐ง๐ = ๐ง๐ฆ๐๐กโ ๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ฆ [since ๐ is cancellative and commutative]โ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) ๐ (๐, ๐).
Thus ๐ is an equivalence relation. Furthermore,
(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) ๐ (๐ง, ๐ก) โง (๐ฅโฒ, ๐ฆโฒ) ๐ (๐งโฒ, ๐กโฒ)โ ๐ฅ๐ก = ๐ง๐ฆ โง ๐ฅโฒ๐กโฒ = ๐งโฒ๐ฆโฒโ ๐ฅ๐ก๐ฅโฒ๐กโฒ = ๐ง๐ฆ๐งโฒ๐ฆโฒโ ๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ๐ก๐กโฒ = ๐ง๐งโฒ๐ฆ๐ฆโฒ [since ๐ is commutative]โ (๐ฅ๐ฅโฒ, ๐ฆ๐ฆโฒ) ๐ (๐ง๐งโฒ, ๐ก๐กโฒ).
Thus ๐ is a congruence.Let ๐บ = (๐ ร ๐)/๐. Let [(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐ โ ๐บ; then (1๐๐ฅ)๐ฆ = (1๐๐ฆ)๐ฅ since ๐ is
commutative. Hence (1๐๐ฅ, 1๐๐ฆ) ๐ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) and thus [(1๐, 1๐)]๐[(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐ =[(1๐๐ฅ, 1๐๐ฆ)]๐ = [(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐. Similarly, [(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐[(1๐, 1๐)]๐ = [(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐. So ๐บis a monoid with identity [(1๐, 1๐)]๐.
Furthermore, 1๐(๐ฅ๐ฆ) = (๐ฆ๐ฅ)1๐, since ๐ is commutative, and therefore(๐ฅ๐ฆ, ๐ฆ๐ฅ) ๐ (1๐, 1๐). Hence [(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐[(๐ฆ, ๐ฅ)]๐ = [(๐ฅ๐ฆ, ๐ฆ๐ฅ)]๐ = [(1๐, 1๐)]๐and similarly [(๐ฆ, ๐ฅ)]๐[(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐ = [(1๐, 1๐)]๐. Thus [(๐ฆ, ๐ฅ)]๐ is a left andright inverse for [(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐. So ๐บ is a group.
Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ be defined by ๐ ๐ = [(๐ , 1๐)]๐. It is clear that ๐ is ahomomorphism. Furthermore, ๐ is injective since
๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ [(๐ฅ, 1๐)]๐ = [(๐ฆ, 1๐)]๐โ ๐ 1๐ = ๐ก1๐โ ๐ = ๐ก.
Therefore ๐ embeds into ๐บ. Finally, note that
[(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ)]๐ = [(๐ฅ, 1๐)]๐[(1๐, ๐ฆ)]๐ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐)โ1 โ (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1;
hence ๐บ = (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1. 6.1
Let ๐ be a commutative cancellative semigroup. By Theorem 6.1, thereis a monomorphism ๐ from ๐ into a group ๐บ such that ๐บ = (๐๐)(๐๐)โ1.We can therefore identify ๐ with a subsemigroup of ๐บ such that ๐บ = ๐๐โ1.For any commutative cancellative semigroup ๐, denote by๐บ(๐) some fixedgroup containing ๐ as a subsemigroup, such that ๐บ(๐) = ๐๐โ1. (Actually,one can prove that ๐บ(๐) is unique up to isomorphism, but we will notneed this result.)
122 โขCommutative semigroups
Free commutative semigroups
Let ๐ด be an alphabet. Let FCommS(๐ด) be semigrouppresented by Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ, where
๐ = { (๐๐, ๐๐) โถ ๐, ๐ โ ๐ด }.
The following result is essentially immediate:
P ro p o s i t i on 6 . 2. FCommS(๐ด) is a commutative semigroup. 6.2
Let ๐น be a commutative semigroup, let ๐ด be an alphabet, and let ๐ โถ Free commutativesemigroups๐ด โ ๐น be an embedding of๐ด into ๐น. Then the commutative semigroup ๐น
is the free commutative semigroup on๐ด if, for any commutative semigroup๐ and map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, there is a unique homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐น โ ๐ thatextends ๐ (that is, with ๐๐ = ๐). Using diagrams, this definition says that๐น is a free commutative semigroup on ๐ด if
for all๐ด ๐น
๐
๐
๐with ๐ commutative, there exists
a unique homomorphism ๐ such that๐ด ๐น
๐
๐
๐๐ .
}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}
(6.1)
This definition is analogous to the definition of the free semigroup on๐ด (see pages 38 f.) and free inverse semigroup on ๐ด (see page 107). Asalready noted, in Chapter 8, we will see definitions of โfree objectsโ in amuch more general setting.
Reasoning analogous to the proof of Proposition 5.15 establishes thefollowing result:
P ro p o s i t i on 6 . 3. Let ๐ด be an alphabet and let ๐น be a commutative Uniqueness of thefree commutativesemigroup on ๐ด
semigroup. Then ๐น is a free commutative semigroup on ๐ด if and only if๐น โ FCommS(๐ด). 6.3
As in the discussions of โfreeโ and โfree inverseโ, we could repeat the Free commutative monoidsreasoning above, but for monoids instead of semigroups. The monoidFCommM(๐ด) is presented by Monโจ๐ด โช ๐ดโ1 | ๐โฉ. A monoid ๐น is a freecommutative monoid on ๐ด if, for any commutative monoid ๐ and map๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, there is a unique monoid homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐น โ ๐extending ๐, with ๐๐ = ๐. A commutative monoid ๐น is a free commutativemonoid on ๐ด if and only if ๐น โ FCommM(๐ด). We have FCommM(๐ด) โ(FCommS(๐ด))1.
P ro p o s i t i on 6 . 4. Let ๐ด be a finite alphabet. Then FCommM(๐ด) โ(โ โช {0})๐ด.
Free commutative semigroups โข 123
(Recall the notation for cartesian and direct products from page 4.)
Proof of 6.4. Following Method 2.9, we aim to prove that Monโจ๐ด | ๐โฉpresents (โ โช {0})๐ด. Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ (โ โช {0})๐ด, where ๐๐ issuch that (๐)(๐๐) = 1 and (๐ฅ)(๐๐) = 0 for ๐ฅ โ ๐. (That is, ๐๐ is thetuple whose ๐-th component is 1 and all other components 0.) Clearly(โ โช {0})๐ด satisfies the defining relations in ๐ with respect to ๐. Suppose๐ด = {๐1,โฆ , ๐๐} and let
๐ = { ๐๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ โถ ๐1, ๐2,โฆ , ๐๐ โ โ โช {0} }.
It is obvious that every word in ๐ดโ can be transformed to one in๐ byapplying defining relations from ๐. Finally, since (๐๐)((๐
๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ )๐),
we see that ๐|๐ is injective. So Monโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ presents (โ โช {0})๐ด. 6.4
Proposition 6.4 does not hold if ๐ด is infinite. The tuples ๐๐ as definedin the proof do not generate (โ โช {0})๐ด when ๐ด is infinite, because no(finite) product of these tuples is equal to (for example) the tuple withall components 1.
Pro p o s i t i on 6 . 5. Let ๐ be a finite generated commutative semigroup(respectively, commutative monoid), let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be an assignment ofgenerators (with ๐ด finite), and let ๐ โถ FCommS(๐ด) โ ๐ (respectively,๐ โถ FCommM(๐ด) โ ๐) be the homomorphism extending ๐. Suppose thereis a finite set ๐ โ ker๐ such that ๐# = ker๐. Then ๐ is finitely presented.
Proof of 6.5. We prove the result for semigroups; the reasoning for mon-oids is similar. Let ๐+ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ be the homomorphism extending ๐. Forbrevity, let ๐ be the natural homomorphism (๐#)โฎ โถ ๐ด+ โ FCommS(๐ด),where ๐๐ = ๐(๐#)โฎ = [๐]๐# . Note that ker๐ = ker(๐#)โฎ๐#.The followingdiagram commutes:
๐ด ๐ด+ FCommS(๐ด)
๐
๐
๐
๐ = (๐#)โฎ
๐+๐
To show that ๐ is finitely presented, we must find a finite subset of B๐ด+that generates ker๐+.
For each (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐, fix ๐ค๐ฅ โ ๐ฅ((๐#)โฎ)โ1 and ๐ค๐ฆ โ ๐ฆ((๐#)โฎ)โ1 and let๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = { (๐ค๐ฅ, ๐ค๐ฆ) โถ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐) }. Note that ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ is finite since ๐ is finite. Wewill prove that (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โช ๐)# = ker(๐๐) = ker๐+.
Make the following definition: for any ๐ โ B๐, let ๐๐โ1 = { (๐ , ๐ก) โ๐ ร ๐ โถ (๐ ๐, ๐ก๐) โ ๐ }.
Let (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐C)๐โ1. So (๐ข๐, ๐ฃ๐) โ ๐C. So by Proposition 1.27, thereexist ๐, ๐ โ FCommS(๐ด) and (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ such that ๐ข๐ = ๐๐ฅ๐ and
124 โขCommutative semigroups
๐ฃ๐ = ๐๐ฆ๐. Let ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ โ ๐ be such that ๐โฒ๐ = ๐ and ๐โฒ๐ = ๐. Then(๐โฒ๐ค๐ฅ๐โฒ)๐ = ๐ข๐ and (๐โฒ๐ค๐ฆ๐โฒ)๐ = ๐ฃ๐. Therefore (๐ข, ๐โฒ๐ค๐ฅ๐โฒ) โ ker๐ =๐# and (๐โฒ๐ค๐ฆ๐, ๐ฃ) โ ker๐ = ๐#. Since (๐โฒ๐ค๐ฅ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ๐ค๐ฆ๐โฒ) โ ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ#, we have
๐ข ๐# ๐โฒ๐ค๐ฅ๐โฒ ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ# ๐โฒ๐ค๐ฆ๐โฒ ๐# ๐ฃ,
and so (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โช ๐)#. Thus (๐C)๐โ1 โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โช ๐)#. Since (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โช ๐)# issymmetric, (๐C)๐โ1 โช (๐C)โ1๐โ1 โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โช ๐)#.
Now let ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+. Then
(๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ker(๐๐)โ (๐ข๐, ๐ฃ๐) โ ๐#
โ (๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐) โจ (๐ข๐, ๐ฃ๐) โ โโ๐=1(๐C โช (๐C)โ1)๐
[by Proposition 1.26(f)]โ (โ๐ โ โ โช {0})(โ๐ค0,โฆ ,๐ค๐ โ FCommS(๐ด))
[(๐ข๐ = ๐ค0) โง (๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ๐)โง (โ๐)((๐ค๐, ๐ค๐+1) โ ๐C โช (๐C)โ1)]
โ (โ๐ โ โ โช {0})(โ๐คโฒ0,โฆ ,๐คโฒ๐ โ ๐ด+)[(๐ข๐ = ๐คโฒ0๐) โง (๐คโฒ๐๐ = ๐ฃ๐)โง (โ๐)((๐คโฒ๐, ๐คโฒ๐+1) โ ๐C๐โ1 โช (๐C)โ1๐โ1)]
[since ๐ is surjective]โ (โ๐ โ โ โช {0})(โ๐คโฒ0,โฆ ,๐คโฒ๐ โ ๐ด+)
[(๐ข๐ = ๐คโฒ0๐) โง (๐คโฒ๐๐ = ๐ฃ๐)โง (โ๐)((๐คโฒ๐๐,๐คโฒ๐+1) โ (๐โฒ โช ๐)#)]
[since (๐C)๐โ1 โช (๐C)โ1๐โ1 โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โช ๐)#]โ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ (๐โฒ โช ๐)#)].
Therefore ker(๐๐) โ (๐โฒ โช ๐)#.On the other hand, if (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐โฒ, then (๐ข๐, ๐ฃ๐) โ ๐ โ ker๐, so๐ข๐๐ = ๐ฃ๐๐ and so (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ker(๐๐). If (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐ โ ker๐, then ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐,so ๐ข๐๐ = ๐ฃ๐๐ and so (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ker(๐๐). Thus ๐โฒ โช ๐ โ ker(๐๐) and hence(๐โฒ โช ๐)# โ ker(๐๐) since ker(๐๐) is a congruence.
Therefore (๐โฒ โช ๐)# = ker(๐๐) = ker๐+ and so ๐ is defined by thefinite presentation Sgโจ๐ด | ๐โฒ โช ๐โฉ. 6.5
Rรฉdeiโs theorem
When the alphabet๐ด has ๐ elements, we write write ๐น๐ =FCommM(๐ด) for brevity and (by Proposition 6.4) we view elements of
Rรฉdeiโs theorem โข 125
FCommM(๐ด) as ๐-tuples of non-negative integers fromโ โช {0}. Definea relation โฉฝ on ๐น๐ by
(๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐) โฉฝ (๐ฆ1,โฆ , ๐ฆ๐) โ (โ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐})(๐ฅ๐ โฉฝ ๐ฆ๐).
It is easy to see that โฉฝ is a partial order on ๐น๐. Notice that there are noinfinite โฉฝ-decreasing sequences in ๐น๐.
T h eorem 6 . 6. Every antichain in ๐น๐ is finite.Dicksonโs theorem
Proof of 6.6. The proof is by induction on ๐. For the base of the induction,let ๐ be an antichain inโ โช {0} โ ๐น1. Since โฉฝ is a total order onโ โช {0},every pair of elements is comparable and thus ๐ contains at most oneelement. Thus the result holds for ๐ = 1.
Now suppose the result holds for all ๐ < ๐; we aim to prove it for๐ = ๐. Let ๐ โ (โ โช {0})๐ โ ๐น๐ be an antichain. For each ๐ก โ โ โช {0} andfor each ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐}, let
๐๐,๐ก = { (๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐) โ ๐ โถ ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ก }.
The set
{ (๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐โ1, ๐ฅ๐+1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐) โถ (๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐โ1, ๐ก, ๐ฅ๐+1, ๐ฅ๐) โ ๐๐,๐ก }.
is an antichain (possibly empty) of ๐น๐โ1 and therefore finite by the induc-tion hypothesis. Hence each set ๐๐,๐ก is finite.
Fix some ๐ฆ โ ๐, with ๐ฆ = (๐ฆ1,โฆ , ๐ฆ๐). Let ๐ง = (๐ง1,โฆ , ๐ง๐) โ ๐ โ {๐ฆ}.Since ๐ is an antichain, ๐ฆ โฐ ๐ง. Hence ๐ฆ๐ > ๐ง๐ for some ๐ โ {๐,โฆ , ๐}.Hence
๐ = {๐ฆ} โช๐
โ๐=1{ (๐ง1,โฆ , ๐ง๐) โ ๐ โถ ๐ง๐ < ๐ฆ๐ }
= {๐ฆ} โช๐
โ๐=1
๐ฆ๐โ1
โ๐ก=0{ (๐ง1,โฆ , ๐ง๐) โ ๐ โถ ๐ง๐ = ๐ก }
= {๐ฆ} โช๐
โ๐=1
๐ฆ๐โ1
โ๐ก=0๐๐,๐ก.
Each set ๐๐,๐ก is finite, and so ๐ itself is finite. Since ๐ was an arbitraryantichain in ๐น๐, this establishes the induction step and so proves theresult. 6.6
Pro p o s i t i on 6 . 7. Let ๐ be a congruence on ๐น๐. Then there is a finiteset ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐# = ๐.
Proof of 6.7. Define the lexicographic order โ on ๐น๐ by
(๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐) โ (๐ฆ1,โฆ , ๐ฆ๐) โ (โ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐})(๐ฅ๐ < ๐ฆ๐ โง (โ๐ < ๐)(๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐)).
126 โขCommutative semigroups
Then โ is a total order on๐น๐ and is compatible. (That is, ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ๐ง โ ๐ฆ๐งfor all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐น๐.) Furthermore, โ is a well-order (that is, every non-empty subset of๐น๐ has aโ-minimumelement). In particular, every๐-class[๐ฅ]๐ has a โ-minimum element ๐๐ฅ. Let
๐ = { ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐น๐ } = { ๐ฆ โ ๐น๐ โถ (โ๐ฅ โ ๐น๐)(๐ฆ ๐ ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ) }.
So ๐ consists of the โ-minimal elements of all the ๐-classes. Let ๐ be thecomplement of ๐ in ๐น๐; that is,
๐ = { ๐ฅ โถ ๐๐ฅ โ ๐ฅ } = { ๐ฅ โ ๐น๐ โถ (โ๐ฆ โ ๐น๐)(๐ฆ ๐ ๐ฅ โง ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ) }.
Then ๐ consists of the non-โ-minimal elements of all the ๐-classes. Fur-thermore,
(๐ฅ โ ๐ ) โง (๐ง โ ๐น๐) โ (๐๐ฅ โ ๐ฅ) โง (๐ง โ ๐) โ ๐๐ฅ๐ง โ ๐ฅ๐ง โ ๐ฅ๐ง โ ๐ ;
hence ๐ is an ideal of ๐น๐. Let๐ be the set of โฉฝ-minimal elements of ๐ .Then๐ is an antichain and so finite by Theorem 6.6. Let
๐ = { (๐๐, ๐) โถ ๐ โ ๐}.
Notice that ๐ is finite because๐ is finite.The aim is now to show that ๐# = ๐. Since ๐๐ ๐ ๐ for each๐ โ ๐,
it is immediate that ๐ โ ๐ and so ๐# โ ๐.To prove that ๐ โ ๐#, the first step is to prove that ๐๐ฅ ๐# ๐ฅ for all๐ฅ โ ๐น๐.
Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that (๐๐ฅ, ๐ฅ) โ ๐#for some๐ฅ โ ๐น๐.Then, sinceโ is awell-order, there is aโ-minimum ๐ โ ๐น๐such that (๐๐ , ๐ ) โ ๐#. This element ๐ cannot be in ๐, since otherwise๐๐ = ๐ and so (๐๐ , ๐ ) โ ๐#. Furthermore, ๐ cannot be in๐, since otherwise(๐๐ , ๐ ) โ ๐ by definition and hence (๐๐ , ๐ ) โ ๐#. Thus ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ and so๐ > ๐ for some๐ โ ๐. Therefore ๐ = ๐๐ก for some ๐ก โ ๐น๐.
Let ๐ข = ๐๐๐ก. Since (๐๐, ๐) โ ๐# and (๐๐, ๐) โ ๐, we have (๐ข, ๐ ) =(๐๐๐ก, ๐๐ก) โ ๐# and so (๐ข, ๐ ) โ ๐. Notice that (๐ข, ๐ ) โ ๐ implies ๐๐ข =๐๐ . Furthermore, ๐ข โ ๐ since ๐๐ โ ๐ and โ is compatible. Since ๐ isโ-minimum with (๐๐ , ๐ ) โ ๐#, it follows that (๐๐ข, ๐ข) โ ๐#. Therefore๐ ๐# ๐ข ๐# ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ . Thus (๐๐ , ๐ ) โ ๐#, which is a contradiction, and hence(๐๐ฅ, ๐ฅ) โ ๐# for all ๐ฅ โ ๐น๐.
Finally, let (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐. Then ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ. By the previous paragraph,(๐๐ฅ, ๐ฅ) and (๐๐ฆ, ๐ฆ) are in ๐#. Thus ๐ฅ ๐# ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ ๐# ๐ฆ; hence (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐#.That is, ๐ โ ๐#, and therefore ๐ = ๐#. 6.7
The following result is immediate from Propositions 6.5 and Proposi-tion 6.7:
R รฉ d e i โ s T h eorem 6 . 8. Every finitely generated commutative mon- Rรฉdeiโs theoremoid is finitely presented. 6.8
Rรฉdeiโs theorem โข 127
Exercises
[See pages 234โ237 for the solutions.]โด6.1 Let ๐ be a commutative semigroup. Let ๐บ and ๐บโฒ be abelian groups
such that๐บ = ๐๐โ1 and๐บโฒ = ๐๐โ1. Prove that there is an isomorphism๐ โถ ๐บ โ ๐บโฒ such that ๐|๐ maps ๐ โ ๐บ to ๐ โ ๐บโฒ.
โด6.2 Let ๐ be a commutative semigroup. Let ๐ผ be an ideal of ๐, and let ๐บbe an abelian group. Let ๐ โถ ๐ผ โ ๐บ be a homomorphism. Prove thatthere is a unique extension of ๐ to a homomorphism ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ.
6.3 Let ๐ be a non-trivial subsemigroup of (โ โช {0}, +). Prove that thereexists ๐ โ โ โช {0} such that ๐ โ ๐โ and ๐โ โ ๐ is finite.
6.4 Let ๐ be a subsemigroup of (โค, +). Prove that either every elementof ๐ is non-negative, or every element of ๐ is non-positive, or ๐ is asubgroup.
โด6.5 A semigroup ๐ is right-reversible (respectively, left-reversible) if everyRight- and left-reversibilitytwo elements of ๐ have a common left (respectively, right) multiple;that is, if for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐, there exist ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐1 such that ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ก๐ฆ(respectively, ๐ฅ๐ง = ๐ฆ๐ก).
Let ๐ be a cancellative right-reversible semigroup; the aim of thisOreโs theoremexercise is to prove that ๐ is group-embeddable; this is Oreโs theorem,and generalizes Theorem 6.1. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ I๐ be the homomorphismdefined by ๐ฅ โฆ ๐๐ฅ. Let ๐ be the inverse subsemigroup of I๐ gener-ated by im๐. By Exercise 5.8(b), every element of ๐ is a partial righttranslation. Define a relation โผ on ๐ by
๐ผ โผ ๐ฝ โ (โ๐ฟ โ ๐)((๐ฟ โ ๐ผ) โง (๐ฟ โ ๐ฝ))
for all ๐ผ, ๐ฝ โ ๐. Notice that
๐ฟ โ ๐ผ โ ((dom ๐ฟ โ dom๐ผ) โง (โ๐ฅ โ dom ๐ฟ)(๐ฅ๐ฟ = ๐ฅ๐ผ)).
a) Prove that โผ is an congruence.b) Let ๐บ = ๐/โผ. Prove that ๐บ is a group.c) Let ๐ผ, ๐ฝ โ ๐. Prove that ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ is not the empty relation, and so
deduce that ๐ does not contain the empty relation.d) Let ๐ = ๐ โ โผโฎ (that is, ๐ฅ๐ = [๐ฅ๐]โผ). Prove that ๐ is a monomor-
phism and so deduce that ๐ is group-embeddable.โด6.6 Let ๐ = (โ โช {0}) ร (โ โช {0}) and define a multiplication on ๐ by
(๐, ๐)(๐, ๐) = (๐ + ๐, 2๐๐ + ๐)
Check that this multiplication is associative, so that ๐ is a semigroup.Prove that ๐ is left reversible but not right reversible.
128 โขCommutative semigroups
Notes
The number of commutative semigroups of with 8 elementsis from Grillet, Commutative Semigroups, p. 1. โ Rรฉdeiโs theorem (Theorem6.8) was first proved by Rรฉdei, TheTheory of Finitely Generated CommutativeSemigroups; see also Clifford & Preston, The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups,ยง 9.3. The proof given here is from Grillet, โA short proof of Rรฉdeiโs theoremโ. โOreโs theorem (Exercise 6.5) is contained in a theorem about rings proved, usingdifferent terminology, in Ore, โLinear equations in non-commutative fieldsโ; theproof here is due to Rees, โOn the group of a set of partial transformationsโ.โ For further reading, Grillet, Commutative Semigroups is a comprehensivemonograph, but with a very terse style, and Rosales & Garcรญa-Sรกnchez, FinitelyGenerated Commutative Monoids is an accessible introduction to structural andcomputational aspects.
โข
Notes โข 129
130 โข
7Finite semigroups
โ The known is finite, the unknown infinite; intellectually we stand onan islet in the midst of an illimitable ocean of inexplicability. โ
โ T.H. Huxley,On the Reception of the Origin of Species.
โข In this chapter, we begin the detailed study of finitesemigroups. Although Greenโs relations will play a role, other techniquesare used to understand finite semigroups. In particular we will introducethe notion of divisibility, where one semigroup is a homomorphic imageof a subsemigroup of another. The goal of this chapter is to prove theKrohnโRhodes theorem, which says that every finite semigroup dividesa wreath product of finite groups and finite aperiodic semigroups, which,as we shall see, are finite semigroups where all subgroups are trivial. Thisleads naturally into the classification of finite semigroups by means ofpseudovarieties, which is the topic of next chapter.
Greenโs relations and ideals
As a consequence of Proposition 3.3, we know that theGreenโs relations D and J coincide for finite semigroups.
P ro p o s i t i on 7 . 1. Let๐ be a finite monoid with identity 1. Then๐ป1 = ๐ฟ1 = ๐ 1 = ๐ท1 = ๐ฝ1. Furthermore,๐ป1 is the group of units of๐, and๐โ๐ป1 is either empty or an ideal of๐.
Proof of 7.1. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ 1. Then there exists ๐ฆ โ ๐1 = ๐ such that ๐ฅ๐ฆ = 1.Since๐ is finite, ๐ฅ๐+๐ = ๐ฅ๐ for some ๐, ๐ โ โ. Then ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐๐ฆ๐ =๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐ = 1, and so ๐ฆ๐ฅ = 1๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐โ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ = 1 Hence ๐ฅ H 1.Therefore ๐ 1 โ ๐ป1. The opposite inclusion is obvious, so ๐ 1 = ๐ป1.Similarly ๐ฟ1 = ๐ป1. So๐ท1 contains only oneL-class and only oneR-classand so๐ท1 = ๐ป1. Finally, ๐ฝ1 = ๐ป1 since D = J.
This reasoning also shows that๐ป1 is contained in the group of units of๐. On the other hand, all elements of group of units of๐ are H-relatedto 1, so the group of units of ๐ is๐ป1.
For any ๐ฆ โ ๐โ๐ป1 = ๐โ๐ฝ1, we have ๐ฝ๐ฆ < ๐ฝ1 by (3.2). So๐โ๐ป1 =๐ผ(1) = { ๐ฆ โ ๐ โถ ๐ฝ๐ฆ < ๐ฝ1 }, which is either empty or an ideal by Lemma3.9. 7.1
โข 131
Pro p o s i t i on 7 . 2. Let ๐ and ๐โฒ be finite semigroups and let๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐โฒbe a surjective homomorphism. Let ๐บโฒ be a maximal subgroup of ๐โฒ. Thenthere is a maximal subgroup ๐บ of ๐ such that ๐บ๐ = ๐บโฒ.
Proof of 7.2. Let ๐บโฒ be a maximal subgroup of ๐โฒ. Then ๐ = ๐บโฒ๐โ1 is asubsemigroup of ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐บโฒ. Since ๐ is finite, it has a kernel; let๐พ = ๐พ(๐), which is a simple ideal of ๐ by Proposition 3.10. Since ๐ issurjective, ๐พ๐ is an ideal of the group ๐บโฒ and so ๐พ๐ = ๐บโฒ. Since ๐พ isfinite it is also completely simple by Proposition 4.10. So, by Theorem 4.11,๐พ โ M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] for some group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and matrix๐ over ๐บ. View ๐|๐พ as a surjective homomorphism from M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]to ๐บโฒ. For each ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ฌ, let ๐บ๐๐ be the subset {๐} ร ๐บ ร {๐} ofM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]. Then M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] is the union of the various ๐บ๐๐, and๐บ๐๐๐บ๐๐ โ ๐บ๐๐. In particular, every ๐บ๐๐ is a subgroup of ๐.
Let ๐บโฒ๐๐ = ๐บ๐๐๐. Then each ๐บโฒ๐๐ is a subgroup of ๐บโฒ, and ๐บโฒ๐๐๐บโฒ๐๐ โ ๐บโฒ๐๐.In particular, ๐บโฒ๐๐๐บโฒ๐๐ โ ๐บโฒ๐๐, which implies ๐บโฒ๐๐ = 1๐บโฒ๐บโฒ๐๐ โ ๐บโฒ๐๐. Similarly๐บโฒ๐๐ โ ๐บโฒ๐๐. Thus all the ๐บโฒ๐๐ are equal. Since ๐ is surjective, ๐บโฒ is the unionof the ๐บโฒ๐๐ and thus equal to any one of the ๐บโฒ๐๐. Hence ๐บโฒ = ๐บ๐๐๐ for any๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ฌ. 7.2
Prop o s i t i on 7 . 3. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup and let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. If๐ฅ H ๐ฆ, then ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ๐บ for some subgroup ๐บ of ๐.
Proof of 7.3. Let๐ป be anH-class of ๐. Apply Proposition 7.2 to the naturalsurjective homomorphism ๐โฎ๐ป โถ Stab(๐ป) โ ๐ค(๐ป) to see that๐ป = ๐บ๐โฎ๐ปfor some subgroup ๐บ of Stab(๐ป). By Proposition 3.24, we see that ๐ฆ โ๐ฅ โ ๐ค(๐ป) = ๐ฅ๐บ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ป. 7.3
A semigroup ๐ is aperiodic if for every ๐ฅ โ ๐, there exists ๐ โ โ suchAperiodic semigroupsthat ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1.
Notice that aperiodic semigroup are actually periodic. For example, anysemigroup of idempotents (such as a semilattice) satisfies ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ2 and sois aperiodic.
Prop o s i t i on 7 . 4. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup. The following areCharacterization ofaperiodic finite semigroups equivalent:
a) ๐ is aperiodic.b) all subgroups of ๐ are trivial;c) H = id๐;
Proof of 7.4. Part 1 [a)โ b)]. Suppose ๐ is aperiodic. Let ๐บ be a subgroupof ๐ and let ๐ฅ โ ๐บ. Then ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1 for some๐ โ โ. Hence ๐ฅ = 1๐บ bycancellativity in ๐บ. So ๐บ is trivial. Thus all subgroups of ๐ are trivial.
Part 2 [b)โ c)]. Suppose that all subgroups of ๐ are trivial. Let๐ป be anH-class of ๐. Then ๐ค(๐ป), which is a homomorphic image of a subgroup
132 โขFinite semigroups
of Stab(๐ป), is trivial. Since |๐ป| = |๐ค(๐ป)|, it follows that ๐ป is trivial byProposition 7.3. Hence H = id๐.
Part 3 [c) โ a)]. Suppose that H = id๐. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Since ๐ is finite,๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐ for some๐, ๐ โ โ.The set of elements {๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1}is a subgroup and so all its elements areH-related. SinceH = id๐, this setthus contains only one element, which implies ๐ = 1. Hence ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1.Thus ๐ is aperiodic. 7.4
We end this section by proving the following two results, althoughwe will not use them until Chapter 9:
L emma 7 . 5. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup and let ๐ โฉพ |๐|. Then ๐๐ =๐๐ธ(๐)๐.
Proof of 7.5. Let ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Then ๐๐๐ = ๐๐๐โ2๐ โ ๐๐. Thus ๐๐ธ(๐)๐ โ ๐๐.Let ๐ฅ โ ๐๐. Then ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐, where ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐. Suppose first that all
the products ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ for ๐ โฉฝ ๐ are distinct. Then every element of ๐ isequal to some product ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐. Hence, since ๐, being finite, contains atleast one idempotent, some product ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ is idempotent. Hence๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐3๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐๐๐ โ ๐๐ธ(๐)๐. Now suppose that๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅโ for some ๐ < โ. Then ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐(๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅโ)๐for all ๐ โ โ. Let ๐ be such that ๐ = (๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅโ)๐ is idempotent. Then๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐๐๐ฅโ+1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐๐3 โ ๐๐๐ โ ๐๐ธ(๐)๐. Thus ๐๐ โ๐๐ธ(๐)๐. 7.5
L emma 7 . 6. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup and let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐.a) If ๐ฅ D ๐ฅ๐ฆ, then ๐ฅ R ๐ฅ๐ฆ.b) If ๐ฅ D ๐ฆ๐ฅ, then ๐ฅ L ๐ฆ๐ฅ.
Proof of 7.6. We prove only part a); dual reasoning gives part b).Suppose ๐ฅ D ๐ฅ๐ฆ. SinceD = J by Proposition 3.3, there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐1
such that ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. Thus ๐๐๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐)๐ for all ๐ โ โ. Since ๐ is finite,there exists ๐ โ โ such that ๐ = ๐๐ is idempotent. Thus, in particular,๐๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ, and also ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐)๐ = ๐๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ. Combining thesegives ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ. So ๐ฅ R ๐ฅ๐ฆ. 7.6
Semidirect and wreath products
Let ๐ and ๐ be semigroups and let ๐ act on ๐ from the Semidirect productleft by endomorphisms; let ๐ โถ ๐ โ End(๐) be the anti-homomorphismcorresponding to this left action. To avoid having to write extra brackets,we will write ๐ ๐ก instead of ๐ก โ ๐ . The semidirect product of ๐ and ๐ with
Semidirect and wreath products โข 133
respect to ๐ is denoted ๐ โ๐ ๐ and is the cartesian product ๐ ร ๐ withmultiplication defined by
(๐ 1, ๐ก1)(๐ 2, ๐ก2) = (๐ 1 ๐ 2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2). (7.1)
This multiplication is associative (see Exercise 7.6) and so ๐ โ๐ ๐ is asemigroup. Notice that ๐ โ๐ ๐ has cardinality |๐||๐|.
Notice that for any semigroups ๐ and ๐, we can take the trivial leftaction, where ๐ก โ ๐ = ๐ ๐ก = ๐ for ๐ก โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐; this corresponds tothe trivial anti-homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ End(๐), with ๐ฆ๐ = id๐ for all๐ฆ โ ๐. In this case, (๐ 1, ๐ก1)(๐ 2, ๐ก2) = (๐ 1๐ 2, ๐ก1๐ก2). Thus the direct product isa special case of the semidirect product.
Recall from page 4 that ๐๐ is the direct product of copies of the set ๐Wreath productindexed by ๐, or formally the set of maps from ๐ to ๐. Define a left actionof ๐ on ๐๐ by letting ๐ฆ โ ๐ = ๐๐ฆ be such that (๐ฅ) ๐๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐. This satisfiesthe definition of a left action: for all ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐, we have ๐ง โ (๐ฆ โ ๐) = ๐ง๐ฆ โ ๐since, for all ๐ฅ โ ๐,
(๐ฅ)(๐งโ (๐ฆโ ๐)) = (๐ฅ) ( ๐๐ฆ )๐ง = (๐ฅ๐ง) ๐๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ง๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ) ๐๐ง๐ฆ = ๐ง๐ฆโ ๐.
Let ๐ be the anti-homomorphism that corresponds to this action. Thewreath product of ๐ and๐, denoted ๐โ๐, is the semidirect product ๐๐โ๐๐.Thus the product in ๐ โ ๐ is
(๐1, ๐ก1)(๐2, ๐ก2) = (๐1 ๐2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2).
Since this multiplication is derived from the multiplication in direct andsemidirect products, we know it is associative. Hence ๐ โ ๐ is a semigroup.Notice that ๐ โ ๐ has cardinality |๐||๐||๐|.
Let ๐, ๐, ๐ be finite semigroups. Then
|(๐ โ ๐) โ ๐| = |๐ โ ๐||๐||๐| = (|๐||๐||๐|)|๐||๐| = |๐||๐||๐||๐||๐||๐|
and
|๐ โ (๐ โ ๐)| = |๐||๐โ๐||๐ โ ๐| = |๐||๐||๐||๐||๐||๐||๐|.
Therefore the wreath product, as an operation on semigroups, is notassociative.
P ro p o s i t i on 7 . 7. If๐ and๐ are monoids, then๐โ๐ is a monoidwith identity (๐, 1๐), where ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is the constantmapwith (๐ฅ)๐ = 1๐for all ๐ฅ โ ๐.
Proof of 7.7. Suppose๐ and๐ are monoids. Let . Then for any (๐, ๐) โ๐ โ ๐, we have
(๐, 1๐)(๐, ๐)= (๐ ๐1๐ , 1๐๐)= (๐, ๐) [since (๐ฅ)๐ ๐1๐ = (๐ฅ)๐(๐ฅ1๐)๐ = 1๐(๐ฅ)๐ = (๐ฅ)๐]
134 โขFinite semigroups
and
(๐, ๐)(๐, 1๐)= (๐ ๐๐ , ๐1๐)= (๐, ๐); [since (๐ฅ)๐ ๐๐ = (๐ฅ)๐(๐ฅ๐) ๐๐ = (๐ฅ)๐1๐ = (๐ฅ)๐]
hence (๐, 1๐) is an identity for the monoid๐ โ๐. 7.7
Division
A semigroup ๐ divides a semigroup ๐, denoted ๐ โผ ๐, Divisionif ๐ is a homomorphic image of a subsemigroup of ๐. Notice that thedivisibility relation โผ is reflexive.
Although the divisibility relation is reflexive, most texts use the notation๐ โบ ๐ instead of ๐ โผ ๐.
Pro p o s i t i on 7 . 8. The divisibility relation โผ is transitive.
Proof of 7.8. Let ๐, ๐,๐ be semigroups with ๐ โผ ๐ and ๐ โผ ๐. Then thereare subsemigroups ๐โฒ of ๐ and ๐โฒ of ๐ and surjective homomorphisms๐ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐ and๐ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐. Let๐โณ = ๐โฒ๐โ1. Since ๐โฒ is a subsemigroupof๐, it follows that๐โณ is a subsemigroup of๐โฒ and thus of๐. Furthermore,๐|๐โฒ โ ๐ โถ ๐โณ โ ๐ is a surjective homomorphism. So ๐ โผ ๐. 7.8
The relation of divisibility seems rather โartificialโ here, but it is arisesvery naturally through the connection between semigroups and finiteautomata, which we will study in Chapter 9.
P ro p o s i t i on 7 . 9. Let ๐ and ๐ be semigroups.Then ๐ and ๐ and theirdirect product ๐ ร ๐ divide their wreath product ๐ โ ๐.
Proof of 7.9. Since ๐ and ๐ are homomorphic images of ๐ ร ๐ under theprojection maps ๐๐ โถ ๐ ร ๐ โ ๐ and ๐๐ โถ ๐ ร ๐ โ ๐, we have ๐ โผ ๐ ร ๐and ๐ โผ ๐ ร ๐. Since โผ is transitive (by Proposition 7.8), it suffices toprove that ๐ ร ๐ โผ ๐ โ ๐.
For each ๐ โ ๐, let ๐๐ โ ๐๐ have all components equal to ๐ . Define amap ๐ โถ ๐ ร ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ by (๐ , ๐ก)๐ = (๐๐ , ๐ก). Then
((๐ , ๐ก)๐)((๐ โฒ, ๐กโฒ)๐)๐= (๐๐ , ๐ก)(๐๐ โฒ, ๐กโฒ)= (๐๐ ๐๐ โฒ๐ก , ๐ก๐กโฒ)= (๐๐ ๐ โฒ, ๐ก๐กโฒ)
[since (๐ฅ)(๐๐ ๐๐ โฒ๐ก ) = (๐ฅ)๐๐ (๐ฅ๐ก)๐๐ โฒ = ๐ ๐ โฒ = (๐ฅ)๐๐ ๐ โฒ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐]= (๐ ๐ โฒ, ๐ก๐กโฒ)๐= ((๐ , ๐ก)(๐ โฒ, ๐กโฒ))๐.
Division โข 135
So ๐ is a homomorphism. Furthermore,
(๐ , ๐ก)๐ = (๐ โฒ, ๐กโฒ)๐ โ (๐๐ , ๐ก) = (๐๐ โฒ, ๐กโฒ)โ ๐ = ๐ โฒ โง ๐ก = ๐กโฒโ (๐ , ๐ก) = (๐ โฒ, ๐กโฒ);
thus ๐ is injective. Thus ๐ โถ ๐ ร ๐ โ im๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ is an isomorphism,and so ๐โ1 is an surjective homomorphism from the subsemigroup im๐of ๐ โ ๐ to the semigroup ๐ ร ๐. So ๐ ร ๐ โผ ๐ โ ๐. 7.9
Pro p o s i t i on 7 . 1 0. Let๐ be a monoid and let ๐ธ be an ideal exten-sion of๐ by ๐. Then ๐ธ โผ ๐ โ ๐.
Proof of 7.10. By Proposition 1.34, ๐ธ is a subdirect product of ๐ and๐.That is, ๐ธ is a subsemigroup of ๐ ร๐ and hence ๐ธ divides ๐ ร๐. Theresult follows from Propositions 7.8 and 7.9. 7.10
Pro p o s i t i on 7 . 1 1. If ๐โฒ โผ ๐ and ๐โฒ โผ ๐, then ๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ โผ ๐ โ ๐.
Proof of 7.11. The strategy is to prove this in two cases: when ๐โฒ and ๐โฒ aresubsemigroups of ๐ and ๐, and when ๐โฒ and ๐โฒ are homomorphic imagesof ๐ and ๐. The general result follows immediately.a) Suppose ๐โฒ and ๐โฒ are subsemigroups of ๐ and ๐. Let
๐ = { (๐, ๐ก) โ ๐ โ ๐ โถ ๐โฒ๐ โ ๐โฒ โง ๐ก โ ๐โฒ }.
The immediate aim is to prove that ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ โ ๐. Let(๐1, ๐ก1), (๐2, ๐ก2) โ ๐. So (๐1, ๐ก1)(๐2, ๐ก2) = (๐1 ๐2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2). First, ๐ก1๐ก2 โ ๐โฒsince ๐โฒ is a subsemigroup of ๐. Furthermore, for all ๐ฅ โ ๐โฒ,
(๐ฅ)(๐1 ๐2๐ก1 ) = ((๐ฅ)๐1)((๐ฅ๐ก1)๐2) โ (๐โฒ๐)(๐โฒ๐) โ ๐โฒ
since ๐โฒ is a subsemigroup of ๐. Hence (๐1 ๐2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2) โ ๐. Thus ๐ is asubsemigroup of ๐ โ ๐.
Define ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ by (๐, ๐ก)๐ = (๐|๐โฒ, ๐ก). It is clear that ๐ is asurjective homomorphism and so ๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ โผ ๐ โ ๐.
b) Suppose ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐โฒ and ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐โฒ are surjective homomorphisms.Let
๐ = { (๐, ๐ก) โ ๐ โ ๐ โถ ker๐ โ ker(๐๐) }. (7.2)
As in part a), the first task is to prove that ๐ is a subsemigroup of๐ โ ๐. First, note that ๐ is non-empty, because any map ๐ โ ๐๐ withker๐ โ ker๐ satisfies the condition in (7.2). Now let (๐1, ๐ก1), (๐2, ๐ก2) โ๐. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ with ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐. Then (๐ฅ)๐2๐ = (๐ฆ)๐2๐ since ker๐ โker(๐2๐). Furthermore, (๐ฅ๐ก1)๐ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ก1๐) = (๐ฆ๐)(๐ก1๐) = (๐ฆ๐ก1)๐and so (๐ฅ๐ก1)๐2๐ = (๐ฆ๐ก2)๐2๐ since ker๐ โ ker(๐2๐). Hence
(๐ฅ)๐1 ๐2๐ก1 ๐ = (๐ฅ)๐1๐(๐ฅ๐ก1)๐2๐ = (๐ฆ)๐1๐(๐ฆ๐ก1)๐2๐ = (๐ฆ)๐1 ๐2๐ก1 ๐.
136 โขFinite semigroups
Thus ker๐ โ ker๐1 ๐2๐ก1 ๐, and so (๐1, ๐ก1)(๐2, ๐ก2) = (๐1 ๐2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2) โ ๐.So ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ โ ๐.
For any map ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ such that ker๐ โ ker(๐๐), there is aunique map ๐โฒ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ such that ๐๐โฒ = ๐๐. Define ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐โฒ โ๐โฒby (๐, ๐ก)๐ = (๐โฒ, ๐ก๐). Notice that since ๐ is surjective, for any map๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ๐โฒ there is a map ๐ โ ๐๐ with ๐๐โฒ = ๐๐; hence ๐ is surjective.Let (๐1, ๐ก1), (๐2, ๐ก2) โ ๐, then (๐1, ๐ก1)(๐2, ๐ก2) = (๐1 ๐2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2). Further,(๐1, ๐ก1)๐(๐2, ๐ก2)๐ = (๐1โฒ, ๐ก1๐)(๐2โฒ, ๐ก2๐) = (๐1โฒ ๐2โฒ
๐ก1๐ , (๐ก1๐ก2)๐). Now
(๐ฆ๐)๐1โฒ ๐2โฒ๐ก1๐
= (๐ฆ๐)๐1โฒ((๐ฆ๐)(๐ก1๐))๐2โฒ [by def. of the product and action]= (๐ฆ๐)๐1โฒ(๐ฆ๐ก1)๐๐2โฒ [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= (๐ฆ)๐1๐(๐ฆ๐ก1)๐2๐ [by definition of ๐1โฒ and ๐2โฒ]= ((๐ฆ)๐1(๐ฆ๐ก1)๐2)๐ [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= ((๐ฆ)๐1 ๐2๐ก1 )๐, [by def. of the product and action]
and so
(๐1 ๐2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2)๐ = (๐1โฒ ๐2โฒ๐ก1๐ , (๐ก1๐ก2)๐). (7.3)
Hence
((๐1, ๐ก1)(๐2, ๐ก2))๐= (๐1 ๐2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2)๐ [multiplication in ๐ โ ๐]
= (๐1โฒ ๐2โฒ๐ก1๐ , (๐ก1๐ก2)๐) [by (7.3)]
= (๐โฒ1, ๐ก1๐)(๐โฒ2, ๐ก2๐) [factoring in ๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ]= (๐1, ๐ก1)๐(๐2, ๐ก2)๐,
and thus ๐ is a homomorphism. Therefore ๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ โผ ๐ โ ๐. 7.11
Let ๐ be a semigroup. Let ๐โฒ be a set in bijection with ๐ under ๐ฅ โฆ ๐ฅโฒ. Constant extensionDefine a multiplication on ๐โช๐โฒ as follows: multiplication in ๐ is as before(so that ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ โช ๐โฒ), and for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐,
๐ฅ๐ฆโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ๐ฆโฒ = ๐ฆโฒ, ๐ฅโฒ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)โฒ. (7.4)
It is easy but tedious to prove that this multiplication is associative (see Ex-ercise 7.9). The set ๐ โช ๐โฒ is thus a semigroup, called the constant extensionof ๐ and denoted ๐ถ(๐).
P ro p o s i t i on 7 . 1 2. If ๐ โผ ๐, then ๐ถ(๐) โผ ๐ถ(๐).
Proof of 7.12. If ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐, then ๐ถ(๐) is a subsemigroup of๐ถ(๐).
Suppose ๐ is a homomorphic image of ๐. Then there exists somesurjective homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐. Define ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐ถ(๐) โ ๐ถ(๐) by
Division โข 137
๐ฅ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐ฅ๐ and ๐ฅโฒ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = (๐ฅ๐)โฒ. Checking the various cases in (7.4) shows that๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ is a homomorphism. It is clearly surjective. So ๐ถ(๐) is a homomorphicimage of ๐ถ(๐).
Hence ๐ โผ ๐ implies ๐ถ(๐) โผ ๐ถ(๐). 7.12
Prop o s i t i on 7 . 1 3. Let๐ be a monoid and ๐ a semigroup. Then๐ถ(๐ โ ๐) โผ ๐ถ(๐)๐ โ ๐ถ(๐).
In place of this result, several textbooks claim incorrectly that๐ถ(๐โ๐) โผ๐ถ(๐) โ ๐ถ(๐).
Proof of 7.13. Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ถ(๐ โ ๐) โ ๐ถ(๐)๐ โ ๐ถ(๐) by
(๐,๐)๐ = (๐ext, ๐),{{{{{
where (๐ฆ)๐ext โ ๐ถ(๐)๐ is defined by(๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext] = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐
for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ถ(๐);
(๐,๐)โฒ๐ = (๐con, ๐โฒ),{{{{{
where (๐ฆ)๐con โ ๐ถ(๐)๐ is defined by(๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con] = ((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ
for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ถ(๐).
Notice that (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con] does not depend on ๐ฆ. That is, ๐con is a constantmap from ๐ถ(๐) to ๐ถ(๐)๐.
The maps ๐ext and ๐con are maps from ๐ถ(๐) to ๐ถ(๐)๐. That is, (๐ฆ)๐extand (๐ฆ)๐con are maps from ๐ to ๐ถ(๐) for all ๐ฆ โ ๐ถ(๐). Notice inparticular that ๐con is a constant map from ๐ถ(๐) to ๐ถ(๐)๐, but for๐ฆ โ ๐ถ(๐), the map (๐ฆ)๐con is in general not constant.We are going to prove that ๐ is a monomorphism. Let us first prove
that ๐ is injective. To begin, observe that (๐,๐)๐ = (๐, ๐)โฒ๐ implies(๐ext, ๐) = (โcon, ๐โฒ), which can never happen since๐ โ ๐ and ๐โฒ โ ๐โฒ.Thus to prove that๐ is injective, we only have to check that no two distinctelements of ๐โ๐ aremapped to the same element and that no two distinctelements (๐ โ ๐)โฒ are mapped to the same element:a) Suppose (๐,๐)๐ = (๐,๐)๐. Then ๐ext = ๐ext and๐ = ๐, and hence(๐ฆ)๐ext = (๐ฆ)๐ext for all ๐ฆ โ ๐, or, equivalently, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ forall ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. In particular, putting ๐ฅ = 1 shows that (๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฆ)๐ forall ๐ฆ โ ๐ and so ๐ = ๐; hence (๐,๐) = (๐,๐).
b) Suppose (๐,๐)โฒ๐ = (๐, ๐)โฒ๐. Then (๐con, ๐โฒ) = (๐con, ๐โฒ) and so๐con = ๐con and๐โฒ = ๐โฒ. So ((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ = (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con] = (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con] =((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ, and thus (๐ฅ)๐ = (๐ฅ)๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Hence ๐ = ๐ and so(๐,๐)โฒ = (๐, ๐)โฒ.
Therefore ๐ is injective.Next, we have to prove that ๐ is a homomorphism. There are four
cases to consider, depending on whether each multiplicand lies in ๐ โ ๐or (๐ โ ๐)โฒ. We explain one case in full here and outline the others; thedetails are left to Exercise 7.11.
138 โขFinite semigroups
a) Let (๐,๐), (๐, ๐) โ ๐ โ ๐. We first have to prove:
(๐ ๐๐ )ext = ๐ext ๐ext๐ . (7.5)
Since both sides of (7.5) are maps from ๐ถ(๐) to ๐ถ(๐)๐, we mustprove that (๐ฆ)(๐ ๐๐ )ext = (๐ฆ)๐ext ๐ext๐ for all ๐ฆ โ ๐ถ(๐); since bothsides of this equality are maps from๐ to ๐ถ(๐), we must prove that(๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)(๐ ๐๐ )ext] = (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext ๐ext๐ ] for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ถ(๐).We proceed as follows:
(๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)(๐ ๐๐ )ext]= (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ ๐๐ [by definition of ext]= (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐(๐ฅ๐ฆ๐)๐ [by def. of the product and action]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext](๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ) ๐ext๐ ] [by definition of ext]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext(๐ฆ) ๐ext๐ ], [by multiplication in ๐ถ(๐)๐]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext ๐ext๐ ]; [by multiplication in (๐ถ(๐)๐)๐ถ(๐)]
this proves (7.5). Now we have:
((๐,๐)(๐, ๐))๐ = (๐ ๐๐ , ๐๐)๐= ((๐ ๐๐ )ext, ๐๐)= (๐ext ๐ext๐ , ๐๐) [by (7.5)]= (๐ext, ๐)(๐ext, ๐)= (๐,๐)๐(๐, ๐)๐.
b) Let (๐,๐)โฒ โ (๐ โ ๐)โฒ and (๐, ๐) โ ๐ โ ๐. By Exercise 7.11,
(๐ ๐๐ )con = ๐con ๐ext๐โฒ . (7.6)
Now we have:
((๐,๐)โฒ(๐, ๐))๐ = (๐ ๐๐ , ๐๐)โฒ๐= ((๐ ๐๐ )con, (๐๐)โฒ)= (๐con ๐ext๐โฒ , ๐โฒ๐) [by (7.6)]= (๐con, ๐โฒ)(๐โฒ, ๐)= (๐,๐)โฒ๐(๐, ๐)๐.
c) Let (๐,๐) โ ๐ โ ๐ and (๐, ๐)โฒ โ (๐ โ ๐)โฒ. By Exercise 7.11,
๐con = ๐ext ๐con๐ . (7.7)
Now we have:
((๐,๐)(๐, ๐)โฒ)๐ = (๐, ๐)โฒ๐= (๐con, ๐โฒ)= (๐ext ๐con๐ , ๐๐โฒ) [by (7.7)]= (๐ext, ๐)(๐con, ๐โฒ)= (๐,๐)๐(๐, ๐)โฒ๐.
Division โข 139
d) Let (๐,๐)โฒ, (๐, ๐)โฒ โ (๐ โ ๐)โฒ. By Exercise 7.11,
๐con = ๐con ๐con๐ . (7.8)
Now we have:
((๐,๐)โฒ(๐, ๐)โฒ)๐ = (๐, ๐)โฒ๐= (๐con, ๐โฒ)= (๐con ๐con๐ , ๐โฒ๐โฒ) [by (7.8)]= (๐con, ๐โฒ)(๐con, ๐โฒ)= (๐,๐)โฒ๐(๐, ๐)โฒ๐.
Hence๐ is a homomorphism and thus amonomorphism.Therefore๐โ1 isa surjective homomorphism from the subsemigroup im๐ of๐ถ(๐)๐โ๐ถ(๐)to ๐ถ(๐ โ ๐), and so ๐ถ(๐ โ ๐) โผ ๐ถ(๐)๐ โ ๐ถ(๐). 7.13
Coro l l a ry 7 . 1 4. Let๐ be a finite monoid and ๐ a semigroup. Then๐ถ(๐ โ ๐) divides a wreath product of copies of ๐ถ(๐) and ๐ถ(๐).
Proof of 7.14. By Proposition 7.13, let๐ be a monoid and ๐ a semigroup.Then ๐ถ(๐ โ ๐) โผ ๐ถ(๐)๐ โ ๐ถ(๐). But ๐ถ(๐)๐ is a direct product of |๐|copies of ๐ถ(๐) and so ๐ถ(๐)๐ โ ๐ถ(๐) divides a wreath product of copiesof ๐ถ(๐) and ๐ถ(๐) by Propositions 7.9 and 7.11. The result follows by thetransitivity of โผ. 7.14
KrohnโRhodesdecomposition theorem
Let ๐3 be the monoid obtained by adjoining an identityto a two-element right zero semigroup {๐, ๐}. So ๐3 has elements {1, ๐, ๐}and is multiplication table is as shown in Table 7.1. Notice that ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ forall ๐ฅ โ ๐3, and so ๐3 is aperiodic.
1 ๐ ๐1 1 ๐ ๐๐ ๐ ๐ ๐๐ ๐ ๐ ๐
TABLE 7.1Multiplication table of๐3 .
The KrohnโRhodes theorem is often stated in the form โevery finitesemigroup divides a wreath product of finite groups and finite aperiodicsemigroupsโ. We will prove a stronger form by showing that every finitesemigroup divides a wreath product of its own subgroups and copies of๐3. We first of all note that it suffices to prove the theorem for monoidssince ๐ โผ ๐1. The proof is by induction on the number of elements inthe monoid. The core of the induction is Lemma 7.16, which shows thata monoid ๐ is either a group, a left simple semigroup with an identityadjoined, monogenic, or can be decomposed as ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐, where ๐ฟ is aleft ideal and ๐ is a submonoid and ๐ฟ1 and ๐ have fewer elements than๐. The theorem is trivial for groups, and we will prove it for left simplesemigroups with identities adjoined (Lemma 7.18) and for monogenic
140 โขFinite semigroups
semigroups (Lemma 7.19); these cases form the base of the induction. Thefourth possibility, of decomposition as ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐, supplies the inductionstep. The reader may wish to look ahead to Figure 7.1 on page 147 to keeptrack of the roles of the various lemmata.
We need the following auxiliary result before we prove Lemma 7.16:
L emma 7 . 1 5. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup. Then at least one of the fol-lowing is true:a) ๐ is trivial;b) ๐ is left simple;c) ๐ is monogenic;d) ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐, where ๐ฟ is a proper left ideal of ๐ and ๐ is a proper subsemi-
group of ๐.
Proof of 7.15. Suppose that none of the properties a), b), or c) is true; weaim to prove d). Since ๐ is not left simple, it contains proper left ideals.Since it is finite, it has a maximal proper left ideal ๐พ.
Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐พ. Then ๐พ โช ๐1๐ฅ is a left ideal that strictly contains ๐พ.Since ๐พ is maximal, ๐พ โช ๐1๐ฅ = ๐. If ๐1๐ฅ โ ๐, then let ๐ฟ = ๐พ and ๐ = ๐1๐ฅand the proof is complete.
So assume ๐1๐ฅ = ๐. Then ๐ == ๐๐ฅ โช {๐ฅ} โ ๐๐ฅ โช โจ๐ฅโฉ. If ๐ โ ๐๐ฅ, thenlet ๐ฟ = ๐๐ฅ and ๐ = โจ๐ฅโฉ and the proof is complete since ๐ โ ๐ because ๐is not monogenic.
So assume ๐ = ๐๐ฅ. Let๐ = {๐ฆ โ ๐ โถ ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐พ }. Then๐ non-empty(since๐๐ฅ = ๐พ) and is a left ideal of ๐. Furthermore, it is a proper left idealbecause๐พ is a proper left ideal and ๐๐ฅ = ๐. If๐ โ ๐พ, then๐โช๐พ is a leftideal of ๐ strictly containing the maximal left ideal ๐พ and so๐โช๐พ = ๐;set ๐ฟ = ๐ and ๐ = ๐พ and the proof is complete.
So assume๐ โ ๐พ; that is,
๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐พ โ ๐ฆ โ ๐พ. (7.9)
Repeat the reasoning above for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐พ. Either some such ๐ฅ allowsus to complete the proof, or (7.9) holds for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐พ. In the formercase, the proof is finished. In the latter case, take the contrapositive tosee that ๐ฆ โ ๐ โ ๐พ โ ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐พ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐พ. Therefore ๐ โ ๐พ is asubsemigroup. So let ๐ฟ = ๐พ and ๐ = ๐ โ ๐พ; the proof is complete. 7.15
L emma 7 . 1 6. Let ๐ be a finite monoid.Then at least one of the followingis true:a) ๐ is a group;b) ๐ is a left simple with an identity adjoined;c) ๐ is monogenic;d) ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐, where ๐ฟ is a left ideal of ๐ and ๐ is a submonoid of ๐, and๐ฟ1 and ๐ both have fewer elements than ๐.
KrohnโRhodes decomposition theorem โข 141
Proof of 7.16. Suppose that none of the properties a), b), and c) is true;we aim to prove d). Let ๐บ be the group of units of ๐. Consider two cases:a) ๐บ is trivial. Then ๐ โ ๐บ = ๐ โ {1} is an ideal by Proposition 7.1 and
thus a subsemigroup of ๐. Since ๐ is not left simple with an identityadjoined, we know that ๐ โ {1} is not left simple. Apply Lemma 7.15to ๐ โ {1} to see that ๐ โ {1} = ๐ฟ โช ๐, where ๐ฟ is a proper left ideal of๐โ{1} and๐ is a proper subsemigroup of ๐โ{1}. Since ๐ฟ โ ๐โ{1}, weknow that ๐ฟ โช {1} โ ๐. Let ๐ = ๐โช {1}; then ๐ is a proper submonoidof ๐ and ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐.
b) ๐บ is non-trivial. Then let ๐ฟ = ๐ โ ๐บ and let ๐ = ๐บ. Then ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐.Since ๐บ is non-trivial, ๐ฟ โช {1} โ ๐, and since ๐ is not a group, ๐ โ ๐.
In both cases, ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐, where ๐ฟ is a left ideal of ๐ and ๐ is a submonoidof ๐. Furthermore, in both cases ๐ฟ1 and ๐ both have fewer elements thanthe original monoid ๐. 7.16
Now we turn to proving the cases forming the base of the induction;that is, monoids consisting of a left simple semigroup with an identityadjoined, and monogenic monoids. To prove the former case in Lemma7.18, we will need the following lemma, which essentially shows that thetheorem holds for left zero semigroups:
L emma 7 . 1 7. Every finite left zero semigroup divides a wreath productof copies of ๐3.
Proof of 7.17. Let ๐ฟ๐ be a left zero semigroup with ๐ elements. The strategyis to proceed by induction and show that ๐ฟ1๐ โผ ๐ฟ1๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ11. The base ofthe induction is proved by observing that the semigroup ๐ฟ11 = {0, 1} is ahomomorphic image of ๐3.
For each ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ1๐โ1, define ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐ฟ11 โ ๐ฟ1๐โ1 by (1)๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and (0)๐๐ฅ = 1.Let
๐พ = { (๐๐ฅ, 0) โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ1๐โ1 }.
Furthermore, (๐๐ฅ, 0)(๐๐ฆ, 0) = (๐๐ฅ ๐๐ฆ0 , 0) = (๐๐ฅ, 0), since for all ๐ง โ ๐ฟ11,
(๐ง)๐๐ฅ ๐๐ฆ0 = (๐ง)๐๐ฅ(๐ง0)๐๐ฆ = (๐ง)๐๐ฅ(0)๐๐ฆ = (๐ง)๐๐ฅ1 = (๐ง)๐๐ฅ.
Hence๐พ is a left zero subsemigroup of ๐ฟ1๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ11. Notice that ๐ = |๐ฟ1๐โ1| =|๐พ|. Furthermore, the wreath product ๐ฟ1๐โ1 โ๐ฟ11 is a monoid by Proposition7.7. Therefore ๐พ โช {1} is a subsemigroup of ๐ฟ1๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ11 isomorphic to ๐ฟ1๐.Hence ๐ฟ1๐ โผ ๐ฟ1๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ11.
By Proposition 7.11, ๐ฟ1๐ divides a wreath product of ๐ copies of ๐3;thus ๐ฟ๐ also divides a wreath product of ๐ copies of ๐3 by the transitivityof divisibility. 7.17
L emma 7 . 1 8. Let ๐ be a finite left simple semigroup. Then ๐1 divides thewreath product of a subgroup of ๐ and copies of ๐3.
142 โขFinite semigroups
Proof of 7.18. Since ๐ is finite, it contains an idempotent. Thus by Theorem4.19, we see that ๐ is isomorphic to๐ร๐บ, where๐ is a left zero semigroupand ๐บ is a subgroup of ๐. By Lemma 7.17, ๐ divides a wreath productof copies of ๐3. So by Propositions 7.9 and 7.11, ๐ ร ๐บ divides a wreathproduct of ๐บ and copies of ๐3. 7.18
We now turn to proving the remaining case in the base of the induc-tion, namely monogenic monoids:
L emma 7 . 1 9. Let ๐ be a finite monogenic monoid. Then ๐ divides thewreath product of a subgroup of ๐ and copies of ๐3.
Proof of 7.19. The monogenic monoid ๐ = {1, ๐ฅ,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1} (with๐ฅ๐+๐ = ๐ฅ๐) is an ideal extension of the subgroup ๐บ = {๐ฅ๐,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1}by the monogenic monoid ๐ถ๐ = {1, ๐ฅ,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐} (with ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ + 1).
We proceed by induction on ๐ and show that ๐ถ๐ divides a subsemi-group of ๐ถ๐โ1 โ ๐ถ1. The base case of the induction is proven by observingthat ๐ถ1 = {1, ๐ฅ} (with ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ) divides ๐3, since it is isomorphic to thesubsemigroup {1, ๐} of ๐3.
For ๐ โ โ, define ๐๐ โถ ๐ถ1 โ ๐ถ๐โ1 by (1)๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐โ1 and (0)๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐. Let
๐ = {1} โช { (๐๐, 0) โถ ๐ โ โ } โ ๐ถ๐โ1 โ ๐ถ1.
Let (๐๐, 0)(๐๐, 0) โ ๐. Then (๐๐, 0)(๐๐, 0) = (๐๐ ๐๐0 , 0) = (๐๐+๐, 0) since
(0)๐๐ ๐๐0 = (0)๐๐(0)๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐ = (0)๐๐+๐,
(1)๐๐ ๐๐0 = (1)๐๐(0)๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐โ1๐ฅ๐ = (1)๐๐+๐.
Hence๐ is a submonoid of ๐ถ๐โ1 โ ๐ถ1. In particular, (๐๐, 0) = (๐1, 0๐) for all๐ โ โ, and so ๐ is the monogenic submonoid of ๐ถ๐โ1 โ ๐ถ1 generated by(๐1, 0). Finally, note that
(๐1, 0)๐+1 = (๐๐+1, 0) = (๐๐, 0) = (๐1, 0)๐,(๐1, 0)๐ = (๐๐, 0) โ (๐๐โ1, 0) = (๐1, 0)๐โ1;
and so
๐ = {1, (๐1, 0), (๐1, 0)2,โฆ , (๐1, 0)๐}.
Hence ๐ is isomorphic to ๐ถ๐, and therefore ๐ถ๐ โผ ๐ถ๐โ1 โ ๐ถ1.Thus every ๐ถ๐ divides a wreath product of ๐3 by Propositions 7.9 and
7.11. So ๐, being an ideal extension of ๐บ and ๐ถ๐, divides a wreath productof ๐บ and copies of ๐3 by Proposition 7.10. 7.19
Finally, we are ready to being proving the induction step, in the casewhere the monoid has been decomposed as the union of a left ideal and asubsemigroup. We require the following four lemmata, and then we canquickly prove the theorem.
KrohnโRhodes decomposition theorem โข 143
L emma 7 . 2 0. Let ๐ be a semigroup and suppose ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐, where ๐ฟ is aleft ideal of ๐ and ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐. Then ๐ โผ ๐ฟ1 โ ๐ถ(๐1).
Proof of 7.20. Let ๐ โถ ๐ถ(๐1) โ ๐ฟ1 be the constant map defined by (๐ก)๐ =(๐กโฒ)๐ = 1 for all ๐ก โ ๐1. For each ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ, let ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐ถ(๐1) โ ๐ฟ1 be the righttranslation defined by (๐ก)๐๐ฅ = (๐กโฒ)๐๐ฅ = ๐ก๐ฅ for all ๐ก โ ๐1. Notice that๐ก๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ since ๐ฟ is a left ideal.
Let
๐ = { (๐, ๐ก) โถ ๐ก โ ๐1 } โช { (๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ) โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ, ๐ก โ ๐1 }.
We aim to show ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ฟ1 โ ๐ถ(๐1) and that ๐ is a homo-morphic image of ๐. We have four cases to consider:a) Let (๐, ๐ก), (๐, ๐ข) โ ๐. Then (๐, ๐ก)(๐, ๐ข) = (๐ ๐๐ก , ๐ก๐ข) = (๐, ๐ก๐ข) since
(๐ )๐ ๐๐ก = (๐ )๐(๐ ๐ก)๐ = 1 = (๐ )๐,(๐ โฒ)๐ ๐๐ก = (๐ โฒ)๐(๐ โฒ๐ก)๐ = 1 = (๐ โฒ)๐
for all ๐ โ ๐1.b) Let (๐, ๐ก), (๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ) โ ๐.Then (๐, ๐ก)(๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ) = (๐ ๐๐ฆ๐ก , ๐ก๐ขโฒ) = (๐๐ก๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ), since
(๐ )๐ ๐๐ฆ๐ก = (๐ )๐(๐ ๐ก)๐๐ฆ = 1๐ ๐ก๐ฆ = (๐ )๐๐ก๐ฆ,
(๐ โฒ)๐ ๐๐ฆ๐ก = (๐ โฒ)๐(๐ โฒ๐ก)๐๐ฆ = 1๐ โฒ๐ก๐ฆ = (๐ โฒ)๐๐ก๐ฆ
for all ๐ โ ๐1.c) Let (๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ), (๐, ๐ข) โ ๐. Then (๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ)(๐, ๐ข) = (๐๐ฅ ๐๐กโฒ , ๐กโฒ๐ข) = (๐๐ฅ, (๐ก๐ข)โฒ)
since
(๐ )๐๐ฅ ๐๐กโฒ = (๐ )๐๐ฅ(๐ ๐กโฒ)๐ = (๐ )๐๐ฅ1 = (๐ )๐๐ฅ,(๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ ๐๐กโฒ = (๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ(๐ โฒ๐กโฒ)๐ = (๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ1 = (๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ
for all ๐ โ ๐1.d) Let (๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ), (๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ) โ ๐. Then
(๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ)(๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ) = (๐๐ฅ ๐๐ฆ๐กโฒ , ๐กโฒ๐ขโฒ) = (๐๐ฅ๐ก๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ),
since
(๐ )๐๐ฅ ๐๐ฆ๐กโฒ = (๐ )๐๐ฅ(๐ ๐กโฒ)๐๐ฆ = (๐ )๐๐ฅ(๐กโฒ)๐๐ฆ = ๐ ๐ฅ๐ก๐ฆ = (๐ )๐๐ฅ๐ก๐ฆ,
(๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ ๐๐ฆ๐กโฒ = (๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ(๐ โฒ๐กโฒ)๐๐ฆ = (๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ(๐กโฒ)๐๐ฆ = ๐ ๐ฅ๐ก๐ฆ = (๐ โฒ)๐๐ฅ๐ก๐ฆ
for all ๐ โ ๐1.
144 โขFinite semigroups
Hence ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ฟ1 โ ๐ถ(๐1). Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ by(๐, ๐ก)๐ = ๐ก and (๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ก. Then, using the four cases above,
((๐, ๐ก)(๐, ๐ข))๐ = (๐, ๐ก๐ข)๐ = ๐ก๐ข = (๐, ๐ก)๐(๐, ๐ข)๐,((๐, ๐ก)(๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ))๐ = (๐๐ก๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ)๐ = ๐ก๐ฆ๐ข = (๐, ๐ก)๐(๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ)๐,((๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ)(๐, ๐ข))๐ = (๐๐ฅ, (๐ก๐ข)โฒ)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ก๐ข = (๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ)๐(๐, ๐ข)๐,((๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ)(๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ))๐ = (๐๐ฅ๐ก๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ก๐ฆ๐ข = (๐๐ฅ, ๐กโฒ)๐(๐๐ฆ, ๐ขโฒ)๐;
hence ๐ is a homomorphism. Finally, note that ๐ โ im๐ since (๐, ๐ก)๐ = ๐กfor all ๐ก โ ๐ and ๐ฟ โ im๐ since (๐๐ฅ, 1)๐ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ. Hence๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐ = im๐ and so ๐ is a surjective homomorphism. Thus ๐ โผ๐ฟ1 โ ๐ถ(๐1). 7.20
Thefollowing result is essentially amore precise version of Lemma 7.20that holds when we decompose a monoid into the union of its group ofunits and the set of remaining elements:
L emma 7 . 2 1. Let ๐ be a monoid and let ๐บ be its group of units. Then๐ผ = ๐ โ ๐บ is an ideal of ๐ and ๐ โผ ๐ผ1 โ ๐บ.
Proof of 7.21. First, notice that ๐โ๐บ is an ideal by Proposition 7.1. For each๐ฅ โ ๐ผ1, define a map ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐บ โ ๐ผ1 by (๐)๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ๐โ1 for all ๐ โ ๐บ. Noticethat (๐)๐1 = ๐๐โ1 = 1 for all ๐ โ ๐บ. Let ๐ = { (๐๐ฅ, ๐) โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ผ1, ๐ โ ๐บ }.
Let (๐๐ฅ, ๐), (๐๐ฆ, โ) โ ๐. Then for any ๐ โ ๐บ,
(๐)๐๐ฅ ๐๐ฆ๐ = (๐)๐๐ฅ(๐๐)๐๐ฆ= ๐๐ฅ๐โ1๐๐๐ฆ๐โ1๐โ1
= ๐(๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐โ1)๐โ1
= (๐)๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐โ1 .
Therefore
(๐๐ฅ, ๐)(๐๐ฆ, โ) = (๐๐ฅ ๐๐ฆ๐ , ๐โ) = (๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐โ1 , ๐โ). (7.10)
Notice that ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐โ1 โ ๐ผ1 since ๐ฅ is in ๐ผ1 and ๐ผ is an ideal. Thus ๐ is asubsemigroup of ๐ผ1 โ ๐บ.
Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ by (๐๐ฅ, ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ๐. This map ๐ is well-definedsince ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ โ (1)๐๐ฅ = (1)๐๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. Furthermore,
((๐๐ฅ, ๐)(๐๐ฆ, โ))๐ = (๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐โ1 , ๐โ)๐ [by (7.10)]
= ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐โ1๐โ= ๐ฅ๐๐ฆโ= (๐๐ฅ, ๐)๐(๐๐ฆ, โ)๐.
So ๐ is a homomorphism. Finally, ๐บ โ im๐ since (๐1, ๐)๐ = ๐ for all๐ โ ๐บ and ๐ผ1 โ im๐ since (๐๐ฅ, 1)๐ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. So ๐ is surjectiveand so ๐ โผ ๐ผ1 โ ๐บ. 7.21
KrohnโRhodes decomposition theorem โข 145
The following lemma shows that the result holds for right zero semi-groups, but we only use it to prove the next lemma.
L emma 7 . 2 2. Every finite right zero semigroup, and every finite rightzero semigroup with an identity adjoined, divides a wreath product of copiesof ๐3.
Proof of 7.22. Let ๐ ๐ denote the right zero semigroup with ๐ elements.Notice that ๐ ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ โ and ๐ 1๐ is a submonoid of ๐ 1โfor ๐ โฉฝ โ. The direct product of ๐ copies of ๐3 contains subsemigroupsisomorphic to ๐ 2๐ and ๐ 12๐ , so for any ๐ the direct product of sufficientlymany copies of ๐3 contains ๐ ๐ and ๐ 1๐. So ๐ ๐ and ๐ 1๐ divide a wreathproduct of copies of ๐3 by Proposition 7.9. 7.22
L emma 7 . 2 3. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup. If ๐ divides a wreath productof groups and copies of ๐3, then ๐ถ(๐) divides a wreath product of copies ofthose same groups and copies of ๐3.
Proof of 7.23. Supppose that ๐ divides a wreath product of groups ๐บ๐ andcopies of ๐3. By Propositions 7.11, 7.12, and 7.14, ๐ถ(๐) divides a wreathproduct of the monoids ๐ถ(๐บ๐) and copies of ๐ถ(๐3). Now, the semigroup๐ถ(๐3) is a right zero semigroup with an identity adjoined, which dividesa wreath product of copies of ๐3 by Lemma 7.22. The group of unitsof ๐ถ(๐บ๐) is ๐บ๐ and ๐ฟ = ๐ถ(๐บ๐) โ ๐บ๐ is an ideal of ๐ถ(๐บ๐) by Proposition7.1. Furthermore, ๐ฟ is a right zero semigroup by (7.4). So ๐ถ(๐บ๐) divides๐ฟ1 โ ๐บ๐ by Lemma 7.21. Since ๐ฟ1 is a right zero semigroup with an identityadjoined, it divides the wreath product of copies of ๐3 by Lemma 7.22. So๐ฟ1 โ ๐บ๐ divides a wreath product of ๐บ๐ and copies of๐3 by Proposition 7.11.So ๐ divides a wreath product of the groups ๐บ๐ and copies of ๐3. 7.23
Finally, using these lemmata, we can proof the KrohnโRhodes Theo-rem. To keep track of the roles of the various lemmata, see Figure 7.1.
K rohnโRhode s Th eorem 7 . 2 4. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup.KrohnโRhodes theoremThen ๐ divides a wreath product of subgroups of ๐ and copies of ๐3.
Proof of 7.24. Let ๐ be a semigroup; we will show that ๐ divides a wreathproduct of its subgroups and copies of ๐3. Since ๐ โผ ๐1, we can assume ๐is a monoid.
The strategy is induction on the number of elements in ๐. The basecase of the induction is when ๐ has one element. In this case, ๐ is trivial,and so ๐ is a group and the result holds immediately.
So assume the result holds for all monoids with fewer elements than ๐.As already noted, the result clearly holds if ๐ is a group and in particularif ๐ is trivial. It also holds by Lemma 7.18 if ๐ is a left simple semigroupwith an identity adjoined, and if ๐ is monogenic by Lemma 7.19.
So assume ๐ is not trivial, not a group, not a left simple semigroupwith an identity adjoined, and not monogenic. By Lemma 7.16, ๐ = ๐ฟ โช ๐,
146 โขFinite semigroups
๐
๐1
๐1 a group๐1 left simplewith identity
adjoined๐1 monogenic
๐1 = ๐ฟ โช ๐๐ฟ a left ideal,๐ a submonoid,|๐ฟ1|, |๐| < |๐|
Wreath prod.of ๐3 and
subgroups of ๐1
Wreath prod.of ๐3 and
subgroups of ๐1๐ฟ1 โ ๐ถ(๐1)
Wreath prod.of ๐3 and
subgroups of ๐1
Wreath prod.of ๐3 and
subgroups of ๐1
Wreath prod.of ๐3 and
subgroups of ๐1
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
โผ
โผ Lem. 7.18โผ Lem. 7.19
โผ Lem. 7.20
โผInduction โผ Induction,Lem. 7.23
โผPr. 7.11
FIGURE 7.1Diagram showing how the vari-ous lemmata are used to provethe KrohnโRhodes theorem.
where ๐ฟ is a left ideal and ๐ is a submonoid of ๐ and both ๐ฟ1 and ๐ havefewer elements than ๐. So by the induction hypothesis, ๐ฟ1 divides a wreathproduct of subgroups of ๐ฟ1 (which are also subgroups of ๐) and copies of๐3, and similarly ๐ divides a wreath product of subgroups of ๐ (which arealso subgroups of ๐) and copies of ๐3. By Lemma 7.23, ๐ถ(๐) also dividesa wreath product of subgroups of ๐ and copies of ๐3. By Proposition 7.11,๐ thus divides a wreath product of subgroups of ๐ and copies of ๐3.
Thus, by induction, the result holds for all monoids ๐. 7.24
Exercises
[See pages 237โ241 for the solutions.]7.1 Let ๐ be a finite monoid. Prove that ๐ is a group if and only if๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐.
7.2 Let ๐ be a finite semigroup. Let ๐ฝ๐ฅ be a nontrivial J-class of ๐. Provethat there is a regular J-class ๐ฝ๐ฆ such that ๐ฝ๐ฅ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ฆ.
โด7.3 a) Prove that a finite nilsemigroup is nilpotent.b) Give an example of an infinite nilsemigroup that is not nilpotent.
Exercises โข 147
7.4 Let ๐ and ๐โฒ be finite semigroups and let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐โฒ be a surjectivehomomorphism.a) Let ๐ฝ be a J-class of ๐. Prove that there is a J-class ๐ฝโฒ of ๐โฒ such
that ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ.b) Let ๐ฝโฒ be a J-class of ๐โฒ. Prove that there is a J-class ๐ฝ of ๐ such
that ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ. If ๐ฝ is minimal such that ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ, then ๐ฝ๐ = ๐ฝโฒ.โด7.5 Prove that if ๐ is a finite semigroup in whichH is the equality relation
and ๐ โผ ๐, then in ๐ the relation H is also the equality relation. Givean example to show that this is may not be true when ๐ is infinite.
โด7.6 Prove that the multiplication defined for semidirect products (7.1) isassociative.
7.7 Prove that if๐ and๐ are groups,๐ โ๐ is a group.7.8 Suppose that ๐ and ๐ are cancellative semigroups. Must ๐ โ ๐ be
cancellative?โด7.9 Prove that the product defined by (7.4) for the constant extension is
associative.7.10 Let๐ be a non-trivial monoid. For each ๐ฅ โ ๐, let ๐๐ฅ โ T๐ and๐๐ฅ โ T๐ be defined by ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Prove that ๐ถ(๐) isisomorphic to the subset { ๐๐ฅ, ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ } of T๐.
โด7.11 Using a technique similar to the proof of (7.5), prove (7.6), (7.7), (7.8)
Notes
The KrohnโRhodes theorem was first stated and proved forautomata in Krohn & Rhodes, โAlgebraic theory of machines Iโ. โ The proof inthis chapter is due to Lallement, Semigroups and Combinatorial Applications, andincorporates the correction published in Lallement, โAugmentations and wreathproducts of monoidsโ. โ Rhodes& Steinberg,The ๐ฎ-theory of Finite Semigroups isthe most comprehensive monograph on finite semigroup theory, but is decidedlynon-elementary.
โข
148 โขFinite semigroups
8Varieties& pseudovarieties
โ Variety of opinion is necessary for objective knowledge.And a method that encourages variety is also the onlymethod that is compatible with a humanitarian outlook. โ
โ Paul Feyeraband, Against Method, ยง 3.
โข The aim of this chapter is to introduce varieties andpseudovarieties of semigroups and monoids. These are classes of that arewell-behaved and can, in particular, be defined using sets of equations.For instance, the class of all commutative semigroups forms a variety, andthe class of all finite commutative semigroups forms a pseudovariety, andboth are defined by the equation๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ.Wewill formalize these notionslater in the chapter, and we will see how varieties and pseudovarieties canbe defined and manipulated in different ways.
Pseudovarieties are important in the study of finite semigroups forthe following reason: there are many finite semigroups of a given size,but most of them are boring. Of the 3 684 030 417 non-isomorphic semi-groups with 8 elements, 3 661 522 792 of them are nilpotent semigroups๐ satisfying ๐3 = {0}. (Essentially, the reason there are so many of thesesemigroups is that any multiplication in which all products of length 3are equal to 0 is trivially associative.) Pseudovarieties allow us to isolatethe more interesting classes.
The concepts of varieties and pseudovarieties are actually broaderthan semigroups: varieties make sense for any type of algebraic structure,and pseudovarieties make sense for any type of finite algebraic structure.Therefore we will begin by discussing varieties in terms of universalalgebra.
Varieties
An algebra is a set ๐ equipped with some operations { ๐๐ โถ Algebras and operations๐ โ ๐ผ }. An operation ๐๐ on ๐ is simply a map ๐๐ โถ ๐๐๐๐ผ โ ๐ for some๐๐๐ผ โ โ โช {0}. This ๐๐๐ผ is called the arity of ๐๐. For instance, if ๐ is a Arity of an operationsemigroup, the multiplication operation โ is a map โ โถ ๐2 โ ๐ and sohas arity 2. If ๐ is a inverse semigroup, the inverse operation โ1 is a map
โข 149
โ1 โถ ๐ โ ๐ and so has arity 1. If ๐ is a monoid, we can view the identityelement 1๐ as an operation, or as a map 1๐ โถ ๐0 โ ๐ (where ๐0 = โ ); theoperation 1๐ has arity 0. Operations of arity 1 are called unary; operationsof arity 2 are called binary; operations of arity 0 are called constants. Noticethat we have a map ๐ผ โถ { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โ โ โช {0}.
A type T of an algebra is a set of operations symbols { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } and aTypesmap ๐ผ โถ { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โ โ โช {0} determining the arity of each operations.We can write the type simply by listing the pairs in the map ๐ผ (viewedas a set). A semigroup has type {(โ, 2)}, a monoid has type {(โ, 2), (1, 0)}(the identity operation 1 is constant), and a lattice has type {(โ, 2), (โ, 2)}.An algebra of type T is called a T-algebra.
Notice that some structures can be viewed as algebras in more thanone way, and thus have more than one type. Let ๐บ be a group. Then๐บ, viewed as a group, is a {(โ, 2), (1๐บ, 0), (โ1, 1)}-algebra; ๐บ, viewed as amonoid, is a {(โ, 2), (1๐บ, 0)}-algebra;๐บ, viewed as a semigroup, is a {(โ, 2)}-algebra.
Strictly speaking, we should distinguish a symbol ๐๐ from the oper-ation ๐๐: for instance, we use the same symbol โ to refer to the differentmultiplications in different semigroups. We will want to use the samesymbol to discuss operations of the same arity in different structures.
Let T = { (๐๐, ๐๐๐ผ) โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } be a type. We are now going to givethe definition of subalgebras, homomorphisms, congruences, and directproducts of T-algebras. These definitions are straightforward generaliza-tions of the definitions for semigroups.
Let ๐ be a T-algebra. A subset ๐โฒ of ๐ is a subalgebra of ๐ if ๐โฒ is closedSubalgebrasunder all the operations in T: that is, for each ๐ โ ๐ผ, we have
๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผ โ ๐โฒ โ (๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผ)๐๐ โ ๐โฒ. (8.1)
In particular, this means that ๐๐ โ ๐โฒ whenever ๐๐๐ผ = 0. Let ๐ โ ๐.The subalgebra generated by ๐ is defined to be the intersection of allsubalgebras that contain๐. It is easy to prove (cf. Proposition 1.11) thatthe subalgebra generated by๐ consists of all elements that can be obtainedby starting from๐ and applying the operations ๐๐.
Let ๐ and ๐ be T-algebras. Then ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is a homomorphism if forHomomorphismseach ๐ โ ๐ผ, we have
((๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผ)๐๐)๐ = (๐ฅ1๐,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผ๐)๐๐. (8.2)
(Notice that on the left-hand side of (8.2),๐๐ is an operation on ๐, while onthe right-hand side, it is an operation on ๐.) An injective homomorphismis a monomorphism, and a bijective homomorphism is an isomorphism. If๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is a surjective homomorphism, ๐ is a homomorphic image of๐.
Let ๐ be a T-algebra. A binary relation ๐ on ๐ is a congruence if forCongruences
150 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
each ๐ โ ๐ผ,
(โ๐ฅ1, ๐ฆ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผ, ๐ฆ๐๐๐ผ)(๐ฅ1 ๐ ๐ฆ1 โงโฆ โง ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผ ๐ ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผโ (๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐๐๐ผ)๐๐ ๐ (๐ฆ1,โฆ , ๐ฆ๐๐๐ผ)๐๐).
Let S = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ฝ } be a collection ofT-algebras.The direct product of Direct productsthe T-algebras in S is their cartesian productโ๐โ๐ฝ ๐๐ with the operationsperformed componentwise:
(๐)(๐ 1,โฆ , ๐ ๐๐๐ผ)๐๐ = ((๐)๐ 1,โฆ , (๐)๐ ๐๐)๐๐.
Let ๐ด be a non-empty set and let ๐นT(๐ด) be the smallest set of all Free T-algebrasformal expressions (that is, words) over ๐ด โช {๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โช {(} โช {)} โช {, }satisfying the following two conditions:
๐ด โ ๐นT(๐ด);๐ข1,โฆ , ๐ข๐๐๐ผ โ ๐นT(๐ด) โ (๐ข1,โฆ , ๐ข๐๐๐ผ)๐๐ โ ๐นT(๐ด).
For instance, if T is {(๐, 2), ( โฒ , 1)} and ๐ด = {๐, ๐, ๐}, then the words(๐, (((๐, ๐)๐)โฒ, ๐)๐)๐ and (((๐)โฒ, ((๐, ๐)๐, (๐)โฒ)๐)๐ are elements of ๐นT(๐ด).The set ๐นT(๐ด) is obviously a T-algebra and is called the free T-algebra orabsolutely free T-algebra. Notice that ๐นT(๐ด) is generated by ๐ด.
Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐นT(๐ด) be the inclusion map. For any T-algebra ๐ andmap ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, there is a unique extension of ๐ to a homomorphism๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐นT(๐ด) โ ๐. That is, ๐๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐, or, equivalently, the following diagramcommutes:
๐ด ๐นT(๐ด)
๐
๐
๐๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ (8.3)
This property is reminiscent of some definitions we have already seen:free semigroups and monoids (see pages 38 f.), free inverse semigroupsand monoids (see page 107), and free commutative semigroups (see page123), and we shall say more about it later.
Let X be a non-empty class of T-algebras. LetโX denote the class โ, ๐, โof all T-algebras that are homomorphic images of the algebras in X. Let๐X denote the class of all T-algebras that are subalgebras of algebras in X.Let โX denote the class of all T-algebras that are direct products of theT-algebras in X. That is,
โX = { ๐ โถ (โ๐ โ X)(๐ is a homomorphic image of ๐) };๐X = { ๐ โถ (โ๐ โ X)(๐ is a subalgebra of ๐) };โX = { ๐ โถ (โ{ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โ X)(๐ = โ๐โ๐ผ๐๐) }.
Varieties โข 151
Thusโ, ๐, and โ are unary operators on classes of algebras. Notice thatX is contained inโX, ๐X, and โX.
A non-empty class ofT-algebras is a variety ofT-algebras if it is closedVarietyunder the operationsโ, ๐, andโ.That is,X is a variety ifโXโช๐XโชโX โX.
E x a m p l e 8 . 1. a) Let 1 be the class containing only the trivial sem-igroup ๐ธ = {๐}. Then 1 is a variety, since the only subsemigroup of ๐ธis ๐ธ itself, the only homomorphic image of ๐ธ is ๐ธ itself, and any directproduct of copies of ๐ธ is isomorphic to ๐ธ.
b) Let S be the class of all semigroups (viewed as {(โ, 2)}-algebras). Anyhomomorphic image of a semigroup is itself a semigroup, so S isclosed underโ. Subalgebras are subsemigroups, and so S is closedunder ๐. A direct product of semigroups is a semigroup, so S is closedunder โ. Therefore S is a variety.
c) Let M be the class of all monoids (viewed as {(โ, 2), (1, 0)}-algebras).A homomorphic image of a monoid is again a monoid, so M is closedunderโ. Subalgebras are submonoids because the subalgebramust beclosed under the โoperationโ 1: that is, they must contain the constant1. So M is closed under ๐. A direct product of monoids is itself amonoid. Therefore M is a variety.
d) Let Com be the class of all commutative semigroups (viewed, likemembers of S, as {(โ, 2)}-algebras). Since any subalgebra or homo-morphic image of a commutative semigroup is itself a commutativesemigroup, and a direct product of commutative semigroups is com-mutative, Com is a variety.
e) Let G be the class of all groups, viewed as {(โ, 2), (1๐บ, 0), (โ1, 1)}-al-gebras. Then subalgebras are closed under multiplication and takinginverses; thus subalgebras are subgroups. Since any subalgebra or ho-momorphic image of a group is also a group, and any direct productof groups is also a group, G is a variety.
Notice that the class of all groups G viewed as {(โ, 2)}-algebras isnot a variety, because in this case subalgebras are subsemigroups andso G is not closed under taking subalgebras; for example, G containsโค but not its subsemigroupโ.
f) Let Inv be the class of inverse semigroups, viewed as {(โ, 2), (โ1, 1)}-algebras. Then Inv is a variety.
Let V be a variety ofT-algebras and let๐ด be a non-empty set. Let ๐ โ V.Let๐ โ ๐๐ด.We know there is a unique extension of๐ to a homomorphism๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐นT(๐ด) โ ๐. Now, im ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ is a subalgebra of ๐ and so im ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โ V since V isclosed under forming subalgebras. Let
๐ = โ{ ker ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ด, ๐ โ V }.
152 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
Then ๐, being an intersection of congruences on ๐นT(๐ด), is also a congru-ence. Furthermore, ๐ โ ker ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ for any ๐ โ ๐๐ด. Hence for each ๐ โ V and๐ โ ๐๐ด, there exists a unique homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐นT(๐ด)/๐ โ ๐ suchthat ๐โฎ๐ = ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ. Thus ๐ โถ ๐นT(๐ด)/๐ โ ๐ is the unique homomorphism suchthat ๐ = ๐๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐๐โฎ๐, and the following diagram commutes:
๐ด ๐นT(๐ด) ๐นT(๐ด)/๐
๐
๐
๐
๐โฎ
๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐
By a result for T-algebras analogous to Proposition 1.33, ๐นT(๐ด)/๐ is asubdirect product of { ๐นT(๐ด)/ ker ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ด, ๐ โ V }. Now, each algebra๐นT(๐ด)/ ker ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ is a subalgebra of an element of V and therefore is itself amember of V (since ๐V = V). Hence ๐นT(๐ด)/๐ โ ๐โV = V.
The T-algebra ๐นT(๐ด)/๐ is called the V-free algebra, and is denoted V-free algebras๐นV(๐ด). Notice that there is a map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐นV(๐ด) given by ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐โฎ =[๐ฅ]๐ such that the universal property holds: for any ๐ โ V and map ๐ โถ๐ด โ ๐, there is a unique homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐นV(๐ด) โ ๐ such that๐๐ = ๐, or, in diagrammatic terms:
๐ด ๐นV(๐ด)
๐
๐
๐๐ (8.4)
Notice that if V is the variety of all T-algebras, ๐นV(๐ด) = ๐นT(๐ด) and werecover diagram (8.3).
Let us apply this definition to some concrete varieties. Let V be thevariety of all semigroups S. Then the definition of a S-free algebra co-incides with the definition of a free semigroup, and the diagram (8.4)becomes identical to the second diagram in (2.1). Since ๐นS(๐ด) โ S, we seethat ๐นS(๐ด) โ ๐ด+ by Proposition 2.1.
Similarly, if we apply the definition to the variety of inverse semigroupsInv, the diagram (8.4) becomes identical to the second diagram in (5.10)and we see that ๐นInv(๐ด) โ FInvS(๐ด) by Proposition 5.15. With the varietyof commutative semigroups Com, the diagram (8.4) becomes identicalto the second diagram in (6.1) and we see that ๐นCom(๐ด) โ FCommS(๐ด)by Proposition 6.3.
Thus for any variety V of T-algebras we have (for each set ๐ด) a T-algebra ๐นV(๐ด) โ V and a map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐นV(๐ด) with the universal property.This indicates that varieties have some of the nice properties of the classesof semigroups, inverse semigroups, and commutative semigroups. Butvarieties also have another very useful property: they are precisely thosecollections of algebras that can be defined using sets of equations calledlaws.
Varieties โข 153
ForT-algebras, a law over an alphabet๐ด is a pair of elements๐ข and ๐ฃ ofLaws๐นT(๐ด), normally written as a formal equality ๐ข = ๐ฃ. AT-algebra ๐ satisfiesthe law ๐ข = ๐ฃ if, for every map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, we have ๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ (where๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ is the homomorphism in diagram (8.3)). Informally, ๐ satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃif we every possible substitution of elements of ๐ for letters of ๐ด in thewords ๐ข and ๐ฃ gives elements that are equal. For instance, commutativesemigroups, viewed as {(โ, 2)}-algebras, satisfy the law ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ.Semigroups of idempotents satisfy the law ๐ฅ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. All semigroupssatisfy the law ๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง, and all monoids satisfy the laws๐ฅ โ 1 = ๐ฅ and 1 โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ.
A law over ๐ด is sometimes called an identity or identical relation over ๐ด,but we will avoid this potentially confusing terminology.Let E be a class of T-algebras. Suppose there is a set ๐ฟ of laws over anEquational classes
alphabet ๐ด such that ๐ โ E if and only if ๐ satisfies every law in ๐ฟ. Then Eis the equational class defined by ๐ฟ.
B i rkhof f โ s Th eorem 8 . 2. Let T be a type. Then a class of T-Birkhoff โs theoremalgebras is a variety if and only if it is an equational class.
Proof of 8.2. Part 1. Suppose X is an equational class. Then there is a set oflaws ๐ฟ over an alphabet ๐ด such that ๐ โ X if and only if ๐ satisfies everylaw in ๐ฟ. To prove that X is a variety, we must show that it is closed underโ, ๐, and โ.
Let ๐ โ X, and let ๐ be a T-algebra and ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ a surjectivehomomorphism. Let ๐ข = ๐ฃ be a law in ๐ฟ. Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be a map. Definea map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ by letting ๐๐ โ ๐ be such that ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ (such an ๐๐exists because ๐ is surjective). Notice that ๐๐ and ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ are homomorphismsfrom ๐นT(๐ด) to ๐ extending ๐๐ = ๐ and so, by the uniqueness of suchhomomorphisms, ๐๐ = ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ. Since ๐ satisfies ๐ฟ, we have ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐; hence๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐ข๐๐ = ๐ฃ๐๐ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ. So ๐ satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ. Hence ๐ satisfies every lawin ๐ฟ and so ๐ โ X. Thus X is closed underโ.
Let ๐ โ X and let ๐ be a subalgebra of ๐. Let ๐ข = ๐ฃ be a law in ๐ฟ. Thenif ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, then ๐ is also a map from ๐ด to ๐ and so ๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ since ๐satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ. Hence ๐ also satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ. So ๐ satisfies every law in ๐ฟand so ๐ โ X. Thus X is closed under ๐.
Let { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ฝ } โ X and suppose ๐ is the direct product of { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ๐ฝ }. Let ๐ข = ๐ฃ be a law in ๐ฟ. Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be a map. For each ๐ โ ๐ฝ, let๐๐ = ๐๐๐, where ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ is the projection homomorphism. So ๐๐ isa map from ๐ด to ๐๐, and ๐๐ satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ, and thus ๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐. The map๐ โถ ๐นT(๐ด) โ ๐ with (๐)(๐ฅ๐) = ๐ฅ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ is a homomorphism extending ๐, so,by the uniqueness condition, ๐ = ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ. Since ๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ for each ๐, we have๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ; hence ๐ satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ. So ๐ satisfies every law in ๐ฟand so ๐ โ X. Thus X is closed under โ.
So X is closed underโ, ๐, and โ, and so is a variety.
Part 2. Suppose now that V is a variety. Let ๐ด be an infinite alphabet.
154 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
Recall that ๐นV(๐ด) = ๐นT(๐ด)/๐, where
๐ = โ{ ker ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ด, ๐ โ V }.
We aim to show that V is the equational class defined by ๐, viewing theset of pairs ๐ โ ๐นT(๐ด) ร ๐นT(๐ด) as a set of laws.
Let ๐ โ V. Let (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐; notice that ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐นT(๐ด). Then (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ker ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝand thus ๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ for any ๐ โ ๐๐ด. So ๐ satisfies the law ๐ข = ๐ฃ. Thus every๐ โ V satisfies the law ๐ข = ๐ฃ for any (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐.
Conversely, suppose that ๐ satisfies the law ๐ข = ๐ฃ for every (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐.Let ๐ต be an alphabet with cardinality greater than or equal to both ๐ and๐ด. Let ๐นV(๐ต) be the V-free algebra generated by ๐ต; then ๐นV(๐ต) = ๐นT(๐ต)/๐for some congruence ๐ on ๐นT(๐ต).
Since ๐ต has cardinality greater than or equal to ๐, there is a surjectivehomomorphism ๐ โถ ๐นT(๐ต) โ ๐. We are going to prove that ๐ โ ker๐,which will imply that we have a well-defined surjective homomorphism๐ โถ ๐นV(๐ต) โ ๐ with [๐ฅ]๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐, which will in turn imply ๐ โ V.
So let (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐. Let ๐ต0 be the subset of ๐ต containing the letters thatappear in ๐ข or ๐ฃ; notice that ๐ต0 is finite. Let๐ด0 be a finite subset of๐ด suchthat there is a bijection ๐0 โถ ๐ด0 โ ๐ต0. Since ๐ต has cardinality greaterthan or equal to ๐ด, there is an injection ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ต extending ๐0. Since๐ is injective, there is a right inverse ๐ โถ ๐ต โ ๐ด of ๐ (that is, ๐๐ = id๐ด).Then ๐ extends to a monomorphism ๐ โถ ๐นT(๐ด) โ ๐นT(๐ต), and ๐ extendsto a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐นT(๐ต) โ ๐นT(๐ด). Since ๐ is injective, there areuniquely determined ๐ข0, ๐ฃ0 โ ๐นT(๐ด) such that ๐ข0 ๐ = ๐ข and ๐ฃ0 ๐ = ๐ฃ.Notice that ๐ข๐ = ๐ข0 and ๐ฃ๐ = ๐ฃ0.
Consider the map ๐๐โฎ โถ ๐นT(๐ต) โ ๐นV(๐ด). Since ๐นV(๐ต) lies in thevariety V, we must have ๐ โ ๐๐โฎ. In particular, ๐ข๐๐โฎ = ๐ฃ๐๐โฎ and so(๐ข0, ๐ฃ0) โ ๐. Thus ๐ satisfies the law ๐ข0 = ๐ฃ0. Therefore, since ๐๐ โถ๐นT(๐ต) โ ๐ is a homomorphism, ๐ข0๐๐ = ๐ฃ0๐๐ and so ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐.
Hence ๐ โ ker๐ and so we have a well-defined homomorphism๐ โถ ๐นV(๐ต) โ ๐ with [๐ฅ]๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐. Therefore ๐ is a homomorphic image of๐นV(๐ต) โ V and so lies in the variety V.
Thus we have proved that ๐ โ V if and only if ๐ satisfies every law๐ข = ๐ฃ in ๐. Therefore V is an equational class. 8.2
Theorem 8.2 shows that every variety can be defined by a set of laws. Finitely based varietyHowever, in general an infinite set of laws is required. This is true evenfor varieties of semigroups. However, in some cases, a finite set of lawssuffice. Such varieties are said to be finitely based.
Let T be the type {(โ, 2)}. The variety consisting of all semigroups S isdefined by the law ๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง. We use this type when workingwith varieties of semigroups, and we will always implicitly assume thislaw and write ๐ฅ๐ฆ for ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ. Examples are summarized in Table 8.1.
Let T be the type {(โ, 2), (1, 0)}. The variety consisting of all monoidsM is defined by the laws ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง, 1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ, and ๐ฅ1 = ๐ฅ. When
Varieties โข 155
TABLE 8.1Varieties of semigroups. Thelaw๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง is implicitly
assumed.
Variety Symbol Defining laws
Semigroups S โNull semigroups Z ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐กLeft zero semigroups LZ ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅRight zero semigroups RZ ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ
TABLE 8.2Varieties of monoids, viewedas {(โ, 2), (1, 0)}-algebras. Thelaws ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง, ๐ฅ1 = ๐ฅ,and 1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ are implicitly as-
sumed.
Variety Symbol Defining laws
Monoids M โTrivial monoid 1 ๐ฅ = 1Commutative monoids Com ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ
Semilattices with identities Sl {๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ,๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ
working with varieties of monoids we will use this type and implicitlyassume these laws. Examples are summarized in Table 8.2.
Finally let T be the type {(โ, 2), (โ1, 1)}. We will use this type whenworking with semigroups equipped with an inverse operation โ1, such asregular and inverse semigroup. In this context, we will assume the laws(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง = ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง), ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and (๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ. Examples are summarizedin Table 8.3.
Another way to define a variety of T-algebras is to use a specifiedVariety generated by Xset of T-algebras to generate a variety. Let X be a set of T-algebras. Theintersection of all varieties of T-algebras containing X is itself a variety,called the variety of T-algebras generated by X, or simply the varietygenerated by X. It is easy to prove that the variety generated by X consistsof all X-algebras that can be obtained from X by repeatedly formingsubsemigroups, homomorphic images, and direct products. That is, thevariety generated by X is
{๐1๐2โฏ๐๐X โถ ๐ โ โ,๐๐ โ {โ, ๐, โ} }. (8.5)
L emma 8 . 3. For any non-empty class of T-algebras X, we have
๐โX โ โ๐X;โโX โ โโX;โ๐X โ ๐โX.
Proof of 8.3. Let ๐ โ ๐โX. Then there isT-algebra ๐ โ X and a surjectivehomomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐ is a subalgebra of ๐. Let ๐โฒ =๐๐โ1 = { ๐ก โ ๐ โถ ๐ก๐ โ ๐ }. Then ๐โฒ is a subalgebra of ๐ and ๐|๐โฒ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐is a surjective homomorphism. So ๐ โ โ๐X.
Let ๐ โ โโX.Then there is a collection ofT-algebras { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โ Xand a collection of surjective homomorphisms๐ท = { ๐๐ โถ ๐๐ โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }such that ๐ = โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐. Define a homomorphism ๐ โถ โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ โ ๐ by
156 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
Variety Symbol Defining laws
Completely regular sgrps CR ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ
Inverse semigroups Inv {(๐ฅ๐ฆ)โ1 = ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1,๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1
Clifford semigroups Cl {๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ,๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1
Groups G ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1
TABLE 8.3Varieties of semigroups with aunary operation โ1 . The laws๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง, ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ,and (๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ are implicitlyassumed.
(๐)(๐ฅ๐) = ((๐)๐ฅ)๐๐. Then ๐ is surjective since each ๐๐ is surjective. So๐ โ โโX.
Let ๐ โ โ๐X. Then there is a collection of T-algebras { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โ Xand a subalgebras ๐๐ of ๐๐ such that ๐ = โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐. Then ๐ is a subalgebraofโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐. So ๐ โ ๐โX. 8.3
As an immediate consequence of Lemma 8.3 and (8.5), and the factthat the operatorsโ, ๐, and โ are idempotent, we obtain the followingresult:
P ro p o s i t i on 8 . 4. Let X be a class of T-algebras. The variety gener-ated by X isโ๐โX. 8.4
Pseudovarieties
Varieties are not useful for studying and classifying finitealgebras, for the simple reason that every non-trivial variety containsinfinite algebras: if a variety contains an algebra ๐with two elements, thenit contains the direct product of infinitely many copies of ๐, which is ofcourse infinite.
Clearly, if we take a class X of finite T-algebras, thenโX and ๐X alsocontain only finite T-algebras. The problem, therefore, is the operatorโ. To modify the notion of variety in order to study finite algebras, wetherefore introduce a new operator on classes of T-algebras.
Let โfinX denote the class of all T-algebras that are finitary direct โfinproducts of the algebras in X. That is,
โfinX = { ๐ โถ (โ{๐1,โฆ , ๐๐} โ X)(๐ = ๐1 ร ๐2 รโฆ ร ๐๐) }.
Anon-empty class of finiteT-algebras is a pseudovariety ofT-algebras if it Pseudovarietyis closed under the operationsโ, ๐, andโfin. That is,X is a pseudovarietyifโX โช ๐X โช โfinX โ X.
E x a m p l e 8 . 5. a) Let 1 be the class containing only the trivial sem-igroup (or monoid) ๐ธ = {๐}. Then 1 is a pseudovariety both when
Pseudovarieties โข 157
we view ๐ธ as a {(โ, 2)}-algebra and when we view ๐ธ as a {(โ, 2), (1, 0)}-algebra, since the only subalgebra of ๐ธ is ๐ธ itself, the only homomor-phic image of ๐ธ is ๐ธ itself, and any finitary direct product of copies of๐ธ is isomorphic to ๐ธ.
b) Let S be the class of all finite semigroups. Then S is a pseudovariety.
c) LetM be the class of all finite monoids (viewed as {(โ, 2), (1, 0)}-algeb-ras. Then S is a pseudovariety.
d) Let Com be the class of all finite commutative monoids (viewed as{(โ, 2), (1, 0)}-algebras). Then Com is a pseudovariety.
e) Let G be the class of all finite groups, which we view as {(โ, 2), (1๐บ, 0),(โ1, 1)}-algebras; then G is a pseudovariety.
In contrast with varieties, that the class of all finite groups viewedas {(โ, 2)}-algebras is a pseudovariety, because in this case subalgebrasare subgroups (since for elements ๐ฅ of a group with ๐ elements, ๐ฅ๐ = 1and ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅ๐โ1).
f) Let Inv be the class of all finite inverse semigroups, which we view as{(โ, 2), (โ1, 1)}-algebras. Then Inv is a pseudovariety.
g) Let N be the class of all finite nilpotent semigroups. Then N is a pseu-dovariety. (See Exercise 8.2(a).)
h) Let A be the class of all finite aperiodic monoids, viewed as {(โ, 2),(1, 0)}-algebras. Then A is a pseudovariety. Notice that N โ A.
Notice that we are using the same symbols for certain varieties andpseudovarieties: for instance, Com is used to denote both the varietyof commutative monoids and the pseudovariety of finite commutativemonoids. This will not cause confusion, because from now on we willonly use them to denote pseudovarieties.
Just as with varieties, we have the idea of generating a pseudovarietyPseudovarietygenerated by X of finite T-algebras. Let X be a set of finite T-algebras. The intersection
of all pseudovarieties of T-algebras containing X is itself a pseudovariety,called the pseudovariety of finite T-algebras generated by X, or simply thepseudovariety generated by X, and is denoted VT(X) It is easy to prove thatVT(X) consists of all (necessarily finite) X-algebras that can be obtainedfrom X by repeatedly forming subalgebras, homomorphic images, andfinitary direct products. That is,
VT(X) = {๐1๐2โฏ๐๐X โถ ๐ โ โ,๐๐ โ {โ, ๐, โfin} }. (8.6)
We have the following analogue of Proposition 8.4:
P ro p o s i t i on 8 . 6. Let X be a class of finite T-algebras. Then VT(X) =โ๐โfinX.
158 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
Proof of 8.6. For any non-empty class of finite T-algebras X, we have
๐โX โ โ๐X;โfinโX โ โโfinX;โfin๐X โ ๐โfinX;
to see this, follow the reasoning in the proof of Lemma 8.3, restrictingthe index sets ๐ผ in the direct products to be finite. The result followsimmediately. 8.6
Let V and W be pseudovarieties of T-algebras. The class of pseudova- Join and meet ofpseudovarietiesrieties of T-algebras is ordered by the usual inclusion order โ. Then it is
easy to see that
V โW = VT(V โชW),
and, since V โฉW is a variety,
V โW = V โฉW.
So the class of T-algebras is a lattice. Furthermore, if we consider onlysubpseudovarieties of a fixed pseudovariety V (such as S or M), then theclass of such subpseudovarieties forms a sublattice.
Pseudovarieties ofsemigroups and monoids
From this point onwards, we will consider only pseudo-varieties of semigroups and pseudovarieties of monoids. These pseudo-varieties have different types: pseudovarieties of semigroups have typeS = {(โ, 2)} and pseudovarieties of monoids have type M = {(โ, 2), (1, 0)}.
In pseudovarieties of semigroups, the homomorphisms are the usualsemigroup homomorphisms and the subalgebras are subsemigroups. Inpseudovarieties of monoids, the homomorphisms are monoid homomor-phisms, and the subalgebras are submonoids that contain the identity ofthe original monoid. In previous chapters, by โsubmonoidโ we meant โanysubsemigroup that forms a monoidโ. But such a submonoid may not bea subalgebra: For example, let ๐ = {1, 0} be the two-element semilatticewith 1 > 0. Then ๐ is a monoid with identity 1, and contains the sub-monoid ๐ = {0}. However, ๐ is not an M-subalgebra of ๐, because an M-subalgebra must include the constant 1. For brevity, we call a submonoidthat contains the identity of the original monoid an M-submonoid.
We will use the term S-pseudovarieties for pseudovarieties of semi- S-pseudovarieties,M-pseudovarietiesgroups, and M-pseudovarieties for pseudovarieties of monoids. The reas-
oning for the two types often runs in parallel, but there are importantdifferences.
Pseudovarieties of semigroups and monoids โข 159
Notice that S-pseudovarieties are closed under division: if V is an S-pseudovariety, ๐ โ V, and ๐ โผ ๐, then by definition there is an surjectivehomomorphism ๐ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐, where ๐โฒ is a subsemigroup of ๐; hence๐ โ โ๐V = V. In fact, M-pseudovarieties are also closed under division,as a consequence of the following result:
P ro p o s i t i on 8 . 7. Let ๐ be a semigroup and๐ amonoid and supposeDivision in M-pseudovarieties ๐ โผ ๐. Then there is an M-submonoid๐โฒ of๐ and a surjective monoid
homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐1. Consequently, if ๐ is a monoid, then๐ โผ ๐ if and only if there is an M-submonoid๐โฒ of๐ and a surjectivemonoid homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐.
Proof of 8.7. Suppose ๐ โผ ๐. Then there is a subsemigroup ๐ of๐ anda surjective homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐. Let๐โฒ = ๐ โช {1๐} and extend๐ to a monoid homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐โฒ โ ๐ by defining 1๐๐ = 1๐1 and๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. (Notice that ๐ is well-defined, since if 1๐ โ ๐,then (๐ง๐)(1๐๐) = (๐ง1๐)๐ = ๐ง๐ and (1๐๐)(๐ง๐) = (1๐๐ง)๐ = ๐ง๐ and so๐ is a monoid with identity 1๐๐ because ๐ is surjective.) 8.7
We now introduce two operators that allow us to connect S-pseudo-varieties of semigroups and M-pseudovarieties of monoids.
For any M-pseudovariety of monoids V, letVSg
VSg = VS(V).
So to obtain VSg from V we simply treat the monoids in V as semigroups,form all finite direct products, then all subsemigroups, and then all (sem-igroup) homomorphic images. From Proposition 8.7, we see that
๐ โ VSg โ ๐1 โ V. (8.7)
For any S-pseudovariety of semigroups, letVMon
VMon = { ๐ โ V โถ ๐ is a monoid }.
That is VMon consists of the monoids that, when viewed as semigroups,belong to V. It is easy to see that VMon is an M-pseudovariety of monoids.
L emma 8 . 8. For anyM-pseudovariety ofmonoidsV, we have (VSg)Mon =V.
Proof of 8.8. Let ๐ be a finite monoid. Then
๐ โ (VSg)Mon
โ ๐ is a monoid that belongs to VSgโ ๐1 โ V [by (8.7)]โ ๐ โ V. [since ๐ = ๐1] 8.8
160 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
Prop o s i t i on 8 . 9. The operator Sg is an embedding of the lattice ofM-pseudovarieties of monoids into the lattice of of the S-pseudovarieties ofsemigroups.
Proof of 8.9. It is immediate from (8.7) that Sg is a lattice homomorphism.By Lemma 8.8,
VSg = WSg โ (VSg)Mon = (WSg)Mon โ V = W,
so Sg is injective. 8.9
An S-pseudovariety of semigroupsW ismonoidal ifW = VSg for some Monoidal pseudovarietyM-pseudovariety of monoids.
E x a m p l e 8 . 1 0. a) The S-pseudovariety of all finite semigroups Sis monoidal, because S = MSg by (8.7), where M is the M-pseudovari-ety of all finite monoids.
b) The S-pseudovariety of all finite nilpotent semigroups N is not mon-oidal. To see this, suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction,that N = VSg for some M-pseudovariety of all finite monoids V. ThenNMon = V by (8.8). Let ๐ โ N be a monoid. Then 1๐๐ = 0๐ forsome ๐ โ โ, since๐ is nilpotent, which implies that๐ is trivial.Hence NMon = 1, and so N = VSg = (NMon)Sg = 1Sg = 1, which is acontradiction.
Free objects for pseudovarieties
If we want to follow the same path for pseudovarieties asfor varieties, our next step should be to construct a โfree V-semigroupโ foreach S-pseudovariety V and a โfreeW-monoidโ for eachM-pseudovarietyW, and then to devise an analogue of laws and prove an analogue of Birk-hoff โs theorem. However, this is much more difficult for pseudovarietiesthan for varieties. We will outline the problems and describe the solutionin this section and the next two sections. To simplify the explanation,we will only discuss S-pseudovarieties, but every result and constructionin these sections has a parallel for M-pseudovarieties, replacing semi-groups with monoids, homomorphisms with monoid homomorphisms,and subsemigroups with M-submonoids as appropriate.
The basic problem in finding free objects for pseudovarieties is verysimple: free objects are usually infinite, and members of a pseudovarietyare always finite. Consider the S-pseudovariety N of finite nilpotent semi-groups. For any finite alphabet๐ด and ๐ โ โ, let ๐ผ๐ = {๐ค โ ๐ด+ โถ |๐ค| โฉพ ๐ }.Then ๐ด+/๐ผ๐ is a nilpotent semigroup; thus ๐ด+/๐ผ๐ โ N. The semigroup๐ด+/๐ผ๐ contains at least ๐ elements (and indeed contains |๐ด|๐ elements if
Free objects for pseudovarieties โข 161
|๐ด| โฉพ 2). Thus, by taking ๐ to be arbitrarily large, we see that N containsarbitrarily large ๐ด-generated semigroups. Since an ๐ด-generated free ob-ject for N must map surjectively to each of these semigroups, it is clearthat no semigroup in N is free.
If we try to approach the idea of a free object through laws, we en-counter another problem. It is clear that ๐ด+/๐ผ๐ satisfies no law in at most|๐ด| variables where the two sides of the law have length less than ๐. So ifwe try to base our free objects on laws, all S-pseudovarieties containingN will have the same free object.
Let us look at free objects from another direction. The idea is that afree ๐ด-generated object for a class X should be just general enough tobe more general than any ๐ด-generated object in X. Suppose we take twosemigroups ๐1 and ๐2 in an S-pseudovariety V. Let ๐1 โถ ๐ด โ ๐1 and ๐2 โถ๐ด โ ๐2 be functions such that im๐1 generates ๐1 and im๐2 generates ๐2.Let ๐ be the subsemigroup of ๐1 ร ๐2 generated by { (๐๐1, ๐๐2) โถ ๐ โ ๐ด }.Then ๐ is ๐ด-generated and lies in V, since V is closed under โfin and ๐.Furthermore, the following diagram commutes:
๐ด
๐1 ๐ ๐2
๐1 ๐2
๐1 ๐2
Thus๐ ismore general than both ๐1 and ๐2 as an๐ด-generatedmemberof V. Furthermore, ๐ is the smallest such member of V. We could iteratethis process, but, as our discussion of N shows, we will never find anelement of V that is more general than all other members of V. A limitingprocess is needed.
Projective limits
A partially ordered set (๐ผ, โฉฝ) is a directed set if every pairDirected setof elements of ๐ผ have an upper bound. [Notice that a directed set is notnecessarily a join semilattice, because some pairs of elements might nothave least upper bounds.]
A topological semigroup is a semigroup equipped with a topologyTopological semigroupsuch that the multiplication operation is a continuous mapping. Anysemigroup can be equippedwith the discrete topology and thus becomes atopological semigroup. Notice that finite semigroups are compact. For any๐ด-generated
topological semigroup alphabet๐ด, an๐ด-generated topological semigroup is a pair (๐, ๐), where ๐ isa topological semigroup and ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ is a map such that im๐ generatesa dense subsemigroup of ๐. We will often denote such an ๐ด-generatedtopological semigroup by themap๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐. A homomorphismbetweenHomomorphisms
between ๐ด-generatedtopological semigroups
162 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
๐ด-generated topological semigroups ๐1 โถ ๐ด โ ๐1 and ๐2 โถ ๐ด โ ๐2 is acontinuous homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐1 โ ๐2 such that ๐1๐ = ๐2.
A projective system is a collection of ๐ด-generated topological sem- Projective systemigroups { ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }, where ๐ผ is a directed set, such thatfor all ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ with ๐ โฉพ ๐ there is a connecting homomorphism ๐๐,๐ from๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ to ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ satisfying the following properties: for each๐ โ ๐ผ, the homomorphism ๐๐,๐ is the identity map; for all ๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ with๐ โฉพ ๐ โฉพ ๐, we have ๐๐,๐๐๐,๐ = ๐๐,๐.
The projective limit of this projective system is an ๐ด-generated topo- Projective limitlogical semigroup ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ equipped with homomorphisms ๐ท๐ from๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ to ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐. such that the following properties hold:1) For all ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ with ๐ โฉพ ๐, we have ๐ท๐๐๐,๐ = ๐ท๐.2) If there is another ๐ด-generated topological semigroup ๐น โถ ๐ด โ ๐
and homomorphisms ๐น๐ from ๐น โถ ๐ด โ ๐ to ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ suchthat for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ with ๐ โฉพ ๐, we have ๐น๐๐๐,๐ = ๐น๐, then there existsa homomorphism ๐ฉ from ๐น โถ ๐ด โ ๐ to ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ such that๐ฉ๐ท๐ = ๐น๐. That is, the diagram in Figure 8.1 commutes.
๐ด
๐
๐
๐๐ ๐๐
๐๐ ๐๐
๐น
๐น๐ ๐น๐๐ฉ
๐ท๐ ๐ท๐
๐ท
๐๐,๐FIGURE 8.1Property 2) of the projectivelimit of {๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ๐ผ }with connecting homomor-phisms ๐๐,๐ .
Let us first show that the projective limit is unique (up to isomor-
Uniqueness of theprojective limit
phism); wewill then show that it exists. Suppose๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ and๐ทโฒ โถ ๐ด โ๐โฒ are both projective limits of the projective system { ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }.By property 2) above, there are homomorphisms ๐ฉ from ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ to๐ทโฒ โถ ๐ด โ ๐โฒ and ๐ฉโฒ from ๐ทโฒ โถ ๐ด โ ๐โฒ to ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐. Thus we have๐ท๐ฉ๐ฉโฒ = ๐ท and๐ทโฒ๐ฉโฒ๐ฉ = ๐ทโฒ; hence๐ฉ๐ฉโฒ|๐ด๐ท = id๐ด๐ท and๐ฉโฒ๐ฉ|๐ด๐ทโฒ = id๐ด๐ทโฒ.Hence๐ฉ๐ฉโฒ restricted to the subsemigroup generated by๐ด๐ท is the identitymap; since this subsemigroup is dense in ๐ and ๐ฉ and ๐ฉโฒ are continuous,we have ๐ฉ๐ฉโฒ = id๐. Similarly ๐ฉโฒ๐ฉ = id๐โฒ. So ๐ฉ and ๐ฉโฒ are mutuallyinverse isomorphisms between ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ and ๐ทโฒ โถ ๐ด โ ๐โฒ.
In order to construct the projective limit, we proceed as follows. Let Construction ofthe projective limit
๐ = { ๐ โ โ๐โ๐ผ๐๐ โถ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ)(๐ โฉพ ๐ โ ((๐)๐ )๐๐,๐ = (๐)๐ ) }.
Notice that
๐ , ๐ก โ ๐โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ)(๐ โฉพ ๐ โ ((๐)๐ )๐๐,๐ = (๐)๐ โง ((๐)๐ก)๐๐,๐ = (๐)๐ก)โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ)(๐ โฉพ ๐ โ ((๐)๐ )๐๐,๐((๐)๐ก)๐๐,๐ = (๐)๐ (๐)๐ก)โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ)(๐ โฉพ ๐ โ ((๐)(๐ ๐ก))๐๐,๐ = (๐)(๐ ๐ก))โ ๐ ๐ก โ ๐;
thus ๐ is a subsemigroup ofโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐. Furthermore, ๐ is equipped with theinduced topology from the product topology onโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐. Let ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐be defined by (๐)(๐๐ท) = ๐๐๐. For each ๐ โ ๐ผ, let ๐ท๐ be the projectionhomomorphism from ๐ to ๐๐.
Projective limits โข 163
Prop o s i t i on 8 . 1 1. ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ is an ๐ด-generated topological semi-group and satisfies the properties 1) and 2) above. Hence ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ is aprojective limit.
Proof of 8.11. We first have to show that ๐ด๐ท generates a dense subsemi-group of ๐. Since the topology of ๐ is induced by the product topologyonโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐, we can work with the product topology instead. Let ๐ โ ๐. Let๐พ be a neighbourhood of ๐ . Assume without loss that ๐พ is an open set(in the product topology). Thus๐พ = โ๐โ๐ผ ๐พ๐, where each ๐พ๐ โ ๐๐ is openand ๐พ๐ = ๐๐ for all but finitely many ๐ โ ๐ผ. Let ๐๐ โ ๐ผ (where ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐)be the indices for which ๐พ๐๐ โ ๐๐๐ .
Let โ be an upper bound for { ๐๐ โถ ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐ }; such an โ existsbecause ๐ผ is a directed set. Let ๐ฟ = โ๐๐=1 ๐พ๐๐๐
โ1โ,๐๐ โ ๐โ. Notice that
(โ)๐ โ ((๐๐)๐ )๐โ1โ,๐๐ for all ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐, so ๐ฟ contains (โ)๐ and is thus non-empty. Furthermore, ๐ฟ is an intersection of open sets because each ๐๐,๐is continuous and each ๐พ๐๐ is open; hence ๐ฟ is itself open. Since ๐ด๐โgenerates a dense subset of ๐โ, the set there is a word ๐ค โ ๐ด+ such that๐ค๐โ โ ๐ฟ. Let ๐ก = ๐ค๐ท. Thus (๐)๐ก = ๐ค๐๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ผ. For ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐, wehave
(๐๐)๐ก = ๐ค๐๐๐ = ๐ค๐๐๐๐,๐๐ โ ๐ฟ๐๐,๐๐ โ ๐พ๐๐ .
Hence ๐ค๐ท = ๐ก โ ๐พ. Therefore ๐ด๐ท generates a dense subset of ๐.Since ๐ consists of elements ๐ โ โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ with ((๐)๐ )๐๐,๐ = (๐)๐ , it is
immediate that ๐ท๐๐๐,๐ = ๐ท๐; hence ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐ satisfies property 1).Now let ๐น โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be an ๐ด-generated topological semigroup as
described in property 2). Define ๐ฉ โถ ๐ โ ๐ by (๐)(๐ก๐ฉ) = ๐ก๐น๐. (Note that๐ก๐ฉ โ ๐ since ๐น๐๐๐,๐ = ๐น๐.) Then this map is a continuous homomorphismsince each ๐น๐ is continuous. Finally, ๐ฉ๐ท๐ = ๐ฉ๐๐ = ๐น๐. So ๐ท โถ ๐ด โ ๐satisfies property 2). 8.11
Notice that if all of the ๐๐ are compact, so isโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ by Tychonoff โstheorem. Furthermore, since each ๐๐,๐ is continuous and the condition((๐)๐ )๐๐,๐ = (๐)๐ involves only two components of the product, ๐ is closedin theโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐. Hence if all the ๐๐ are compact, ๐ is also compact.
A profinite semigroup is a projective limit of a projective system ofProfinite semigroupfinite semigroups for some suitable choice of generators. Notice that anyfinite semigroup is [isomorphic to] a profinite semigroup. To see this, let๐ be a finite semigroup, and take ๐ผ = {1} and ๐1 = ๐. It is easy to see thatthe projective limit of this projective system is isomorphic to ๐.
Pro-V semigroups
Let V be an S-pseudovariety. A profinite semigroup ๐ isPro-V semigroup
164 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
pro-V if it is a projective limit of a projective system containing onlysemigroups from V.
Let us return of the problem of finding a free object for V. For agenerating set ๐ด, the idea is to take the projective limit of the projectivesystem containing every ๐ด-generated semigroup in V. Strictly speaking,we take one semigroup from every isomorphism class in V, and let theconnecting homomorphisms be the unique homomorphisms that respectthe generating set ๐ด. The projective limit of this system is denoted ฮฉ๐ดV.If the ๐ด-generated semigroups in V are { ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }, then thereis a natural map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ฮฉ๐ดV given by (๐)(๐๐) = ๐๐๐. (This is the map๐ท in the discussion of the projective limit above.) Denote by ฮฉ๐ดV the[dense] subsemigroup of ฮฉ๐ดV generated by ๐ด๐.
The following result essentially says that the profinite semigroup ฮฉ๐ดVis a free object for ๐ด-generated pro-V semigroups:
P ro p o s i t i on 8 . 1 2. For any pro-V semigroup ๐ and map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐, ฮฉ๐ดV is a free object for Vthere is a unique continuous homomorphism ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดV โ ๐ such that๐๐ = ๐; that is, such that the following diagram commutes:
๐ด ฮฉ๐ดV
๐
๐
๐
๐
Proof of 8.12. Since pro-V semigroups are subdirect products of membersof V, it is sufficient to consider the case when ๐ lies in V. Without lossof generality, assume ๐ is generated by ๐ด๐. Then ๐ is [isomorphic to]an ๐ด-generated semigroup in V; that is, ๐ is [isomorphic to] one of the๐ด-generated semigroups ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ in the projective system whoseprojective limit is ฮฉ๐ดV.
Let ๐ be the projection ๐๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดVโ ๐๐ โ ๐. Finally, we have to showthat ๐ is the unique continuous homomorphism with this property. Let๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดV โ ๐ be some continuous homomorphism with ๐๐ = ๐. Since๐๐ = ๐, we see that ๐|๐ด๐ = ๐|๐ด๐ and hence, since ๐ด๐ generates ฮฉ๐ดV, wehave ๐|ฮฉ๐ดV = ๐|ฮฉ๐ดV. Sinceฮฉ๐ดV is dense in ฮฉ๐ดV and ๐ is continuous, wehave ๐ = ๐. 8.12
In light of Proposition 8.12, for any S-pseudovariety V, we call ฮฉ๐ดV Free pro-V semigroupthe free pro-V semigroup on ๐ด.
P ro p o s i t i on 8 . 1 3. Let V be an S-pseudovariety that is not the trivialS-pseudovariety 1. Then the map ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ฮฉ๐ดV is injective.
Proof of 8.13. Since V โ 1, there are arbitrarily large semigroups in V.Hence for any ๐, ๐ โ ๐ด with ๐ โ ๐, there is some ๐๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐๐ such that๐๐๐ โ ๐๐๐. Therefore, (๐)(๐๐) = ๐๐๐ โ ๐๐๐ = (๐)(๐๐), and so ๐๐ โ ๐๐. Thus ๐is injective. 8.13
Pro-V semigroups โข 165
Proposition 8.13 means that, when we consider any non-trivial S-pseudovariety V, we can identify ๐ด with the subset ๐ด๐ of ฮฉ๐ดV. From nowon, assume that V is a non-trivial S-pseudovariety.
L emma 8 . 1 4. Let ๐ be a pro-V semigroup and let ๐พ โ ๐. Then thefollowing conditions are equivalent:a) there exists a continuous homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐น such that ๐น โ V
and ๐พ = ๐พ๐๐โ1;b) ๐พ is a clopen subset of ๐.
Proof of 8.14. Suppose that condition a) holds. Then since ๐น is finite andhas the discrete topology, ๐พ๐ is clopen in ๐น. Since ๐ is a continuoushomomorphism, ๐พ is clopen since it is the pre-image under ๐ of the๐พ๐.Thus condition b) holds.
Now suppose that condition b) holds and ๐พ is a clopen subset of ๐.Now, ๐ be a subdirect product of semigroups in V. That is, ๐ is a subsemi-group ofโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ for some ๐๐ โ V. Then ๐พ = ๐ โฉ (๐พ1 โช โฆ โช ๐พ๐), whereeach ๐พโ is a product of the formโ๐โ๐ผ ๐โ,๐ with๐โ,๐ โ ๐๐ and๐โ,๐ = ๐๐ forall but finitely many indices. Let
๐ฝ = { ๐ โ ๐ผ โถ (โโ โ {1,โฆ , ๐})(๐โ,๐ โ ๐๐) };
notice that ๐ฝ is finite. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ โ๐โ๐ฝ ๐๐ be the natural projection.Then ๐ is continuous,โ๐โ๐ฝ ๐๐ is finite, and๐พ = ๐พ๐๐โ1. Thus condition a)holds. 8.14
Pro p o s i t i on 8 . 1 5. Let ๐ be pro-V and let ๐ be profinite. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ๐ be a continuous homomorphism. Then im๐ is pro-V and belongs to V ifit is finite.
Proof of 8.15. Since ๐ is a subdirect product of finite semigroups, it issufficient to consider the case where ๐ is finite and ๐ is surjective andshow that ๐ โ V.
For each ๐ก โ ๐, let ๐พ๐ก = ๐ก๐โ1. Then every ๐พ๐ก is a pre-image of aclopen set under the continuous homomorphism ๐ and so is clopen.By Lemma 8.14, there is, for each ๐ก โ ๐, a continuous homomorphism๐๐ก โถ ๐ โ ๐น๐ก with ๐น๐ก โ V such that๐พ๐ก๐๐ก๐โ1๐ก = ๐พ๐ก. Let ๐น = โ๐กโ๐ ๐น๐ก; noticethat ๐น โ V since ๐ is finite. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐น be defined by (๐ก)(๐ฅ๐) = ๐ฅ๐๐ก.Then ker๐ โ ker๐. Hence there is a homomorphism ๐ โถ im๐ โ ๐ givenby (๐ฅ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ๐. Since ๐ is surjective, ๐ is a surjective homomorphismfrom the subsemigroup im๐ of ๐น to the semigroup ๐. Hence ๐ โผ ๐น andso ๐ โ V. 8.15
Propositions 8.12, 8.13, and 8.15 together show that ฮฉ๐ดV is a verygood analogue for pseudovarieties of free algebras for varieties: mapsfrom ๐ด can be extended to homomorphisms from ฮฉ๐ดV, the โbasisโ ๐ด(usually) embeds in ฮฉ๐ดV, and, finally, the only finite semigroups that arehomomorphic images of ฮฉ๐ดV are the semigroups in V.
166 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
Pseudoidentities
Earlier in this chapter, we saw how varieties ofT-algebras,and in particular varieties of semigroups, can be defined using laws. Recallthat a law in a variety V of T-algebras is a pair ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐นT(๐ด), usuallywritten as a formal equality ๐ข = ๐ฃ, and that a T-algebra ๐ satisfies thislaw if ๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = ๐ฃ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ for all homomorphisms ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐นT(๐ด) โ ๐ extending maps๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐. Now that we have free objects for S-pseudovarieties available,we can the study the analogue of laws for finite semigroups.
Let V be an S-pseudovariety. A V-pseudoidentity is a pair ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ฮฉ๐ดV, Pseudoidentitiesusually written as a formal equality ๐ข = ๐ฃ. A pro-V semigroup ๐ satisfiesthis pseudoidentity if, for every continuous homomorphism ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดVโ ๐we have ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐.
Now let V be an M-pseudovariety. Then ฮฉ๐ดV also exists, with thecorresponding properties, and is a monoid. So we also have V-pseudo-identities ๐ข = ๐ฃ in this case, where ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ฮฉ๐ดV, and here ๐ข or ๐ฃmay be theidentity of ฮฉ๐ดV. In this context, a pro-V monoid๐ satisfies this pseudo-identity if, for every continuous monoid homomorphism ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดVโ๐we have ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐.
L emma 8 . 1 6. Let V andW be S-pseudovarieties (respectively, M-pseu-dovarieties) with W โ V and let ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดV โ ฮฉ๐ดW be the natural pro-jection homomorphism (respectively, monoid homomorphism). Then forany ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ฮฉ๐ดV, every semigroup in W satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ if and only if๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐. 8.16
Let ๐ด be a set of V-pseudoidentities. Let โฆ๐ดโงV denote the class of all๐ โ V that satisfy all the V-pseudoidentities in ๐ด.
R e i t e rman โ s T h eorem 8 . 1 7. Let W be a subclass of a S-pseudo- Reitermanโs theoremvariety (respectively, M-pseudovariety) V. ThenW is an S-pseudovariety(respectively, M-pseudovariety) if and only if W = โฆ๐ดโงV for some set ๐ด ofV-pseudoidentities.
Proof of 8.17. We prove the result for S-pseudovarieties; the same reason-ing works for M-pseudovarieties with the standard modifications.
Part 1. Suppose W = โฆ๐ดโงV. By reasoning parallel to the proof of Theo-rem 8.2, we see that W is closed underโ, ๐, and โfin and is thus an S-pseudovariety.
Part 2. Suppose W is an S-pseudovariety. Fix a countably infinite alpha-bet ๐ด. Let ๐ด be the set of all V-pseudoidentities ๐ข = ๐ฃ satisfied by allsemigroups in W, where ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ฮฉ๐ตV and ๐ต โ ๐ด. Clearly W โ โฆ๐ดโงV; weaim to prove equality.
Let X = โฆ๐ดโงV and let ๐ โ X. Then since ๐ด is infinite and ๐ is finite,there exists some ๐ต โ ๐ด and a surjective continuous homomorphism๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ตXโ ๐. Let ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ตXโ ฮฉ๐ตW be the natural projection.
Pseudoidentities โข 167
Suppose ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ฮฉ๐ตX are such that ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐. Then by Lemma 8.16,every semigroup in W satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ. Thus ๐ข = ๐ฃ is a V-pseudoidentityin ๐ด; and thus ๐ satisfies ๐ข = ๐ฃ. In particular, ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐. This shows thatker๐ โ ker๐.
Therefore the map ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ตW โ ๐ defined by (๐ฅ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ is a well-defined surjective homomorphism.
For any subset ๐พ of ๐, the subset ๐พ๐โ1 of ฮฉ๐ตX is closed because ๐is continuous. The map ๐maps closed sets to closed sets because it is aprojection of compact spaces. Hence ๐พ๐โ1 = ๐พ๐โ1๐ is closed. Thus ๐ iscontinuous.
By Proposition 8.15, ๐ โ W. Therefore โฆ๐ดโงV = X โW. 8.17
If V is an S-pseudovariety (respectively M-pseudovariety) and ๐ด is aBases of pseudoidentitiesset of S-pseudoidentities (respectively, M-pseudoidentities) such that V =โฆ๐ดโงS (respectively, V = โฆ๐ดโงM), then ๐ด is called a basis of pseudoidentitiesfor V. If there is a finite set of pseudoidentities ๐ด such that V = โฆ๐ดโงS(respectively, โฆ๐ดโงM), then V is finitely based.
In order to actually write down useful pseudoidentities, we introduceNotation forpseudoidentities some new concepts and notation. Let ๐ be a finite semigroup, ๐ฅ โ ๐,
and ๐ โ โค. Consider the sequence (๐ฅ๐!+๐)๐. This sequence is eventuallyconstant: for all ๐ > max{|๐|, |๐|}, all terms ๐ฅ๐!+๐ are equal. More generally,let ๐ be a profinite semigroup. Then the sequence (๐ฅ๐!+๐)๐ converges to alimit, which we denote ๐ฅ๐+๐. In particular, this holds when ๐ is ฮฉ๐ดS and๐ฅ โ ๐ด.
Let ๐ be finite and let ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดS โ ๐ be a continuous homomor-phism, the powers of ๐ฅ๐ are not all distinct: we have (๐ฅ๐)๐+๐ = (๐ฅ๐)๐for some ๐, ๐ โ โ. Let (๐ฅ๐)๐ be the identity of the cyclic group ๐ถ ={(๐ฅ๐)๐,โฆ , (๐ฅ๐)๐+๐โ1}. Since (๐ฅ๐)๐ = (๐ฅ๐)๐! = ๐ฅ๐!๐ for all ๐ โฉพ ๐, wehave (๐ฅ๐)๐ = (๐ฅ๐)๐. That is, (๐ฅ๐)๐ is the unique idempotent power of ๐ฅ๐.Furthermore, ๐ฅ๐โ1๐ is the inverse of ๐ฅ๐+1๐ in ๐ถ.
We can interpret this notation in ๐ by define new operations ๐+๐ onfinite semigroups. For any finite semigroup ๐, the operation ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐takes any element ๐ฆ to its unique idempotent power ๐ฆ๐. For any ๐ โ โ,the operation ๐+๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ takes any element ๐ฆ to ๐ฆ๐๐ฆ๐, and ๐โ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐takes ๐ฆ to the inverse of ๐ฆ๐+๐ in the [finite] cyclic subgroup {๐ฆ๐, ๐ฆ๐+1,โฆ}.
We can now give explicit examples of pseudoidentities defining par-ticular pseudovarieties of finite semigroups and monoids. See Tables 8.4and 8.5 for a summary.
E x a m p l e 8 . 1 8. a) The S-pseudovariety of all finite aperiodic sem-igroups A is defined by the pseudoidentity ๐ฅ๐+1 = ๐ฅ๐.
b) The S-pseudovariety of finite nilpotent semigroupsN is defined by thepseudoidentities ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ and ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐. These pseudoidentitiesessentially say that ๐ฅ๐๐ is a zero, and so we abbreviate them by ๐ฅ๐ = 0.
c) The S-pseudovariety of finite groups G is defined by the S-pseudo-identities ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ and ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆ. Since these S-pseudoidentities
168 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
Pseudovariety Symbol Pseudoidentities See also
Semigroups S โTrivial semigroup 1 ๐ฅ = ๐ฆNull semigroups Z ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐กNilpotent semigroups N ๐ฅ๐ = 0 Exa. 8.18(b)Left zero semigroups LZ ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅRight zero semigroups RZ ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆRectangular bands RB ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ Exer. 8.4Comp. simple sgrps CS ๐ฅ๐+1 = ๐ฅ Exer. 8.8Comp. regular sgrps CR (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ Exer. 8.9Left simple sgrps LS ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ Exer. 8.10Right simple sgrps RS ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ Exer. 8.10Left-trivial sgrps K ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ pp. 193โ194Right-trivial sgrps D ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ pp. 193โ194
TABLE 8.4S-pseudovarieties of semi-groups. The pseudoidentity๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง is implicitlyassumed in every case.
Pseudovariety Symbol Pseudoidentities See also
Monoids M โTrivial monoid 1 ๐ฅ = 1Commutative monoids Com ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ
Semilattices with ident. Sl {๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ,๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ
Aperiodic monoids A ๐ฅ๐+1 = ๐ฅ๐ Exa. 8.18(a)L-trivial monoids L ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ Pr. 8.20(a)R-trivial monoids R (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ Pr. 8.20(b)
J-trivial monoids J {(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐,๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐
Pr. 8.20(c)
Comp. regular monoids CR (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ Exer. 8.9Groups G ๐ฅ๐ = 1 Exa. 8.18(c)
Abelian groups Ab {๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ,๐ฅ๐ = 1
TABLE 8.5M-pseudovarieties of mon-oids. The pseudoidentities๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง, ๐ฅ1 = 1, and1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ are implicitly assumedin every case.
essentially say that ๐ฅ๐๐ (where ๐ โถ ฮฉ๐ดS โ ๐ is a homomorphism)is an identity, we abbreviate them by ๐ฅ๐ = 1. If we consider the M-pseudovariety of finite groups instead, then ๐ฅ๐ = 1 is a genuine M-pseudoidentity.
We now have two different ways to define pseudovarieties: we canspecify a set of ๐- or๐-pseudoidentities and consider the S-or M-pseu-dovarieties of semigroups or monoids they define, or we can specify a setof finite semigroups or monoids and consider the S- or M-pseudovarietythey generate. These ways of defining pseudovarieties interact with thelattices of pseudovarieties in different but complementary ways.
Pseudoidentities โข 169
If ๐ด and ๐ต are sets of ๐-pseudoidentities, then
โฆ๐ดโงS โ โฆ๐ตโงS = โฆ๐ด โช ๐ตโงS, (8.8)
and similarly for๐-pseudoidentities. For example, the M-pseudovarietyof finite Abelian groups is
Ab = โฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅโงM โ โฆ๐ฅ๐ = 1โงM = โฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ
๐ = 1โงM.
On the other hand, for any classes X and Y of finite semigroups,
VS(X) โ VS(Y) = VS(X โช Y), (8.9)
and similarly for finite monoids.Furthermore, the operators Sg and Mon interact with pseudoidentities
in a pleasant way. Let ๐ด be a set of M-pseudoidentities. Let ๐ดSg be the setof S-pseudoidentities that can be obtained from ๐ด as follows:1) by substituting 1 for some of the variables;2) replacing pseudoidentities of the form ๐ข = 1, where ๐ข is not the
identity, by ๐ข๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ข = ๐ฅ, where ๐ฅ is a new symbol not in ๐ข;3) deleting the pseudoidentity 1 = 1 if it is present.
P r o p o s i t i o n 8 . 1 9. a) Let ๐ด be a set of S-pseudoidentities. Then
โฆ๐ดโงM = (โฆ๐ดโงS)Mon.
b) Let ๐ด be a set of M-pseudoidentities. Then
โฆ๐ดSgโงS = (โฆ๐ดโงM)Sg.
Proof of 8.19. a) Let ๐ be a finite monoid. Then
๐ โ โฆ๐ดโงMโ ๐ is a monoid that satisfies all the
S-pseudoidentities in ๐ดโ ๐ is a monoid that belongs to โฆ๐ดโงSโ ๐ โ (โฆ๐ดโงS)Mon.
b) For brevity, let V = โฆ๐ดโงM. It is clear that V = โฆ๐ดSgโงM, and so VSg โโฆ๐ดโฒโงS. Conversely, if ๐ satisfies all the S-pseudoidentities in ๐ดSg, then๐1 satisfies all theM-pseudoidentities in๐ดSg. Thus ๐ โ โฆ๐ดSgโงS implies๐1 โ V, which implies ๐ โ SSg by (8.7). Hence โฆ๐ดโฒโงS โ VSg. 8.19
Proposition 8.19 allows us to switch from M-pseudoidentities for anM-pseudovariety of monoids V to S-pseudoidentities for correspondingmonoidal S-pseudovariety of semigroups VSg.
170 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
A semigroup ๐ isH-trivial (respectively,L-trivial,R-trivial,D-trivial,J-trivial) ifH (respectively,L,R,D, J) is the identity relation id๐. A finitesemigroup isH-trivial if and only if it is aperiodic by Proposition 7.4, andis D-trivial if and only if it is J-trivial by Proposition 3.3. In particular,therefore, the class of H-trivial finite monoids is the M-pseudovariety A.Let L, R, and J be, respectively, the classes ofL-,R-, and J-trivial monoids.
P r o p o s i t i o n 8 . 2 0. a) The class L is anM-pseudovariety of mon-oids, and
L = โฆ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงM.
b) The class R is an M-pseudovariety of monoids, and
R = โฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงM.
c) The class J is an M-pseudovariety of monoids, and
J = L โ R = โฆ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงM= โฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐, ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1โงM.
Proof of 8.20. a) Let ๐ โ L; that is, ๐ is a finite L-trivial monoid. Then ๐is H-trivial and so aperiodic, and therefore ๐ง๐ = ๐ง๐+1 for all ๐ง โ ๐.Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ(๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ and so ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ L (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ andso ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ since L = id๐. So every finite L-trivial monoidsatisfies the pseudoidentity ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐.
On the other hand, let ๐ be a finite monoid satisfying the pseudo-identity๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐. Let ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐ be such that ๐ง L ๐ก.Then there ex-ist ๐, ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐๐ง = ๐ก and ๐๐ก = ๐ง. Then ๐ก = (๐๐)๐ก = (๐๐)2๐ก = โฆand so ๐ก = (๐๐)๐๐ก. Similarly ๐ง = ๐๐ก = ๐(๐๐)๐ก = ๐(๐๐)2๐ก = โฆ and so๐ง = ๐(๐๐)๐๐ก. Substitute ๐ for ๐ฅ and ๐ for ๐ฆ in the pseudoidentity tosee that ๐ก = (๐๐)๐๐ก = ๐(๐๐)๐๐ก = ๐ง. So L = id๐. Thus ๐ is L-trivialand so ๐ โ L.
Thus the class of finiteL-trivial monoids L is a pseudovariety, andL = โฆ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงS.
b) The reasoning is dual to part a).c) A monoid is D-trivial if and only if it is both L-trivial and R-trivial,
and a finite monoid is J-trivial if and only if it is D-trivial. ThusJ = L โ R, and L โ R = โฆ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงM by (8.8).
Suppose ๐ โ โฆ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงM. Putting๐ฅ = ๐ฆin the first pseudoidentity shows that ๐ฅ(๐ฅ2)๐ = (๐ฅ2)๐. Since ๐ฅ๐ =(๐ฅ2)๐, it follows that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ and let ๐ belarge enough that (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ and (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐. Then (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐๐ฆ =(๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐. So ๐ satisfies the pseudoidentity (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ =(๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐. Hence ๐ โ โฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐, ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1โงM.
Now suppose ๐ โ โฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐, ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1โงM. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Us-ing both pseudoidentities, we see that (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐+1 = (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐+1 =
Pseudoidentities โข 171
๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ. Hence (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = ๐ฆ2(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ2 = ๐ฆ3(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ3 = โฆ and so(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = ๐ฆ๐(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐+1(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐. Similarly, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ =(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ. Therefore ๐ โ โฆ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงS. Thus
โฆ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐, (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐โงM= โฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐, ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1โงM. 8.20
We now define another operator that connects M-pseudovarieties ofmonoids with S-pseudovarieties of semigroups. For anyM-pseudovarietyof monoids V, let
๐V = { ๐ โ S โถ (โ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐))(๐๐๐ โ V) }.
For any semigroup ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), the subset ๐๐๐ forms a submonoidLocal submonoid, locally Vwhose identity is ๐, called the local submonoid of ๐ at ๐. Thus a semigroupin ๐V is said to be locally V.
Let ๐ด be a basis ofM-pseudoidentities for aM-pseudovariety of mon-oids V. Let ๐ง be a new symbol that does not appear in ๐ด. Let ๐ดโฒ be theset of S-pseudovarieties obtained by substituting ๐ง๐๐ฅ๐ง๐ for ๐ฅ in every M-pseudoidentity in ๐ด, for every symbol ๐ฅ that appears in ๐ด, and substitut-ing ๐ง๐ for 1 in every M-pseudoidentity in ๐ด. Then ๐V = โฆ๐ดโฒโงS, and so๐V is an S-pseudovariety of semigroups.
In particular, the variety of locally trivial semigroups is
๐1 = โฆ๐ง๐๐ฅ๐ง๐ = ๐ง๐โงS;
we will study these further in the next chapter.
Semidirect productof pseudovarieties
The semidirect product of two S-pseudovarieties V andSemidirect productof pseudovarieties W, denoted V โ W, is the S-pseudovariety generated by all semidirect
products ๐ โ๐ ๐, where ๐ โ V, ๐ โ W, and ๐ โถ ๐ โ End(๐) is ananti-homomorphism. We will not explore semidirect products of pseu-dovarieties in detail; we mention only the following result, which allowsus to re-state the KrohnโRhodes theorem in a more elegant form:
Pro p o s i t i on 8 . 2 1. The semidirect product of S-pseudovarieties isassociative.
Proof of 8.21. [Technical, and omitted.] 8.21
Notice that it is the semidirect product of S-pseudovarieties that is associ-ative. There is no natural definition for the associativity of the semidirect
172 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
product of semigroups: by the definition of semidirect products (seepages 133โ134), the expression (๐ โ๐ ๐) โ๐ ๐ only makes sense if themap ๐ is an anti-homomorphism from ๐ to End(๐ โ ๐๐), whereas theexpression ๐ โ๐ (๐ โ๐ ๐) only makes sense if the map ๐ is an anti-homomorphism from ๐ to End(๐).
The KrohnโRhodes theorem shows that every finite semigroup is awreath product of its subgroups and copies of the aperiodic semigroup๐3.Now, if V andW are S-pseudovarieties and ๐ โ V and ๐ โ W, then ๐๐ โ V(since V is closed under finitary direct products); hence ๐ โ ๐ โ V โW.Notice furthermore that V โ VโW since every pseudovariety contains thetrivial semigroup. Therefore the KrohnโRhodes theorem can be restatedin terms of S-pseudovarieties as
S = โ๐โโโช{0}
Gโโ A โ Gโ appears ๐ timesโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ A โ G โโฏ โ A โ G.
Exercises
[See pages 241โ248 for the solutions.]8.1 Let ๐ be cancellative semigroup that satisfies a law ๐ข = ๐ฃ where ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ๐ด+ and ๐ข and ๐ฃ are not equal words.Without loss of generality, assume|๐ข| โฉฝ |๐ฃ|. Let ๐ค โ ๐ดโ be the longest common suffix of ๐ข and ๐ฃ. (Thatis, ๐ข = ๐ขโฒ๐ค and ๐ฃ = ๐ฃโฒ๐ค, where ๐ขโฒ and ๐ฃโฒ do not end with the sameletter.) Prove thata) if ๐ข = ๐ค, then ๐ is a group;b) if ๐ข โ ๐ค then ๐ is group-embeddable.
โด8.2 a) Prove, directly from the definition, that the class of finite nilpotentsemigroups is a pseudovariety.
b) Prove that the class all nilpotent semigroups is not a variety.โด8.3 Recall that a semigroup is orthodox if it is regular and its idempotents
form a subsemigroup. Prove that the class of orthodox completelyregular semigroups forms a variety and that it is defined by the laws๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ.
8.4 Let RB be the class of rectangular bands.a) Prove, directly from the definition, that RB is a variety.b) Prove that RB is defined by the law ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ.c) Prove that RB is also defined by the laws ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง.d) Give an example of a semigroup that satisfies ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง but is not
a rectangular band.
Exercises โข 173
8.5 Let X be the class of semigroups isomorphic to a direct product of agroup and a rectangular band. Prove that X is a variety and is definedby the laws ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ and ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ.
8.6 Let T be a type, and let {V๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } be a collection of pseudovarietiesof T-algebras. Prove thatโ๐โ๐ผ V๐ is a pseudovariety.
8.7 Prove that (VMon)Sg โ V for any S-pseudovariety of semigroups V.Give an example to show that the inclusion may be strict.
โด8.8 Prove that the pseudovariety of finite completely regular semigroupsCR is โฆ๐ฅ๐+1 = ๐ฅโงS.
โด8.9 Prove that the pseudovariety of finite completely simple semigroupsCS is โฆ(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅโงS.
8.10 Prove that โฆ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅโงS is the class of finite left simple semigroups.[Dual reasoning shows that โฆ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅโงS is the class of finite rightsimple semigroups.]
Notes
The number of non-isomorphic nilpotent semigroups of or-der 8 is from Distler, โClassification and Enumeration of Finite Semigroupsโ,Table A.4. โ The section on varieties follows Howie, Fundamentals of SemigroupTheory, ยง 4.3 in outline, but in a universal algebraic context instead of the re-stricted context of {(โ, 2), (โ1, 1)}-algebras. โ The exposition of pseudovarietiescontains elements from Almeida, Finite Semigroups and Universal Algebra, ยงยง 3.1,5.1, & 7.1. โ The discussion of free objects for pseudovarieties, profinite semi-groups, pro-V semigroups, and pseudoidentities is based on Almeida, โProfinitesemigroups and applicationsโ and Almeida, Finite Semigroups and UniversalAlgebra, ch. 3. โ For a proof of Proposition 8.21, see Almeida, Finite Semigroupsand Universal Algebra, ยง 10.1. โ For further reading, Almeida, Finite Semigroupsand Universal Algebra is the more accessible text, and Rhodes & Steinberg, The๐ฎ-theory of Finite Semigroups the more recent and comprehensive monograph.Pin, Varieties of Formal Languages, ch. 2 and Eilenberg, Automata, Languages,and Machines (Vol. B), ch. v give rather different treatments.
โข
174 โขVarieties & pseudovarieties
9Automata& finite semigroups
โWe do not praise automata for accurately producingall the movements they were designed to perform,because the production of these movements occursnecessarily. It is the designer who is praised โ
โ Renรฉ Descartes,Principles of Philosophy, Part One, ยง 37
(trans. John Cottingham).
โข This chapter explores the connection between finitesemigroups and rational languages. Rational languages are sets of wordsthat are recognized by finite automata, which are mathematical modelsof simple computers. After discussing the necessary background on thetheory of languages and automata, we will explore its connection to thetheory of finite semigroups. The goal is the Eilenberg correspondence,which associates pseudovarieties of finite semigroups to certain classesof rational languages. We will then study some consequences of thiscorrespondence.
Finite automata andrational languages
Let ๐ด be an alphabet. A language over ๐ด is a subset of Language๐ดโ. So a language over ๐ด is a set of words with letters in ๐ด. We will beinterested in a particular class of languages over ๐ด called the rationallanguages. To motivate the definition of this class, we first introduce finiteautomata.
A finite automaton is a mathematical model of a computer with a verysimple form of operation: it reads an input word (a sequence of symbolsover an alphabet) one symbol at a time, and either accepts or rejects thisinput. The automaton can be in one of a finite number of internal statesat any point. As it reads a symbol, it changes its state to a new one that isdependent on its current state and the symbol it reads. If can start in oneof a given set of initial states, read an input word symbol-by-symbol, andend up in one of a given set of accept states, it accepts this input.
โข 175
FIGURE 9.1An example of a finite auto-
maton.
๐0 ๐1๐
๐๐
๐, ๐
๐
It is easier to start with an example of a finite automaton rather thana formal definition. The directed graph in Figure 9.1 represents a finiteautomaton. The vertices of the graph represent he states of the automaton.The state ๐0 is marked with an incoming arrow โfrom nowhereโ: thisindicates that it is an initial state. The state ๐1 has a double outline: thisindicates that it is an accept state. (In this example, there is only one initialstate and one accept state; generally there may be more than one of each,and it is possible for a state to be both an initial and an accept state.) Theedges and their labels indicate how the automaton behaves: for example,โ the edge from ๐0 to ๐1 labelled by ๐ says that if the automaton is in
state ๐0 and reads the symbol ๐, it can change to state ๐1;โ the edge from ๐1 to ๐0 labelled by the empty word ๐ says that if the
automaton is in state ๐1, it can change to state ๐0 without reading anysymbols (that is, it can โspontaneouslyโ change from state ๐1 to state๐0).
Notice that if the automaton is in state ๐1 and reads a symbol ๐, it caneither change to state ๐0 or return to state ๐1. That is, the automatonis non-deterministic: there is an element of choice in how it functions.Thus the automaton is said to accept a word ๐ค โ {๐, ๐}โ if there is somesequence of choices it can make so that it starts in the initial state ๐0,reads ๐ค, and finishes in the accept state ๐1. In terms of the graph, this isequivalent to saying that the automaton accepts ๐ค if there is a directedpath in the graph starting at ๐0 and ending at ๐1, labelled by ๐ค. (Thelabel on a path is the concatenation of the labels on its edges.) Hence thisautomaton accepts ๐๐๐, since this word labels the path
๐0 ๐0 ๐1 ๐0 ๐1๐ ๐ ๐ ๐โโโโโโโโโ โโโโโโโโโโ ๐ผ โ ๐น
On the other hand, it does not accept the word ๐, because the only pathwith label ๐ starting at ๐0 is the path
๐0 ๐0๐โโโโโโโโโ โโโโโโโโโโ ๐ผ โ ๐น
which does not end at ๐1Formally, a finite automaton, or simply an automaton, A is formallyFinite automaton
a quintuple (๐, ๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ผ, ๐น), where ๐ is a finite set of states, ๐ด is a finite
176 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
alphabet, ๐ฟ โถ ๐ ร (๐ด โช {๐}) โ โ๐ is a map called the transition function,๐ผ โ ๐ is a set of distinguished states called the initial states or start states,and ๐น โ ๐ is a distinguished set of states called accept states or final states.
We think of an automaton as a directed graph with labelled edges,with vertices being the states, and, for each ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ด, andfor each ๐โฒ โ (๐, ๐)๐ฟ, an edge labelled by ๐ from ๐ to ๐โฒ. We can thusrepresent an automaton in a diagrammatic form, with the states beingnodes connected by arrows. Initial states are marked with an incomingarrow โfrom nowhereโ. Accept states have double borders. For each ๐ โ ๐and ๐ โ ๐ด, there is an arrow labelled by ๐ โ ๐ด from ๐ to each element of(๐, ๐)๐ฟ. The label on a path in such a graph is the product of the labels onthe edges in that path.
๐ ๐ ๐๐0 โ {๐1} {๐0}๐1 {๐0} {๐0} ๐
TABLE 9.1Values of (๐, ๐)๐ฟ
For example, let A be automaton in Figure 9.1. Then A has state set๐ = {๐0, ๐1}. The set of initial states is ๐ผ = {๐0}, the set of final states is๐น = {๐1}, and the transition function ๐ฟ โถ ๐ ร (๐ด โช {๐}) โ โ๐ is as givenin Table 9.1.
We say that an automaton A = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ผ, ๐น) accepts a word ๐ค โ ๐ดโ Accepted wordif there is a directed path in the diagram starting at an initial state in ๐ผand ending at an accept state in ๐น, and labelled by ๐ค.
The idea is that the automaton is a model of a computer that can startin any state in ๐ผ. While in state ๐, it can read a letter ๐ from an input tapeand change to any state in (๐, ๐)๐ฟ, or it can change to any state in (๐, ๐)๐ฟwithout reading any input. The automaton accepts its input if, when ithas finished reading all the input letters, it is in a state in ๐น.
The set of all words accepted by an automatonA is denoted ๐ฟ(A), and Language recognizedby an automatonis called the language recognized by A. If a language ๐ฟ โ ๐ดโ is recognized
by some finite automaton, it is called a recognizable language. Recognizable languageOur description of an automaton reading input involves an element
of choice. The automaton is non-deterministic: First, the automaton canstart in any state in ๐ผ. Second, the action it takes when it is in a particularstate with a particular input letter to read is not fixed: the automatoncan change to one of several other states on reading that letter, and mayindeed change to another state without reading any input.
An automaton where there is no such choice is called deterministic. Deterministic automatonMore formally, an automaton A = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ผ, ๐น) is deterministic if ๐ผ con-tains exactly one state, ๐ฟ(๐, ๐) = โ for all ๐ โ ๐, and ๐ฟ(๐, ๐) contains asingle state for all ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ด. In terms of the diagram, A is determ-inistic if there is only one state with an incoming edge โfrom nowhereโ, noedge is labelled by ๐, and for every state ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ด, there is at mostone edge starting at ๐ and labelled by ๐. So in a deterministic automaton,there is at most one path starting at a given state and labelled by a givenword. (Such a path may not exist, since there might not an edge with therequired label present at some point.)
However, although deterministic automata seem to be much more re-strictive than non-deterministic ones, the class of deterministic automata
Finite automata and rational languages โข 177
actually has the same โrecognizing powerโ as the class of all automata, ina sense made precise by the following result:
T h eorem 9 . 1. Let ๐ฟ be a recognizable language. Then there is a de-Recognizable languagesare recognized by
deterministic automataterministic automaton that recognizes ๐ฟ.
Proof of 9.1. Let A = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ผ, ๐น) be an automaton, possibly non-de-terministic, that recognizes ๐ฟ. For the purposes of this proof, we definethe ๐-closure of a set ๐ โ ๐ to be the set
๐ถ๐(๐) = { ๐ โ ๐ โถ (โ๐ โ ๐)(there is a path in Afrom ๐ to ๐ labelled by ๐) }.
We are going to define a new automaton ๐ท(A) = (โ๐,๐ด, ๐, ๐ฝ, ๐บ).Note that the state set of๐ท(A) is the power set of the state set of A. Theidea is that each state of ๐ท(A) is a set that records every possible statethat A could be at a given time. The following definitions formalize thisidea.
The set of initial states ๐ฝ is the singleton set {๐ถ๐(๐ผ)}. (Note that beforereading any symbol, A could be in any state in ๐ถ๐(๐ผ).)
The transition function ๐ has domain ๐ ร (๐ด โช {๐}) and codomainthe power set of the power set of ๐. The function ๐ is defined by
(๐, ๐)๐ = โ ,
(๐, ๐)๐ = {๐ถ๐({ ๐ โ ๐ โถ (โ๐ โ ๐)((๐, ๐)๐ฟ = ๐) })}.
We emphasize that (๐, ๐)๐ contains a single element ๐ถ๐(โฆ). Note that,starting in a state in ๐ and reading a symbol ๐, the automaton A could bein any state in (๐, ๐)๐.
Finally, the set of accept states is
๐บ = {๐ โ โ๐ โถ ๐ โฉ ๐น โ โ }.
Note that ๐ท(A) is deterministic. We now have to prove that ๐ฟ(A) =๐ฟ(๐ท(A)).
Suppose ๐ค = ๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐ โ ๐ฟ(A). Then there is a path in the graph ofA from a state in ๐ผ to a state in ๐น. We are going to prove that there is apath in ๐ท(A) from the (unique) initial state to an accept state with thesame label. Let ๐0,โฆ , ๐๐ be the states on a path in A labelled by ๐ค, with๐0 โ ๐ผ and ๐๐ โ ๐น. For ๐ = 0,โฆ , ๐ โ 1, let ๐๐ the the subscript of the stateimmediately before the edge labelled by the symbol ๐ค๐+1 on this path.
So there is a path in A from ๐0 โ ๐ผ to ๐๐0 labelled by ๐, so ๐๐0 โ ๐ถ๐(๐ผ).So ๐๐0 is in the unique initial state of๐ท(A). Let๐๐0 = ๐ถ๐(๐ผ); then we have๐๐0 โ ๐๐0 .
Proceed by induction. For any ๐, we have ๐๐๐+1 โ (๐๐๐ , ๐ค๐)๐ฟ, and weknow that there is a path in A from ๐๐๐+1 to ๐๐๐+1 labelled by ๐. Therefore
178 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
โ
{๐0}
{๐1}
๐
๐, ๐
๐
๐
๐ ๐
๐, ๐ FIGURE 9.2The deterministic automatonequivalent to the one in Figure9.1.
we have ๐๐๐+1 โ ๐ถ๐({๐๐๐+1}) โ (๐๐๐ , ๐ค๐)๐. Let ๐๐๐+1 = (๐๐๐ , ๐ค๐)๐; then wehave ๐๐๐+1 โ ๐๐๐+1 .
Finally, there is a path from ๐๐๐โ1+1 to ๐๐ โ ๐น labelled by ๐, so (๐๐๐ , ๐ค๐)๐must contain ๐๐, and hence (๐๐๐โ1 , ๐ค๐)๐ โฉ ๐น โ โ . Let ๐๐๐ = (๐๐๐โ1 , ๐ค๐)๐.Thus the (unique) path in๐ท(A) labelled by ๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐ and starting fromthe (unique) initial state ๐๐0 โ ๐ฝ visits states ๐๐0 , ๐๐0 ,โฆ ,๐๐๐โ1 , ๐๐๐ andends at an accept state. So ๐ค โ ๐ฟ(๐ท(A)).
Now suppose that๐ค = ๐ค1โฆ,๐ค๐ โ ๐ฟ(๐ท(A). Then there is a sequenceof states ๐0,โฆ ,๐๐, with ๐0 โ ๐ฝ and ๐๐ โ ๐บ, and (๐๐โ1, ๐ค๐)๐ = ๐๐ for๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐. By the definition of ๐บ, there is some ๐โฒ๐ โ ๐๐ โฉ ๐น. Proceedby induction. For any ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐, by the definition of ๐, there exist๐๐โ1 โ ๐๐โ1 and ๐๐ โ ๐๐ such that ๐๐ โ (๐๐โ1, ๐ค๐)๐ฟ and there with a pathfrom ๐๐ to ๐โฒ๐ in A labelled by ๐.
Finally, since ๐0 โ ๐ฝ, we have ๐0 = ๐ถ๐(๐ผ) and so there is a path in Alabelled by ๐ from some ๐0 โ ๐ผ to ๐โฒ0.
Hence there is a path in A from ๐0 โ ๐ผ to ๐โฒ๐ โ ๐น passing through๐โฒ0, ๐1, ๐โฒ1โฆ, ๐๐โ1, ๐โฒ๐โ1, ๐๐ (and other intermediate states) and labelledby ๐ค = ๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐. So ๐ค โ ๐ฟ(A).
Thus the recognizable language ๐ฟ is recognized by the deterministicautomaton๐ท(A). 9.1
๐ ๐ ๐โ โ {โ } {โ }{๐0} โ {๐} {{๐0}}{๐1} โ {{๐0}} ๐๐ โ {๐} ๐
TABLE 9.2Values of (๐, ๐)๐
Applying the construction in the proof of Theorem 9.1 to the ex-ample automaton A above, the resulting deterministic automaton๐ท(A)recognizing ๐ฟ(A) has set of initial states ๐ฝ = {{๐0}}, set of accept states๐บ = {{๐1}, ๐}, and transition function ๐ โถ โ๐ ร (๐ด โช {๐}) โ โ(โ๐) asshown in Table 9.2. Diagrammatically,๐ท(A) is shown in Figure 9.2.
We will need to make a distinction between two classes of languages. โ-languages, +-languagesA โ-language is a subset of ๐ดโ; that is, it may include the empty word. A+-language is a subset of ๐ด+; that is, it does not contain the empty word.Of course, every +-language can also be viewed as a โ-language. Butthe distinction is important when we perform operations on languages,and when we develop the correspondence of classes of languages andpseudovarieties.
Let ๐ด be an alphabet. We are going to define some operations on the Boolean operations,Boolean algebraclasses of languages over ๐ด. Let ๐ฟ and ๐พ be โ-languages over ๐ด. Then
Finite automata and rational languages โข 179
๐พ โช ๐ฟ and ๐พ โฉ ๐ฟ are, respectively, the union and intersection of ๐พ and๐ฟ. The language ๐ดโ โ ๐ฟ is the complement of ๐ฟ in ๐ดโ. Notice that theclass of โ-languages is closed under union, intersection, and complement.These are the Boolean operations on the class of โ-languages. We will saythat a class of โ-languages that is closed under the Boolean operations isa Boolean algebra. [The notion of a Boolean algebra is more general thanthis, but this definition will suffice for us.]
For +-languages, we have the same union and intersection operations.However, the complement operation is different:๐ด+โ๐ฟ is the complementof ๐ฟ in ๐ด+, and is also a +-language. The class of +-languages is closedunder the operations of union, intersection, and this new complementoperation; these are the Boolean operations on the class of +-languages.Again, we say that a class of +-languages that is closed under the Booleanoperations is a Boolean algebra.
The concatenation๐พ๐ฟ of the โ-languages or +-languages๐พ and ๐ฟ isKleene star โ, Kleene plus +
the set of words of the form ๐ข๐ฃ, where ๐ข โ ๐พ and ๐ฃ โ ๐ฟ. The submonoidof ๐ดโ generated by ๐พ is ๐พโ; the subsemigroup generated by ๐พ is ๐พ+.Note that when๐พ = ๐ด, this agrees with the notation for the free monoidand free semigroup. However, when ๐พ โ ๐ด, the sets ๐พโ and ๐พ+ are ingeneral not the free monoid and free semigroup on ๐พ. For example, if๐พ = {๐2, ๐3}, then ๐2๐3 = ๐3๐2, so ๐พโ and ๐พ+ are not the free monoidand free semigroup on ๐พ. The operations โ and + are called the Kleenestar and Kleene plus. Notice that the class of โ-languages is closed underthe operations โ and +, and the class of +-languages is closed under theoperation +.
A language over ๐ด = {๐1,โฆ , ๐๐} is rational or regular if it can beRational/regular languageobtained from the languagesโ , {๐}, {๐1}, {๐2}, โฆ, {๐๐}, by applying (zeroor more times) the operations of union, concatenation, and Kleene star.
K l e en e โ s Th eorem 9 . 2. A language over a finite alphabet is ra-Kleeneโs theoremtional if and only if it is recognizable.
Proof of 9.2. To show that any rational language is recognizable, it sufficesto show that the languagesโ , {๐}, and {๐} (for ๐ โ ๐ด) are recognizable,and then to prove that the class of recognizable languages is closed underconcatenation, union, and Kleene star. In our various constructions, wewill simply draw automata. First, notice that
๐0 ๐1 recognizesโ ;
๐0 recognizes {๐}; and
๐0 ๐1๐ recognizes {๐} (for ๐ โ ๐ด).
Soโ , {๐}, and {๐} (for ๐ โ ๐ด) are recognizable.
180 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Now suppose that๐พ and ๐ฟ are recognizable languages. So there areautomata A = (๐A, ๐ด, ๐ฟA, ๐ผA, ๐นA) and B = (๐B, ๐ต, ๐ฟB, ๐ผB, ๐นB) recog-nizing ๐พ and ๐ฟ respectively, which we will sketch as
โฎ๐ผA โฎ๐นAA and โฎ๐ผB โฎ๐นBB
respectively. Then
โฎ๐ผA โฎ๐นAA โฎ๐ผB โฎ๐นBB๐๐
๐๐
recognizes ๐พ๐ฟ;
โฎ๐ผA โฎ๐นAA
โฎ๐ผB โฎ๐นBB
}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}
recognizes ๐พ โช ๐ฟ;
and โฎ๐ผA โฎ๐นAA
๐
recognizes ๐พ+.
Thus๐พ๐ฟ,๐พโช๐ฟ, and๐พ+ are recognizable languages. Hence๐พโ = ๐พ+ โช{๐}is also recognizable. This proves that every rational language is recogniz-able.
So let ๐ฟ be a recognizable language. Then by Theorem 9.1, there is adeterministic automaton A = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ผ, ๐น) recognizing ๐ฟ. Suppose that๐ = {๐1,โฆ , ๐๐} and ๐ผ = {๐1}. For each ๐, ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐} and ๐ โ {0,โฆ , ๐},let ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐] be the set of labels on paths that start at ๐๐, end at ๐๐, andvisit only intermediate vertices in {๐1,โฆ , ๐๐}. (So ๐ [๐, ๐; 0] is the set oflabels on paths that start at ๐๐, end at ๐๐, and do not visit any intermediatevertices.) Note that
๐ฟ = ๐ฟ(A) = โ1โฉฝ๐โฉฝ๐๐๐โ๐น
๐ [1, ๐; ๐]. (9.1)
Thus we aim to prove that ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐] is rational for all ๐, ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐}and ๐ โ {0,โฆ , ๐}; this will suffice to prove ๐ฟ is rational. We proceed byinduction on ๐.
Finite automata and rational languages โข 181
First, consider ๐ = 0. The words in ๐ [๐, ๐; 0] label paths from ๐๐ to๐๐ that visit no intermediate vertices, and so can have length at most 1(length 0 is possible if ๐ = ๐). So ๐ [๐, ๐; 0] is eitherโ or a union of sets {๐}and {๐} (for ๐ โ ๐ด). This is the base of the induction.
Now let ๐ > 0 and assume that ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐ โ 1] is rational for all ๐, ๐.Consider a path ๐ผ from ๐๐ to ๐๐ that only visits intermediate vertices from{๐1,โฆ , ๐๐}. Now, if ๐ผ does not visit ๐๐, then its label is in ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐ โ 1].Otherwise we can decompose ๐ผ into subpaths between visits to ๐๐: thatis, let ๐ผ be the concatenation of subpaths ๐ผ0, ๐ผ1,โฆ , ๐ผ๐ where ๐ผ0 is thesubpath from ๐๐ up to the first visit to ๐๐, the ๐ผโ (for โ = 1,โฆ ,๐ โ 1)are the subpaths between visits to ๐๐, and ๐ผ๐ is the subpath from the lastvisit to ๐๐ to the state ๐๐. Then the label on ๐ผ0 is in ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐ โ 1], the labelson the ๐ผโ (for โ = 1,โฆ , ๐ โ 1) are in ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐ โ 1], and the label on ๐ผ๐ isin ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐ โ 1]. Since ๐ผ was arbitrary, this shows that
๐ [๐, ๐; ๐] = ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐โ1]โช๐ [๐, ๐; ๐โ1](๐ [๐, ๐; ๐โ1])โ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐โ1].
By the induction hypothesis, each of the sets๐ [๐, ๐; ๐โ1] are rational.Thus๐ [๐, ๐; ๐] is rational, since it obtained from these sets using concatenation,union, and Kleene star.
Hence, by induction, all the sets ๐ [๐, ๐; ๐] are rational. Therefore ๐ฟ isrational by (9.1). 9.2
As a consequence of Theorem 9.2, the class of rational languages isclosed under complementation. Hence we may view the rational lan-guages over ๐ด as the languages obtainable from {๐} (for ๐ โ ๐ด) and {๐}by applying the operations of union, concatenation, and Kleene star, andalso intersection, complement, and Kleene plus.
A โ-language ๐ฟ over ๐ด is star-free if it can be obtained from theStar-free/plus-free languageslanguages {๐}, where ๐ โ ๐ด, and {๐} using only the operations of union,intersection, complementation, and concatenation.
For any โ-language ๐ฟ over an alphabet ๐ด and word ๐ข โ ๐ดโ, defineLeft-/right-quotientsof a language the languages
๐ขโ1๐ฟ = {๐ค โ ๐ดโ โถ ๐ข๐ค โ ๐ฟ }๐ฟ๐ขโ1 = {๐ค โ ๐ดโ โถ ๐ค๐ข โ ๐ฟ };
the languages ๐ขโ1๐ฟ and ๐ฟ๐ขโ1 are, respectively, the left and right quotientsof ๐ฟ with respect to ๐ข. Similarly, for any +-language ๐ฟ over an alphabet ๐ดand word ๐ข โ ๐ดโ, define
๐ขโ1๐ฟ = {๐ค โ ๐ด+ โถ ๐ข๐ค โ ๐ฟ }๐ฟ๐ขโ1 = {๐ค โ ๐ด+ โถ ๐ค๐ข โ ๐ฟ }.
Notice that the class of +-languages is closed under forming left and rightquotients. The following result shows that the classes of rational โ- and+-languages are also closed under forming left and right quotients:
182 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Pro p o s i t i on 9 . 3. If ๐ฟ is a rational โ-language (respectively, +-lan-guage), then ๐ฟ has only finitely many distinct left and right quotients, all ofwhich are rational โ-languages (respectively, +-language).
Proof of 9.3. We will prove the result for โ-language, the proof for +-languages is identical, with the additional observation the class of +-languages is closed under forming left and right quotients.
Let A = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ผ, ๐น) be an automaton with ๐ฟ = ๐ฟ(A). Let ๐ข โ ๐ดโ.Let ๐ฝ โ ๐ consist of all states A can reach starting at a state in ๐ผ
and reading ๐ข. Let ๐ฝA = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ฝ, ๐น). Then ๐ค โ ๐ฟ(๐ฝA) if and only if๐ข๐ค โ ๐ฟ(A). That is, ๐ขโ1๐ฟ = ๐ขโ1๐ฟ(A) = ๐ฟ(๐ฝA). So ๐ขโ1๐ฟ is rational. Sincethere are only finitely many possibilities for ๐ฝ, there are only finitely manydistinct languages ๐ขโ1๐ฟ.
Similarly, let๐บ โ ๐ consist of all states in whichA can start and reacha state in ๐น after reading ๐ข. Let A๐บ = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, ๐ผ, ๐บ). Then ๐ค โ ๐ฟ(A๐บ) ifand only if ๐ค๐ข โ ๐ฟ(A). That is, ๐ฟ๐ขโ1 = ๐ฟ(A)๐ขโ1 = ๐ฟ(A๐บ)๐ขโ1. So ๐ฟ๐ขโ1 isrational. Since there are only finitely many possibilities for ๐บ, there areonly finitely many distinct languages ๐ฟ๐ขโ1. 9.3
Let A = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, {๐0}, ๐น) be a deterministic automaton. Note that for Complete automatoneach ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ด, the set (๐, ๐)๐ฟ is either empty or contains a singleelement. If ๐ฟ is such that (๐, ๐)๐ฟ is never empty (that is, there is exactlyone element in each (๐, ๐)๐ฟ), then the automaton A is complete. In termsof the graph, a complete deterministic automaton has exactly one edgestarting at each vertex with each label in ๐ด.
LetA = (๐,๐ด, ๐ฟ, {๐0}, ๐น) be a complete deterministic automaton. For Transition monoidof an automatoneach ๐ โ ๐ด, there is a map ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ with ๐๐๐ given by (๐, ๐)๐ฟ = {๐๐๐}.
Notice that ๐๐ โ T๐ for each ๐ โ ๐ด. So we have a homomorphism ๐ โถ๐ดโ โ T๐ extending the map ๐ โฆ ๐๐. The set im๐ is a submonoid of T๐called the transition monoid of A. For any word ๐ค โ ๐ดโ, the element ๐ค๐is a transformation of๐. For any ๐ โ ๐, the state ๐(๐ค๐) is the state thatAwill reach if it starts in ๐ and reads๐ค. Let๐ = { ๐ โ im๐ โถ ๐0๐ โ ๐น } โ T๐.Then ๐ค๐ โ ๐ if and only if ๐ค โ ๐ฟ(A). That is, we have a monoid T๐ witha subset ๐ and a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ T๐ that describes ๐ฟ(A) asthe inverse image of ๐ under ๐. This motivates the following definition.
Aโ-language๐ฟ over๐ด is recognized by a homomorphism into amonoid Language recognizedby a homomorphism๐, or more simply recognized by a monoid๐, if there exists a monoid
homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ๐, where๐ is a monoid with a subset๐โฒ of๐ such that ๐ฟ = ๐โฒ๐โ1, or, equivalently, with ๐ฟ = ๐ฟ๐๐โ1. Similarly, a +-language ๐ฟ over๐ด is recognized by a homomorphism into a semigroup ๐, ormore simply recognized by a semigroup ๐, if there exists a homomorphism๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐, where ๐ is a semigroup, with ๐ฟ = ๐ฟ๐๐โ1. Notice that if ๐ฟis a โ-language (respectively, a +-language) recognized by ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ๐(respectively, ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐), then ๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1 and so ๐ฟ = โ๐ฅโ๐ฟ๐ ๐ฅ๐
โ1. Eachset ๐ฅ๐โ1 consists of words that map to ๐ฅ and so are related by ker๐. Thatis, each ๐ฅ๐โ1 is a ker๐-class, so ๐ฟ is a union of ker๐-classes. Notice that
Finite automata and rational languages โข 183
in the discussion in the previous paragraph, T๐ is a finite monoid. Soany recognizable language is recognized by a finite monoid. Furthermore,any recognizable +-language ๐ฟ is recognized by a finite semigroup, sincein this case the initial state of an automaton recognizing ๐ฟ cannot alsobe an accepting state, and hence ๐ in the discussion above does notcontain id๐, so that we can use ๐|๐ด+ โถ ๐ด+ โ (T๐ โ {id๐}), noting that๐ฟ = ๐๐|โ1๐ด+ = ๐ฟ๐|๐ด+๐|โ1๐ด+ .
On the other hand, suppose ๐ฟ is a โ-language over ๐ด recognized by afinite monoid๐. Let ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ๐ be a homomorphism recognizing ๐ฟ,so that by ๐ฟ = ๐ฟ๐๐โ1Then we can construct an automatonA recognizing๐ฟ as follows. The state set is๐. The set of initial states is {1๐}, the set ofaccept states is ๐ฟ๐, and the transition function ๐ฟ โถ ๐ ร (๐ด โช {๐}) โ ๐is given by (๐, ๐)๐ฟ = {๐(๐๐)}. It is easy to see that ๐ฟ(A) = ๐ฟ๐๐โ1 = ๐ฟ,since the unique path starting at 1๐ and labelled by๐ค = ๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐ (where๐ค๐ โ ๐ด) is
1๐ ๐ค1๐ (๐ค1๐ค2)๐ โฆ (๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐)๐๐ค1 ๐ค2 ๐ค3 ๐ค๐
This path ends in ๐ฟ๐ if and only if ๐ค โ ๐ฟ. Similarly, if a +-language ๐ฟis recognized by a finite semigroup ๐, we can construct an automatonrecognizing ๐ with state set ๐1. Thus we have proven the following result:
T h eorem 9 . 4. A โ-language is recognizable if and only if it is recog-nized by a finite monoid. A +-language is recognizable if and only if it isrecognized by a finite semigroup. 9.4
Let V be an M-pseudovariety of monoids (respectively, an S-pseudo-V-recognizabilityvariety of semigroups). A โ-language (respectively, +-language) over ๐ดis V-recognizable if it is recognized by some monoid (respectively, sem-igroup) in V. Thus Theorem 9.4 says that a โ-language (respectively +-language) is recognizable if and only if it is M-recognizable (respectively,S-recognizable).
At this point, our goal is to describe classes of languages that areV-recognizable for a given pseudovariety V.
Syntactic semigroups and monoids
We are now going to study particular semigroups andmonoids associated to languages, known as syntactic monoids and semi-groups. These will be of fundamental importance in establishing a con-nection between pseudovarieties and classes of recognizable languages.
For any โ-language ๐ฟ over ๐ด, define a relation ๐๐ฟ on ๐ดโ as follows:๐๐ฟfor ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ,
๐ข ๐๐ฟ ๐ฃ โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ)(๐๐ข๐ โ ๐ฟ โ ๐๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ฟ). (9.2)
184 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
For any +-language ๐ฟ, define ๐๐ฟ on ๐ด+ in exactly the same way, using(9.2); note in particular that ๐ and ๐ still range over ๐ดโ, not ๐ด+.
P ro p o s i t i on 9 . 5. Let ๐ฟ be a โ-language (respectively, +-language)over ๐ด. Then:a) The relation ๐๐ฟ is a congruence on ๐ดโ (respectively, ๐ด+).b) The language ๐ฟ is a union of ๐๐ฟ-classes.c) If ๐ is a congruence on ๐ดโ (respectively, ๐ด+) with the property that ๐ฟ is
a union of ๐-classes, then ๐ โ ๐๐ฟ.
Proof of 9.5. We prove the result for โ-languages; the reasoning for +-languages is parallel.a) It is immediate from the definition that ๐๐ฟ is reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive. So ๐๐ฟ is an equivalence relation. Let ๐ข ๐๐ฟ ๐ฃ and let๐ โ ๐ดโ. Then ๐๐ข๐ โ ๐ฟ โ ๐๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ฟ for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ. In particular, thisholds for all ๐ of the form ๐โฒ๐ ; hence ๐โฒ๐ ๐ข๐ โ ๐ฟ โ ๐โฒ๐ ๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ฟ for all๐โฒ, ๐ โ ๐ดโ. Hence ๐ ๐ข ๐๐ฟ ๐ ๐ฃ. So ๐๐ฟ is left-compatible; similarly it isright-compatible and is thus a congruence.
b) Let ๐ข โ ๐ฟ and let ๐ฃ ๐๐ฟ ๐ข. Put ๐ = ๐ = ๐ in the definition of ๐๐ฟ tosee that ๐ฃ โ ๐ฟ. Thus if any ๐๐ฟ-class intersects ๐ฟ, it is contained in ๐ฟ.Therefore ๐ฟ is a union of ๐๐ฟ-classes.
c) Let ๐ be a congruence on ๐ดโ such that ๐ฟ is a union of ๐-classes. Then
(๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ)((๐๐ข๐, ๐๐ฃ๐) โ ๐) [since ๐ is a congruence]โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ)((๐๐ข๐, ๐๐ฃ๐) โ ๐ฟ โจ (๐๐ข๐, ๐๐ฃ๐) โ ๐ฟ)
[since ๐ฟ is a union of ๐-classes]โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ)(๐๐ข๐ โ ๐ฟ โ ๐๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ฟ)โ (๐ข, ๐ฃ) โ ๐๐ฟ;
thus ๐ โ ๐๐ฟ. 9.5
For any language ๐ฟ over an alphabet ๐ด, the congruence ๐๐ฟ is called Syntactic congruencethe syntactic congruence of ๐ฟ.
For any โ-language ๐ฟ, the factor monoid ๐ดโ/๐๐ฟ is called the syntactic Syntactic monoidmonoid of ๐ฟ and is denoted SynM ๐ฟ, and the natural monoid homomor-phism ๐โฎ๐ฟ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐ดโ/๐๐ฟ = SynM ๐ฟ is the syntactic monoid homomor-phism of ๐ฟ.
For any +-language ๐ฟ, the factor semigroup ๐ด+/๐๐ฟ is called the syn- Syntactic semigrouptactic semigroup of ๐ฟ and is denoted SynS ๐ฟ, and the natural homomor-phism ๐โฎ๐ฟ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ด+/๐๐ฟ = SynS ๐ฟ is the syntactic homomorphism of๐ฟ.
The importance of syntactic monoids and semigroups is the followingresult. Essentially, it says that the syntactic monoid of a โ-language isthe smallest monoid that recognizes that language, and similarly for +-languages and semigroups:
Syntactic semigroups and monoids โข 185
P r o p o s i t i o n 9 . 6. a) Let ๐ฟ be a โ-language.Then ๐ฟ is recognizedby a monoid๐ if and only if SynM ๐ฟ โผ ๐.
b) Let ๐ฟ be a +-language. Then ๐ฟ is recognized by a semigroup ๐ if andonly if SynS ๐ฟ โผ ๐.
Proof of 9.6. We prove only part a); the proof for part b) follows by repla-cing โ๐ดโโ by โ๐ด+โ, โsubmonoidโ by โsubsemigroupโ, โSynMโ by โSynSโ, andโmonoid homomorphismโ by โhomomorphismโ throughout.
Let ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ๐ recognize ๐ฟ. So ๐ฟ = ๐ฟ๐๐โ1. Then ker๐ is a congru-ence on ๐ดโ and ๐ฟ is a union of ker๐-classes. Hence ker๐ โ ๐๐ฟ. Definea map ๐ โถ im๐ โ SynM ๐ฟ by (๐ข๐)๐ = [๐ข]๐๐ฟ ; this map is a well-definedmonoid homomorphism since ker๐ โ ๐๐ฟ. It is clearly surjective. Sinceim๐ is an M-submonoid of๐ and ๐ โถ im๐ โ SynM ๐ฟ is a surjectivehomomorphism, SynM ๐ฟ โผ ๐.
For the other direction, we first prove that SynM ๐ฟ recognizes ๐ฟ. Since๐ฟ is a union of ๐๐ฟ-classes, it follows that ๐ฟ = โ๐ขโ๐ฟ[๐ข]๐๐ฟ = โ๐ฅโ๐ฟ ๐ฅ(๐
โฎ๐ฟ)โ1 =
๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ(๐โฎ๐ฟ)โ1. Thus ๐โฎ๐ฟ โถ ๐ดโ โ SynM ๐ฟ recognizes ๐ฟ.
Let SynM ๐ฟ โผ ๐. So there is anM-submonoid๐ of๐ and a surject-ive M-homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ โ SynM ๐ฟ. For each ๐ โ ๐ด, define a map๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ by choosing ๐๐ such that (๐๐)๐ = ๐๐โฎ๐ฟ . Since ๐ดโ is free on๐ด, there is a unique extension of ๐ to a homomorphism ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐;notice that (๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ)๐ = ๐ข๐โฎ๐ฟ for all ๐ข โ ๐ดโ since ๐ and ๐โฎ๐ฟ are monoid ho-momorphisms. Let๐โฒ = ๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ๐โ1. Then, viewing ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ as a homomorphismfrom ๐ดโ to๐, we have
๐ฟ = ๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ(๐โฎ๐ฟ)โ1 = ๐ฟ๐
โฎ๐ฟ๐โ1๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝโ1 = ๐โฒ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝโ1,
and so๐ recognizes ๐ฟ. 9.6
Proposition 9.6 is actually the original motivation behind the conceptof division.
P ro p o s i t i on 9 . 7. Let ๐ด and ๐ต be alphabets. For all โ-languages ๐ฟProperties ofsyntactic monoids and๐พ over๐ด, for all ๐ โ ๐ด, and for all monoid homomorphisms ๐ โถ ๐ตโ โ
๐ดโ:a) SynM ๐ฟ = SynM(๐ดโ โ ๐ฟ);b) SynM(๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ) โผ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร (SynM๐พ);c) SynM(๐ฟ โช ๐พ) โผ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร (SynM๐พ);d) SynM(๐โ1๐ฟ) โผ SynM ๐ฟ;e) SynM(๐ฟ๐โ1) โผ SynM ๐ฟ;f) SynM(๐ฟ๐โ1) โผ SynM ๐ฟ.
Proof of 9.7. a) For any ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ, we have
๐ข ๐๐ฟ ๐ฃ โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ)(๐๐ข๐ โ ๐ฟ โ ๐๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ฟ)โ (โ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ)(๐๐ข๐ โ ๐ดโ โ ๐ฟ โ ๐๐ฃ๐ โ ๐ดโ โ ๐ฟ)โ ๐ข ๐๐ดโโ๐ฟ ๐ฃ;
186 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Hence ๐๐ฟ = ๐๐ดโโ๐ฟ and so SynM ๐ฟ = SynM(๐ดโ โ ๐ฟ).
b) Define a monoid homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร (SynM๐พ)by ๐ข๐ = (๐ข๐โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ข๐
โฎ๐พ). Let ๐ = ๐ฟ๐
โฎ๐ฟ ร ๐พ๐
โฎ๐พ โ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร (SynM๐พ).
Then
๐ข โ ๐๐โ1
โ ๐ข๐ โ ๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ ร ๐พ๐โฎ๐พ
โ (โ๐ฃ โ ๐ฟ, ๐ค โ ๐พ)((๐ฃ๐โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ค๐โฎ๐พ) = (๐ข๐
โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ข๐โฎ๐พ))
โ (โ๐ฃ โ ๐ฟ, ๐ค โ ๐พ)((๐ฃ๐โฎ๐ฟ = ๐ข๐โฎ๐ฟ) โง (๐ค๐
โฎ๐พ = ๐ข๐
โฎ๐พ))
โ (๐ข โ ๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ(๐โฎ๐ฟ)โ1) โง (๐ข โ ๐พ๐
โฎ๐พ(๐โฎ๐พ)โ1)
โ (๐ข โ ๐ฟ) โง (๐ข โ ๐พ)โ ๐ข โ ๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ.
Hence ๐๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ. On the other hand,
๐ข โ ๐ฟ โฉ ๐พโ ๐ข โ ๐ฟ โง ๐ข โ ๐พ
โ ๐ข๐ = (๐ข๐โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ข๐โฎ๐พ) โ ๐ฟ๐
โฎ๐ฟ ร ๐พ๐
โฎ๐พ = ๐
โ ๐ข โ ๐๐โ1,
so ๐๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ. Hence ๐๐โ1 = ๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ. Thus ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร(SynM๐พ) recognizes ๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ, and so SynM(๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ) โผ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร(SynM๐พ) by Proposition 9.6(a).
c) Define a monoid homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร (SynM๐พ)by ๐ข๐ = (๐ข๐โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ข๐
โฎ๐พ). Let ๐ = (๐ฟ๐
โฎ๐ฟ ร SynM๐พ) โช (SynM ๐ฟ ร ๐พ๐
โฎ๐พ) โ
(SynM ๐ฟ) ร (SynM๐พ). Then
๐ข โ ๐๐โ1
โ ๐ข๐ โ (๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ ร SynM๐พ) โช (SynM ๐ฟ ร ๐พ๐โฎ๐พ)
โ (โ๐ฃ โ ๐ฟ, ๐ค โ ๐ด+)((๐ฃ๐โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ค๐โฎ๐พ) = (๐ข๐
โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ข๐โฎ๐พ))
โจ (โ๐ฃ โ ๐ด+, ๐ค โ ๐พ)((๐ฃ๐โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ค๐โฎ๐พ) = (๐ข๐
โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ข๐โฎ๐พ))
โ (โ๐ฃ โ ๐ฟ)(๐ฃ๐โฎ๐ฟ = ๐ข๐โฎ๐ฟ) โจ (โ๐ค โ ๐พ)(๐ค๐
โฎ๐พ = ๐ข๐
โฎ๐พ)
โ (๐ข โ ๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ(๐โฎ๐ฟ)โ1) โจ (๐ข โ ๐พ๐
โฎ๐พ(๐โฎ๐พ)โ1)
โ (๐ข โ ๐ฟ) โจ (๐ข โ ๐พ)โ ๐ข โ ๐ฟ โช ๐พ.
Syntactic semigroups and monoids โข 187
Hence ๐๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ โช ๐พ. On the other hand,
๐ข โ ๐ฟ โช ๐พโ ๐ข โ ๐ฟ โจ ๐ข โ ๐พ
โ ๐ข๐ = (๐ข๐โฎ๐ฟ , ๐ข๐โฎ๐พ) โ
(๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ ร SynM๐พ) โช (SynM ๐ฟ ร ๐พ๐โฎ๐พ) = ๐
โ ๐ข โ ๐๐โ1,
so ๐๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ. Hence ๐๐โ1 = ๐ฟ โช ๐พ. Thus ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร(SynM๐พ) recognizes ๐ฟ โช ๐พ, and so SynM(๐ฟ โช ๐พ) โผ (SynM ๐ฟ) ร(SynM๐พ) by Proposition 9.6(a).
d) Let ๐ = ๐ฟ๐โฎ๐ฟ โ SynM ๐ฟ. Let ๐ = ๐๐โฎ๐ฟ . Define
๐ โ1๐ = { ๐ฅ โ SynM ๐ฟ โถ ๐ ๐ฅ โ ๐ }.
Then ๐โ1๐ฟ = (๐ โ1๐)๐โ1 and so ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ SynM ๐ฟ recognizes ๐โ1๐ฟ.Hence SynM(๐โ1๐ฟ) โผ SynM ๐ฟ by Proposition 9.6(a).
e) This is similar to part d).f) The homomorphism ๐๐โฎ๐ฟ โถ ๐ต+ โ SynM ๐ฟ recognizes ๐ฟ๐โ1 since
๐ฟ๐โ1๐๐โฎ๐ฟ(๐๐โฎ๐ฟ)โ1 = ๐ฟ๐โ1๐๐
โฎ๐ฟ(๐โฎ๐ฟ)โ1๐โ1 = ๐ฟ๐
โฎ๐ฟ(๐โฎ๐ฟ)โ1๐โ1 = ๐ฟ๐โ1.
Hence SynM(๐ฟ๐โ1) โผ SynM ๐ฟ by Proposition 9.6(a). 9.7
Essentially the same proofs yield the corresponding results for syn-tactic semigroups:
P ro p o s i t i on 9 . 8. Let ๐ด and ๐ต be alphabets. For all +-languages ๐พProperties ofsyntactic semigroups and ๐ฟ over ๐ด, for all ๐ โ ๐ด, and for all homomorphisms ๐ โถ ๐ต+ โ ๐ด+:
a) SynS ๐ฟ = SynS(๐ด+ โ ๐ฟ);b) SynS(๐ฟ โฉ ๐พ) โผ (SynS ๐ฟ) ร (SynS๐พ);c) SynS(๐ฟ โช ๐พ) โผ (SynS ๐ฟ) ร (SynS๐พ);d) SynS(๐โ1๐ฟ) โผ SynS ๐ฟ;e) SynS(๐ฟ๐โ1) โผ SynS ๐ฟ;f) SynS(๐ฟ๐โ1) โผ SynS ๐ฟ. 9.8
Eilenberg correspondence
The classes of languages that correspond to pseudova-rieties are called โvarieties of rational languagesโ. However, the class oflanguages that are V-recognizable for some pseudovariety V is also de-pendent on the finite alphabet ๐ด as well. Thus we do not formally define
188 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
a โvariety of rational languagesโ as a class, but rather as a correspondencethat associates finite alphabets to classes of languages. We also need todistinguish between โ-languages and +-languages. To be precise, a variety Variety of rational
โ-languagesof rational โ-languages is formally defined to be a correspondence V thatassociates to each finite alphabet ๐ด a class of rational โ-languages V(๐ดโ)with the following properties:1) The classV(๐ดโ) is a Boolean algebra. (That is, it is closed under union,
intersection, and complement in ๐ดโ.)2) For all ๐ฟ โ V(๐ดโ) and ๐ โ ๐ด, the right and left quotient languages
๐โ1๐ฟ = {๐ค โ ๐ดโ โถ ๐๐ค โ ๐ฟ } and ๐ฟ๐โ1 = {๐ค โ ๐ดโ โถ ๐ค๐ โ ๐ฟ }
are also in V(๐ดโ)3) For all finite alphabets ๐ต, for all โ-languages ๐ฟ โ V(๐ตโ), and for all
monoid homomorphisms ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐ตโ, we have ๐ฟ๐โ1 โ V(๐ดโ).Similarly, a variety of rational +-languages is a correspondence V that Variety of rational
+-languagesassociates to each finite alphabet ๐ด a class of rational languages V(๐ด+)with the following properties:1) The classV(๐ด+) is a Boolean algebra. (That is, it is closed under union,
intersection, and complement in ๐ด+.)2) For all ๐ฟ โ V(๐ด+) and ๐ โ ๐ด, the right and left quotient languages
๐โ1๐ฟ = {๐ค โ ๐ด+ โถ ๐๐ค โ ๐ฟ } and ๐ฟ๐โ1 = {๐ค โ ๐ด+ โถ ๐ค๐ โ ๐ฟ }
are also in V(๐ด+).3) For all finite alphabets ๐ต, for all +-languages ๐ฟ โ V(๐ต+), and for all
homomorphisms ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ต+, we have ๐ฟ๐โ1 โ V(๐ด+).
E x a m p l e 9 . 9. a) The correspondence E such that E(๐ด+) = {โ ,๐ด+}is a variety of rational +-languages. To see this, first note that eachE(๐ด+) is clearly closed under union, intersection, and complement.Next, for any ๐ โ ๐ด, we have ๐โ1โ = โ ๐โ1 = โ โ E(๐ด+) and ๐โ1๐ด+ =๐ด+๐โ1 = ๐ด+ โ E(๐ด+), so E(๐ด+). Finally, for any homomorphism๐ โถ ๐ต+ โ ๐ด+, we haveโ ๐โ1 = โ โ E(๐ต+) and ๐ด+๐โ1 = ๐ต+ โ E(๐ต+).
b) LetM be the correspondence that associates to each finite alphabet ๐ดthe class of all โ-languages over ๐ด. It is easy to see that M is a varietyof rational โ-languages.
c) A +-language ๐ฟ over an alphabet ๐ด is said to be cofinite if ๐ด+ โ ๐ฟis finite. Let N be the correspondence that associates to each finitealphabet ๐ด the class of all finite or cofinite languages over ๐ด. Then Nis a variety of rational +-languages (see Exercise 9.4).
There is a natural correspondence, known as the Eilenberg correspond- Eilenberg correspondenceence, between varieties of rational โ-languages and M-pseudovarietiesof monoids, and between varieties of rational +-languages and S-pseu-dovarieties of semigroups. For varieties of rational โ-languages and M-pseudovarieties of monoids, the correspondence is defined as follows:
Eilenberg correspondence โข 189
โ Let V be a variety of rational โ-languages. The corresponding M-pseudovariety of monoids V is generated by all monoids SynM ๐ฟ suchthat ๐ฟ โ V(๐ดโ) for some finite alphabet ๐ด. That is, we have a map
Vโฆ VM({ SynM ๐ฟ โถ ๐ฟ โ V(๐ดโ)
for some finite alphabet ๐ด } ). } (9.3)
โ Let V be an M-pseudovariety of monoids. The corresponding varietyof rational โ-languagesV associates to each finite alphabet๐ด the classof languages ๐ฟ such that SynM ๐ฟ โ V, or, equivalently, the class oflanguages ๐ฟ such that ๐ฟ is recognized by some monoid in V. That is,we have a map
Vโฆ V, where V(๐ดโ) = { ๐ฟ โ ๐ดโ โถ SynM ๐ฟ โ V }for each finite alphabet ๐ด.
} (9.4)
The correspondence for +-varieties of rational languages and S-pseudo-varieties of semigroups is defined similarly:โ Let V be a variety of rational +-languages. The corresponding S-
pseudovariety of semigroups V is generated by all semigroups SynS ๐ฟsuch that ๐ฟ โ V(๐ด+) for some finite alphabet ๐ด. That is, we have amap
Vโฆ VS({ SynS ๐ฟ โถ ๐ฟ โ V(๐ดโ)
for some finite alphabet ๐ด } ). } (9.5)
โ Let V be an S-pseudovariety of semigroups.The corresponding varietyof rational +-languagesV associates to each finite alphabet๐ด the classof languages ๐ฟ such that SynS ๐ฟ โ V, or, equivalently, the class oflanguages ๐ฟ such that ๐ฟ is recognized by some semigroup in V. Thatis, we have a map
Vโฆ V, where V(๐ด+) = { ๐ฟ โ ๐ด+ โถ SynS ๐ฟ โ V }for each finite alphabet ๐ด.
} (9.6)
E i l e n b e rg โ s Th eorem 9 . 1 0. The maps (9.3) and (9.4) are mu-Eilenbergโs theoremtually inverse, and the maps (9.5) and (9.6) are mutually inverse.
Proof of 9.10. We will prove that (9.3) and (9.4) are mutually inverse; theother case is similar.
LetV be a variety of rational โ-languages. Let V be theM-pseudovari-ety of monoids associated to it by (9.3). LetW be the variety of rational โ-languages associated to V by (9.4). We aim to show thatV(๐ดโ) =W(๐ดโ).for each finite alphabet ๐ด.
First, we prove thatV(๐ดโ) โW(๐ดโ). Let ๐ฟ โ V(๐ดโ). Then SynM ๐ฟ โV by the definition of (9.3), and so ๐ฟ โW(๐ดโ) by the definition of (9.4).Hence V(๐ดโ) โW(๐ดโ).
190 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Next we prove that W(๐ดโ) โ V(๐ดโ). This part of the proof is morecomplicated. Let ๐ฟ โW(๐ดโ). Then SynM ๐ฟ โ V by the definition of (9.4).Now, V is generated by
X = { SynM๐พ โถ ๐พ โ V(๐ดโ) for some finite alphabet ๐ด };
that is, V = โ๐โfinX. Hence there exist alphabets ๐ด๐ and โ-languages๐พ๐ โ V(๐ดโ๐ ) for ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐ such that
SynM ๐ฟ โผ๐
โ๐=1
SynM๐พ๐.
Let ๐ = โ๐๐=1 ๐ดโ๐ and ๐ = โ
๐๐=1 SynM๐พ๐. Define a map
๐พ โถ ๐ โ ๐, (๐ค1,โฆ ,๐ค๐)๐พ = (๐ค1๐โฎ๐พ1 ,โฆ ,๐ค๐๐
โฎ๐พ๐ );
then ๐พ is a surjective homomorphism because all of the maps ๐โฎ๐พ๐ โถ ๐ดโ๐ โ
SynM๐พ๐ are surjective homomorphisms. Since SynM ๐ฟ โผ ๐, the monoid๐ recognizes ๐ฟ; that is, there is a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐ and asubset๐ of ๐ such that ๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1.
Define ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ by letting ๐๐ be such that ๐๐๐พ = ๐๐; since๐ดโ is free on ๐ด, this map extends to a unique monoid homomorphism๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐. Notice that ๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐พ = ๐ข๐ for ๐ข โ ๐ดโ since ๐ and ๐พ are monoidhomomorphisms. For each ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐, let ๐๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐ดโ๐ be such that
๐ข๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ = (๐ข๐1,โฆ , ๐ข๐๐)
and ๐๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ SynM๐พ๐ be such that
๐ข๐ = (๐ข๐1,โฆ , ๐ข๐๐).
Then ๐๐ = ๐๐๐โฎ๐พ๐ .
We have
๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1 = โ๐โ๐๐๐โ1.
Since V(๐ดโ) is a Boolean algebra, it is sufficient to show that ๐๐โ1 โV(๐ดโ) for all ๐ โ ๐. If๐ = (๐ 1,โฆ , ๐ ๐) โ ๐ โ ๐, where ๐ ๐ โ SynM๐พ๐,then
๐๐โ1 =๐
โ๐=1๐ ๐๐โ1๐ .
Again, since V(๐ดโ) is a Boolean algebra, it is sufficient to show that๐ ๐๐โ1๐ โ V(๐ดโ) for all ๐ ๐ โ SynM๐พ๐ and ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐.
Since ๐ ๐๐โ1๐ = ๐ ๐(๐โฎ๐พ๐ )โ1๐โ1๐ , the closure of V under homomorphism
pre-images shows that it is sufficient to prove that ๐ ๐(๐โฎ๐พ๐ )โ1 โ V(๐ดโ๐ ).
Eilenberg correspondence โข 191
For ๐ค โ ๐ดโ๐ , define
๐ ๐ค = { (๐, ๐) โถ ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ๐ , ๐๐ค๐ โ ๐พ๐ }= { (๐, ๐) โถ ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ๐ , ๐ค โ ๐โ1๐พ๐๐โ1 };
then for any ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ we have ๐ข ๐๐พ๐ ๐ฃ if and only if ๐ ๐ข = ๐ ๐ฃ. Hence๐ข๐โฎ๐พ๐ (๐
โฎ๐พ๐ )โ1, which is the ๐๐พ๐ -class of ๐ข โ ๐ดโ๐ , is given by
๐ข๐โฎ๐พ๐ (๐โฎ๐พ๐ )โ1 = โ(๐,๐)โ๐ ๐ข
๐โ1๐พ๐๐โ1 โ โ(๐,๐)โ๐ ๐ข
๐โ1๐พ๐๐โ1. (9.7)
By Proposition 9.3, there are only finitely many distinct sets ๐โ1๐พ๐๐โ1.Therefore the intersections and unions in (9.7) are finite. By repeatedapplication of the closure of V(๐ดโ๐ ) under left and right quotients, eachof the sets ๐โ1๐พ๐๐โ1 lies in V(๐ดโ๐ ). Since V(๐ดโ) is closed under unions,intersections, and complements, ๐ข๐โฎ๐พ๐ (๐
โฎ๐พ๐ )โ1 lies in V(๐ดโ๐ ).
Finally, let ๐ข be such that ๐ ๐ = ๐ข๐โฎ๐พ๐ . Then ๐ ๐(๐
โฎ๐พ๐ )โ1 โ V(๐ดโ๐ ). This
completes the proof. 9.10
It is important to notice that although Eilenbergโs theorem showsthat there is a one-to-one correspondence between M-pseudovarieties ofsemigroups and varieties of rational โ-languages, and between S-pseu-dovarieties of monoids and varieties of rational +-languages, it does notactually give a concrete method for describing a variety of rational lan-guages if we know a pseudovariety, or vice versa.
The following result is therefore an instance of the Eilenberg corres-pondence, but it is not a consequence of Theorem 9.10. In general, findingand proving instances of Eilenbergโs correspondence can be difficult,although this particular result is straightforward.
Th eorem 9 . 1 1. The Eilenberg correspondence associates the S-pseu-dovariety of nilpotent semigroups N with the variety of finite or cofiniterational +-languages N.
Proof of 9.11. Let ๐ โ N, with ๐๐ = 0 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Let๐ด be a finite alphabetand suppose ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ recognizes a +-language ๐ฟ.
Suppose that ๐ฟ๐ contains 0๐. Then if ๐ค โ ๐ดโ with |๐ค| โฉพ ๐, then๐ค๐ = 0๐ and so ๐ค โ ๐ฟ๐๐โ1 = ๐ฟ. Hence ๐ฟ contains all words with at least๐ letters and so is cofinite. Thus ๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+)
Suppose that ๐ฟ๐ does not contain 0๐. Then if ๐ค โ ๐ดโ with |๐ค| โฉพ ๐,then ๐ค โ ๐ฟ, since otherwise ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐ค๐ โ ๐๐ = {0}. Hence ๐ฟ contains onlywords with fewer than ๐ symbols and so ๐ฟ is finite. Thus ๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+).
Thus if ๐ฟ is a +-language over๐ด recognized by a semigroup in N, then๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+).
On the other hand, let ๐ฟ be a +-language inN(๐ด+). So ๐ฟ is either finiteor cofinite. Then there exists some ๐ โ โ such that either ๐ฟ โฉ ๐ผ๐ = โ or
192 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Variety of rational โ-languages M-pseudo-(class associated to๐ดโ) Symbol variety See also
{โ ,๐ดโ} E 1Rational โ-languages over ๐ด M MStar-free โ-languages over ๐ด SF A Th. 9.19
TABLE 9.3Varieties of rational โ-languages andM-pseudovari-eties related by the Eilenbergcorrespondence.
Variety of rational +-languages S-pseudo-(class associated to๐ด+) Symbol variety See also
{โ ,๐ด+} E 1Rational +-languages over ๐ด S SFinite/cofinite +-langs over ๐ด N N Th. 9.11๐๐ดโ โช ๐, where K K Th. 9.12(a)๐, ๐ are finite +-languages๐ดโ๐ โช ๐, where D D Th. 9.12(b)๐, ๐ are finite +-languages๐ โช โ๐๐=1 ๐ฅ๐๐ด
โ๐ฆ๐, L1 ๐1 Th. 9.13where
{๐ is a finite +-language,๐ โ โ โช 0, and ๐ฅ๐, ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ด+
๐ โช โ๐โ๐ด ๐๐ดโ๐ โช โ๐๐=1 ๐๐๐ด
โ๐โฒ๐, RB RB Exer. 9.5where
{๐ โ ๐ด, ๐ โ โ โช 0 and๐๐, ๐โฒ๐ โ ๐ด with ๐๐ โ ๐โฒ๐
TABLE 9.4Varieties of rational +-lan-guages and S-pseudovarietiesrelated by the Eilenbergcorrespondence.
๐ฟ โ ๐ผ๐, where ๐ผ๐ = {๐ค โ ๐ดโ โถ |๐ค| โฉพ ๐ }. Notice that ๐ผ๐ is an ideal of ๐ด+,and that ๐ = ๐ด+/๐ผ๐ is a nilpotent semigroup with ๐๐ = 0๐; thus ๐ โ N.Then the natural homomorphism ๐โฎ๐ผ๐ โถ ๐ด
+ โ ๐ recognizes ๐ฟ. 9.11
The remainder of this chapter is devoted to more involved results that,like Theorem 9.11, are instances of the Eilenberg correspondence. All suchfrom this chapter are summarized in Tables 9.3 and 9.4.
A semigroup ๐ is left-trivial if ๐๐ = ๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐) and ๐ โ ๐, andright-trivial if ๐ ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐) and ๐ โ ๐. The finite left-trivialsemigroups form the S-pseudovariety K = โฆ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐โงS, and the finiteright-trivial semigroups form the S-pseudovariety D = โฆ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐โงS
Let K be the correspondence where K(๐ด+) is the class of all +-lan-guages of the form๐๐ดโโช๐, where๐ and๐ are finite +-languages over๐ด;and let D be correspondence where D(๐ด+) is the class of all +-languagesof the form ๐ดโ๐ โช ๐, where๐ and ๐ are finite +-languages over ๐ด.
T h e o r e m 9 . 1 2. a) K is a variety of +-languages and is associatedby the Eilenberg correspondence to the S-pseudovariety K;
b) D is a variety of +-languages and is associated by the Eilenberg corres-pondence to the S-pseudovariety D.
Eilenberg correspondence โข 193
Proof of 9.12. We will prove part a); dual reasoning gives part b).Let ๐ฟ = ๐๐ดโ โช ๐, where๐ and ๐ are finite +-languages over ๐ด. Now,๐ is finite and so lies in N(๐ด+). Hence SynS๐ lies in N by Theorem 9.11.Hence SynS๐ satisfies the S-pseudoidentity ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ and so SynS๐ โK. Let ๐ be the length of the longest word in ๐. Let ๐ค โ ๐ด+ be suchthat |๐ค| = ๐ and let ๐ก โ ๐ดโ. Then ๐ข๐ค๐ฃ โ ๐๐ดโ โ ๐ข๐ค๐ก๐ฃ โ ๐๐ดโ, so๐ค ๐๐๐ดโ ๐ค๐ก. So ๐ ๐ก = ๐ for all ๐ โ (SynS๐๐ดโ)๐ and ๐ก โ SynS๐๐ดโ. Inparticular ๐๐ก = ๐ for all idempotents ๐, since ๐๐ = ๐. Thus SynS๐๐ดโsatisfies the S-pseudoidentity ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ and so SynS๐๐ดโ โ K. Finally,note that SynS ๐ฟ โผ (SynS๐๐ดโ) ร (SynS๐) by by Proposition 9.6(b).Hence SynS ๐ฟ โ โ๐โK = K.
Now suppose that ๐ฟ is recognized by a semigroup ๐ โ K. Then thereis a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ such that ๐ฟ = ๐ฟ๐๐โ1. Let ๐ = |๐|. Then,by Lemma 7.5, ๐๐ = ๐๐ธ(๐)๐ = ๐๐ธ(๐) since ๐๐ฅ = ๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐) and๐ฅ โ ๐. Suppose that ๐ค๐ก โ ๐ฟ with |๐ค| = ๐. Then ๐ค๐ โ ๐๐ = ๐๐ธ(๐) and so๐ค๐ = ๐ ๐ for some ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). It follows that (๐ค๐ก)๐ = ๐ ๐(๐ก๐) =๐ ๐ = ๐ค๐ since ๐๐ฅ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Hence ๐ค โ ๐ฟ and ๐ค๐ดโ โ (๐ ๐๐)๐โ1 =(๐ ๐)๐โ1 = ๐ค๐๐โ1. Thus if ๐ค๐ก โ ๐ฟ, where |๐ค| = ๐, then ๐ค๐ดโ โ ๐ฟ. Hence๐ฟ = ๐๐ดโ โช ๐, where๐ โ ๐ด๐ and ๐ is a set of words of length less than ๐,so ๐ฟ โ K(๐ด+). 9.12
Notice that a left- or right-trivial semigroup is also locally trivial: if ๐is left-trivial, then ๐๐ = ๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐), and hence ๐๐ ๐ = ๐2 = ๐,which shows that ๐ is locally trivial. Hence K โช D โ ๐1.
Let L1 be the correspondence where L1(๐ด+) is the class of languagesof the form
๐ โช๐
โ๐=1๐ฅ๐๐ดโ๐ฆ๐, (9.8)
where ๐ฅ๐ and ๐ฆ๐ are words ๐ด+ and ๐ is a finite +-language.Some texts define L1(๐ด+) to be the class of languages of the form ๐ โช๐๐ดโ๐, where๐, ๐, and ๐ are finite +-languages, and claim that this isequivalent to (9.8). This is incorrect, because (for example) the language๐{๐, ๐}โ๐ โช ๐{๐, ๐}โ๐ cannot be expressed in the form ๐ โช ๐{๐, ๐}โ๐.
Th eorem 9 . 1 3. The Eilenberg correspondence associates the S-pseudo-variety ๐1 with the variety of +-languages L1.
Proof of 9.13. We will first of all show that the syntactic semigroups of๐ค๐ดโ and๐ดโ๐ค are in ๐1 for all๐ค โ ๐ด+. Since๐ค๐ดโ โ K(๐ด+), it follows byTheorem 9.12(a) that SynS(๐ค๐ดโ) โ K. Hence SynS(๐ค๐ดโ) is left-trivial andso locally trivial, and so SynS(๐ค๐ดโ) โ ๐1. Similarly SynS(๐ดโ๐ค) โ ๐1.
Let ๐ be a finite +-languages over ๐ด. Then
๐ = โ๐คโ๐{๐ค} = โ
๐คโ๐พ(๐ค๐ดโ โ โ
๐โ๐ด๐ค๐๐ดโ).
194 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
So SynS๐ โ ๐1 by Proposition 9.8 and since ๐1 is closed under finitarydirect products and division.
Furthermore, for any ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ด+, we have
๐ฅ๐ดโ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ดโ โฉ ๐ดโ๐ฆ) โ|๐ฅ|+|๐ฆ|
โ๐=1๐ด๐.
So SynS(๐ฅ๐ดโ๐ฆ) โ ๐1 by Proposition 9.8 again.Therefore by Proposition 9.8,
SynS(๐ โช๐
โ๐=1๐ฅ๐๐ดโ๐ฆ๐) โ ๐1.
On the other hand, let ๐ฟ be recognized by some semigroup ๐ in ๐1.Then ๐ is locally trivial and there is a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ suchthat ๐ฟ๐๐โ1 = ๐ฟ. Let ๐ = |๐|.
Let ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐) and ๐ โ ๐. Then (๐๐ )2 = ๐๐ ๐๐ = ๐๐ since ๐๐ ๐ = ๐ because๐ is locally trivial. Hence ๐๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Similarly ๐ ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐). Thus ๐ธ(๐) is anideal, and so, by Lemma 7.5, ๐๐ = ๐๐ธ(๐)๐ = ๐ธ(๐).
Let ๐ค โ ๐ฟ be such that |๐ค| โฉพ 2๐. Then ๐ค = ๐ฅ๐ฃ๐ฆ with |๐ฅ| = |๐ฆ| = ๐.Now, ๐๐ = ๐ธ(๐) by the previous paragraph, so ๐ฅ๐, ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐๐ = ๐ธ(๐). Hence๐ค๐ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฃ๐)(๐ฆ๐) โ (๐ฅ๐)๐(๐ฆ๐). Hence ๐ฅ๐ดโ๐ฆ โ ๐ค๐๐โ1 โ ๐ฟ. Thus ๐ฟ isa finite union of languages of the form ๐ฅ๐ดโ๐ฆ (where |๐ฅ| = |๐ฆ| = ๐) and afinite set of words of length at most 2๐. Thus ๐ฟ โ L1(๐ด+). 9.13
Coro l l a ry 9 . 1 4. ๐1 = K โ D.
Proof of 9.14. Since K โช D โ ๐1, it remains to show that ๐1 โ K โ D.Let V be the +-variety of rational languages associated to K โ D by
the Eilenberg correspondence. Then V(๐ด+) contains the languages ๐ค๐ดโand ๐ดโ๐ค and hence the Boolean algebra generated by these languages,namely L1(๐ด+). Therefore ๐1 โ K โ D. 9.14
Notice that the proof of Corollary 9.14 essentially involves using theEilenberg correspondence to convert a question about S-pseudovarietiesof semigroups into one about varieties of +-rational languages and backagain. Although it would be possible to give a pure pseudovariety-the-oretic proof of this result, the proof via the Eilenberg correspondence ismuch more straightforward.
Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem
The aim of this final section, and the capstone of theentire course, is Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem, which shows that the star-free
Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem โข 195
rational languages are precisely those languages recognized by aperiodicmonoids. Before embarking on the proof, we need to introduce a newconcept.
A relational morphism between two semigroups ๐ and ๐ is a relationRelational morphism๐ โ ๐ ร ๐ such that1) ๐ฅ๐ โ โ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐;2) (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐) โ (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ for all ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐.Notice that any homomorphism is also a relational morphism. We needto establish some basic properties of relational morphisms that we willuse to prove Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem. The first three lemmata followimmediately from this definition:
L emma 9 . 1 5. A relational morphism ๐ โ ๐ ร ๐ between semigroups๐ and ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ ร ๐. The projection homomorphisms from๐ ร ๐ to ๐ and ๐ restricts to homomorphisms ๐ผ โถ ๐ โ ๐ and ๐ฝ โถ ๐ โ ๐such that ๐ผ is surjective and ๐ = ๐ผโ1๐ฝ. 9.15
L emma 9 . 1 6. If ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ is a surjective homomorphism from asemigroup ๐ to a semigroup ๐, then ๐โ1 โ ๐ ร ๐ is a relational morphismbetween ๐ and ๐. 9.16
L emma 9 . 1 7. If ๐ โ ๐ ร ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ ร ๐ are relational morphismsbetween semigroups ๐ and๐, and between semigroups๐ and๐, respectively,then ๐๐ โ ๐ ร ๐ is a relational morphism between ๐ and ๐. 9.17
L emma 9 . 1 8. Let ๐ โ ๐ ร ๐ be a relational morphism between finitesemigroups ๐ and ๐. Suppose that ๐ is aperiodic and that for all ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐),the subsemigroup ๐๐โ1 is aperiodic. Then ๐ is aperiodic.
Proof of 9.18. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Since ๐ is finite, ๐ฅ๐+๐ = ๐ฅ๐ for some ๐,๐ โ โ,and ๐ป = {๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐+1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+๐โ1} is a subgroup of ๐. Let ๐ผ โถ ๐ โ ๐ and๐ฝ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be as in Lemma 9.15, so that ๐ = ๐ผโ1๐ฝ. Then ๐ป๐ผโ1 isa subgroup of ๐, and so ๐ป๐ผโ1๐ฝ = ๐ป๐ is a subgroup of ๐. Since ๐ isaperiodic๐ป๐ is trivial by Proposition 7.4,๐ป๐ = ๐ for some idempotent๐ of ๐. By the hypothesis, ๐๐โ1 โ ๐ป is aperiodic, and so ๐ = 1 and๐ฅ๐+1 = ๐ฅ๐. Since ๐ฅ โ ๐ was arbitrary, this proves that ๐ is aperiodic. 9.18
S chรผ t z e n b e rg e r โ s T h eorem 9 . 1 9. The Eilenberg correspond-Schรผtzenbergerโs theoremence associates the variety of star-free rational โ-languages SF and thepseudovariety A of aperiodic monoids.
Proof of 9.19. Let A be the โ-variety of rational languages associated to A.We have to prove that SF(๐ดโ) = A(๐ดโ) for all finite alphabets ๐ด. So fix afinite alphabet ๐ด.
Part 1 [SF(๐ดโ) โ A(๐ดโ)]. The class of โ-languages SF(๐ดโ) consists of thelanguages that can be obtained from the languages {๐} (for ๐ โ ๐ด) and {๐}using the Boolean operations and concatenation.
196 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Let us therefore begin by showing that A(๐ดโ) contains the languages{๐} (for ๐ โ ๐ด) and {๐}. Let ๐ โ ๐ด. Let ๐ = {๐ฅ, 0} be a two-element nullsemigroup with all products equal to 0. Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐1 be the mapwith ๐๐ = ๐ฅ and ๐๐ = 0 for all ๐ โ ๐ด โ {๐}, and let ๐โ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐1 bethe unique extension of ๐ to a monoid homomorphism. It is easy to seethat {๐} = {๐ฅ}๐โ1 = {๐}๐๐โ1, thus {๐} is recognized by the monoid ๐1.Clearly ๐1 is an aperiodic monoid; thus ๐1 โ A. Hence {๐} โ A(๐ดโ) by(9.3). Finally, {๐} = ๐โ1{๐} โ A(๐ดโ) by the definition of a โ-variety ofrational languages.
Further, by the definition of a โ-variety of rational languages, A(๐ดโ)is a Boolean algebra and thus closed under the Boolean operations.
It therefore remains to show thatA(๐ดโ) is closed under concatenation.So let ๐พ, ๐ฟ โ A(๐ดโ); we aim to prove that ๐พ๐ฟ โ A(๐ดโ). Then bothSynM๐พ and SynM ๐ฟ belong to A by (9.4). That is, SynM๐พ and SynM ๐ฟare aperiodic.
Consider the three syntactic monoid homomorphisms ๐โฎ๐พ โถ ๐ดโ โSynM๐พ, ๐โฎ๐ฟ โถ ๐ดโ โ SynM ๐ฟ, and ๐โฎ๐พ๐ฟ โถ ๐ดโ โ SynM(๐พ๐ฟ). Let ๐ =(๐โฎ๐พ๐ฟ)โ1. Since ๐
โฎ๐พ๐ฟ is surjective, ๐ โ SynM(๐พ๐ฟ)ร๐ดโ is a relationalmorph-
ism by Lemma 9.16. Let ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ SynM๐พ ร SynM ๐ฟ be defined by ๐ข๐ =(๐ข๐โฎ๐พ, ๐ข๐
โฎ๐ฟ); clearly ๐ is a homomorphism and thus a relational morphism.
Let ๐ = ๐๐; then ๐ is a relational morphism between SynM(๐พ๐ฟ) and(SynM๐พ) ร (SynM ๐ฟ) by Lemma 9.17.
We want to use Lemma 9.18 and the relational morphism ๐ to showthat SynM(๐พ๐ฟ) is aperiodic. Let (๐1, ๐2) โ ๐ธ((SynM๐พ) ร (SynM ๐ฟ)). Let๐ โ (๐1, ๐2)๐โ1. Then ๐ = ๐๐ for some ๐ โ (๐1, ๐2)๐โ1. Then ๐2๐ =(๐21 , ๐22 ) = (๐1, ๐2) = ๐๐. Thus (๐2, ๐) โ ker ๐ โ ker๐โฎ๐พ = ๐๐พ. Similarly(๐2, ๐) โ ๐๐ฟ.
Suppose ๐ข๐2๐ฃ โ ๐พ๐ฟ for some ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ. Then ๐ข๐2๐ฃ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ, for ๐ฅ โ ๐พand ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ. Then, by equidivisibility, either there exists ๐ โ ๐ดโ such that๐ฅ = ๐ข๐๐ and ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฃ, or there exists ๐ โ ๐ดโ such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ข๐ and๐ฆ = ๐๐๐ฃ. Assume the former case; the latter is similar. Since (๐2, ๐) โ ๐๐พ,we have ๐ข๐2๐ โ ๐พ, and so ๐ข๐2๐๐ฆ = ๐ข๐3๐ฃ โ ๐พ๐ฟ. This shows that ๐ข๐2๐ฃ โ๐พ๐ฟ implies ๐ข๐3๐ฃ โ ๐พ๐ฟ.
Now suppose ๐ข๐3๐ฃ โ ๐พ๐ฟ for some ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ. Then ๐ข๐3๐ฃ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ, for๐ฅ โ ๐พ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ. Then, by equidivisibility, either there exists ๐ โ ๐ดโsuch that ๐ฅ = ๐ข๐2๐ and ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฃ, or there exists ๐ โ ๐ดโ such that๐ฅ๐ = ๐ข๐2 and ๐ฆ = ๐๐๐ฃ. Assume the former case; the latter is similar.Since (๐2, ๐) โ ๐๐พ, we have ๐ข๐๐ โ ๐พ, and so ๐ข๐๐๐ฆ = ๐ข๐2๐ฃ โ ๐พ๐ฟ. Thisshows that ๐ข๐3๐ฃ โ ๐พ๐ฟ implies ๐ข๐2๐ฃ โ ๐พ๐ฟ.
Combining the last two paragraphs shows that (๐3, ๐2) โ ๐๐พ๐ฟ, and so๐3 = ๐3๐โฎ๐พ๐ฟ = ๐2๐
โฎ๐พ๐ฟ = ๐2. Since ๐ was an arbitrary element of ๐๐โ1,
it follows that the subsemigroup ๐๐โ1 is aperiodic. Since both SynM๐พand SynM ๐ฟ are aperiodic, (SynM๐พ) ร (SynM ๐ฟ) is aperiodic. Hence,by Lemma 9.18, SynM(๐พ๐ฟ) is aperiodic. Thus SynM(๐พ๐ฟ) โ A, and so
Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem โข 197
๐พ๐ฟ โ A(๐ดโ) by (9.3). So A(๐ดโ) is closed under concatenation.Thus A(๐ดโ) contains every language in SF(๐ดโ).
Part 2 [A(๐ดโ) โ SF(๐ดโ)]. The aim is to prove that any โ-language re-cognized by an aperiodic monoid๐ (and thus belonging to A(๐ดโ)) liesin SF(๐ดโ). The strategy is to proceed by induction on |๐|. For brevity,let ๐ฅ๐ = {๐ โถ ๐ โผ ๐ โง ๐ โ ๐}. That is, ๐ฅ๐ is the class of mon-oids that strictly divide๐. Let ๐ดโ๐ฅ๐ be the class of โ-languages over ๐ดrecognized by some monoid in ๐ฅ๐.
The base of the induction consists of the cases |๐| = 1 and |๐| = 2.First, suppose |๐| = 1. Let ๐ฟ be a โ-language over ๐ด recognized by๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐. Then either ๐ฟ = โ ๐โ1 = โ or ๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1 = ๐ดโ, andboth these languages are in SF(๐ดโ) by definition of a โ-variety of rationallanguages.
Now suppose |๐| = 2. Then๐ is the two-element semilattice {1, 0}with 1 > 0. [To see this, let {1, ๐ง} be an aperiodic monoid. Then 11 = 1,1๐ง = ๐ง1 = ๐ง, and either ๐ง๐ง = 1 or ๐ง๐ง = ๐ง. But in the former case,we have a cyclic group, which is not aperiodic. Hence ๐ง๐ง = ๐ง and wehave a commutative semigroup of idempotents.] Let ๐ฟ be a โ-languagerecognized by ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ๐. Let ๐ต = { ๐ โ ๐ด โถ ๐๐ = 0 }. Then
0๐โ1 = โ๐โ๐ต๐ดโ๐๐ดโ,
1๐โ1 = ๐ดโ โ โ๐โ๐ต๐ดโ๐๐ดโ.
Then 0๐โ1 โ SF(๐ดโ), since SF(๐ดโ) contains the languages ๐ดโ and {๐} forany ๐ โ ๐ต and is by definition closed under concatenation and union,and 1๐โ1 โ SF(๐ดโ), since SF(๐ดโ) is by definition closed under comple-mentation. Since one of the four cases ๐ฟ = โ , ๐ฟ = 0๐โ1, ๐ฟ = 1๐โ1, and๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1 = 0๐โ1 โช 1๐โ1 holds, and since SF(๐ดโ) is closed under union,it follows that ๐ฟ โ SF(๐ดโ).
We have completed the base of the induction; we turn now to theinduction step. Let |๐| โฉพ 3 and suppose that every language in๐ดโ๐ฅ๐ liesin SF(๐ดโ); that is, ๐ดโ๐ฅ๐ โ SF(๐ดโ). We must prove that every languagerecognized by๐ lies in SF(๐ดโ).
Let ๐ฟ be a โ-language over ๐ด recognized by๐. Then there exists ahomomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐ and a subset ๐ of๐ such that ๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1.If ๐ is not surjective, then ๐ฟ is recognized by the proper submonoid im๐of๐ and so, since im๐ โ ๐ฅ๐, by induction ๐ฟ โ ๐ดโ๐ฅ๐ โ SF(๐ดโ). Soassume that ๐ is surjective. Furthermore, since
๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1 = โ๐โ๐๐๐โ1
and SF(๐ดโ) is by definition closed under union, it suffices to prove thecase where ๐ฟ = ๐๐โ1.
198 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Let
๐พ = โ{ ๐ผ โถ ๐ผ is an ideal of๐ and |๐ผ| โฉพ 2 }. (9.9)
Then๐พ is an ideal of๐. For use later in the proof, we now establish someproperties of ๐พ, considering separately the cases where๐ has a zero andwhere๐ does not have a zero:โ ๐ has a zero. Let ๐ท = ๐พ โ {0}. Suppose ๐ท is non-empty. Then for
any ๐ฅ โ ๐ท, we have {0, ๐ฅ} โ ๐๐ฅ๐ โ ๐พ (since ๐พ is an ideal and๐ฅ โ 0), and thus๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐พ (since๐๐ฅ๐ is one of the ideals ๐ผ in theintersection (9.9) and so ๐พ โ ๐๐ฅ๐). So ๐ท is a single J-class of๐and so a single D-class of๐ by Proposition 3.3. Furthermore, ๐พ is a0-minimal ideal and so either 0-simple or null by Proposition 3.8(a).So either๐ท is empty, or else๐ท is a single D-class and๐พ is 0-simpleor null.
โ ๐ does not have a zero. Then๐พ is the kernel of๐ and so simple byProposition 3.8(b). (Since if there were an ideal with only one element๐ง, then ๐๐ง = {๐ง} and ๐ง๐ = {๐ง} and so ๐งwould be a zero.) Furthermore,๐พ2 = ๐พ. (Since if ๐พ2 โ ๐พ, then ๐พ2 would be an ideal of ๐ strictlycontained in ๐พ.)We now consider separately the three cases where๐ โ ๐พ, where๐ is
the zero of๐, and where๐ is not a zero of๐ (but๐may or may notcontain a zero):a) ๐ โ ๐พ. Then there exists an ideal ๐ผ of ๐ with |๐ผ| โฉพ 2 such that๐ โ ๐ผ. Let ๐๐ผ = (๐ผ ร ๐ผ) โช id๐ be the Rees congruence. Then ๐ =๐โฎ๐ผ(๐โฎ๐ผ)โ1 and hence ๐๐โ1 = ๐๐โฎ๐ผ(๐
โฎ๐ผ)โ1๐โ1 = (๐๐
โฎ๐ผ)(๐๐โฎ๐ผ)โ1. Thus
๐๐โ1 is recognized by the homomorphism ๐๐โฎ๐ผ โถ ๐ดโ โ ๐/๐ผ andso is recognized by๐/๐ผ. Since |๐/๐ผ| = |๐| โ |๐ผ| + 1 < |๐| (since|๐ผ| โฉพ 2|), we have๐/๐ผ โ ๐ฅ๐ and so by induction๐๐โ1 โ SF(๐ดโ).
b) ๐ has a zero and๐ = 0๐. Let ๐ถ = { ๐ โ ๐ด โถ ๐๐ = 0 }. The first step isto prove that
0๐โ1 = ๐ดโ๐ถ๐ดโ โชโ(๐,๐,๐โฒ)โ๐ธ๐ดโ๐(๐๐โ1)๐โฒ๐ดโ, (9.10)
where
๐ธ = { (๐, ๐, ๐โฒ) โ (๐ด โ ๐ถ) ร (๐ โ ๐พ) ร (๐ด โ ๐ถ)โถ (๐๐)๐(๐โฒ๐) = 0 โง (๐๐)๐ โ 0 โง ๐(๐โฒ๐) โ 0 }.
First, notice that (๐ดโ๐ถ๐ดโ)๐ = ๐(๐ถ๐)๐ โ {0}. If (๐, ๐, ๐โฒ) โ ๐ธ,then (๐ดโ๐(๐๐โ1)๐โฒ๐ดโ)๐ = ๐(๐๐)๐(๐โฒ๐)๐ = ๐0๐ = {0}. Thisshows that the right-hand side of (9.10) is contained in the left-handside.
Let ๐ โ 0๐โ1 โ ๐ดโ๐ถ๐ดโ = 0๐โ1 โฉ (๐ด โ ๐ถ)โ. Since๐ has at leasttwo elements, 1 โ 0 and so ๐ โ ๐. Let ๐ be the longest left factor
Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem โข 199
of ๐ such that ๐๐ โ 0. (Such a left factor exists since ๐๐ = 1 and๐๐ = 0.) Then ๐ = ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ, where ๐๐ โ 0 and (๐๐โฒ)๐ = 0. Note thatsince ๐ โ (๐ด โ ๐ถ)โ, we have ๐ โ (๐ด โ ๐ถ)โ and ๐โฒ โ ๐ด โ ๐ถ. Let โ bethe longest right factor of ๐ such that (โ๐โฒ)๐ โ 0. (Such a right factorof ๐ exists because ๐โฒ๐ โ 0 and (๐๐โฒ)๐ = 0.) Then ๐ = โโฒ๐โ, where(โ๐โฒ)๐ โ 0 and (๐โ๐โฒ)๐ = 0. Note that since ๐ โ (๐ด โ ๐ถ)โ, we haveโ โ (๐ด โ ๐ถ)โ and ๐ โ ๐ด โ ๐ถ. Furthermore, since ๐๐ โ 0, we have(๐โ)๐ โ 0.
Let ๐ = โ๐. Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction,that ๐ โ ๐พ. Since๐พ is an ideal, ๐(๐โฒ๐) โ ๐พ. Since ๐(๐โฒ๐) = (โ๐โฒ)๐ โ 0,we have ๐(๐โฒ๐) โ ๐ท. Thus ๐ D ๐(๐โฒ๐), and so, by Lemma 7.6(a),๐ R ๐(๐โฒ๐). Similarly, since (๐๐)๐ = (๐โ)๐ โ 0, we have (๐๐)๐ L๐. Hence, by Lemma 3.12, (๐๐)๐(๐โฒ๐) L ๐(๐โฒ๐) and therefore wehave (๐๐)๐(๐โฒ๐) D ๐. Thus (๐๐)๐(๐โฒ๐) lies in the D-class ๐ท, whichcontradicts the fact that (๐โ๐โฒ)๐ = 0. Hence ๐ โ ๐พ, and thus ๐ =โโฒ๐โ๐โฒ๐โฒ โ ๐ดโ๐(๐๐โ1)๐โฒ๐ดโ with (๐, ๐, ๐โฒ) โ ๐ธ.
This shows that the left-hand side of (9.10) is contained in theright-hand side.
Since ๐ โ ๐พ, the reasoning in case a) shows that ๐๐โ1 โ ๐ดโ๐ฅ๐and thus ๐๐โ1 โ SF(๐ดโ). Since SF(๐ดโ) is closed under Boolean oper-ations and concatenation, it follows from (9.10) that๐๐โ1 = 0๐โ1 โSF(๐ดโ).
c) ๐ โ ๐พ โ {0} (where ๐พ โ {0} = ๐พ if๐ does not contain a zero). Now,๐๐ โ ๐พ since ๐พ is an ideal. Hence all elements of๐๐โ {0} are D-related and hence R-related by Lemma 7.6. Thus ๐ ๐ = ๐๐ โ {0}.Similarly, ๐ฟ๐ = ๐๐ โ {0}.
{๐} = ๐ป๐ [by Proposition 7.4]= ๐ ๐ โฉ ๐ฟ๐= (๐๐ โ {0}) โฉ (๐๐ โ {0})= (๐๐ โฉ๐๐) โ {0}.
(When๐ does not contain a zero, this becomes {๐} = ๐๐ โฉ๐๐.)Thus, since by case b) we already know that 0๐โ1 is in SF(๐ดโ), it issufficient to prove that (๐๐)๐โ1 and (๐๐)๐โ1 are in SF(๐ดโ). Wewill prove (๐๐)๐โ1 โ SF(๐ดโ); the other case is similar.
The first step is to prove that
(๐๐)๐โ1 = 0๐โ1 โชโ(๐,๐)โ๐น(๐๐โ1)๐๐ดโ. (9.11)
where
๐น = { (๐, ๐) โ (๐ โ ๐พ) ร ๐ด โถ ๐(๐๐) โ ๐ ๐ }.
(We formally let 0๐โ1 = โ if๐ does not contain a zero.)
200 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
If (๐, ๐) โ ๐น, then (๐๐โ1)๐๐ดโ = ๐ ๐๐โ1 โ (๐๐)๐โ1. Trivially,0๐โ1 โ (๐๐)๐โ1. Thus the right-hand side of (9.10) is contained inthe left-hand side.
Let ๐ โ (๐๐)๐โ1. If ๐๐ = 0, then ๐ โ 0๐โ1. So assume ๐๐ โ 0.Then ๐๐ โ ๐๐ โ {0} = ๐ ๐. Since 1 โ ๐พ (since๐ has at least twoelements), ๐๐ = 1 โ ๐ ๐. Let ๐ be the longest left factor of ๐ suchthat ๐๐ โ ๐ ๐. (Such a longest left factor exists since ๐๐ โ ๐ ๐ and๐๐ โ ๐ ๐.) Hence ๐ = ๐๐๐โฒ where ๐๐ โ ๐ ๐ and (๐๐)๐ โ ๐ ๐, where๐, ๐โฒ โ ๐ดโ and ๐ โ ๐ด.
Let ๐ = ๐๐. Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction,that ๐ โ ๐พ. Then ๐ ๐ = ๐๐ โ {0} and so ๐(๐๐) โ ๐ ๐. But ๐(๐๐) โ ๐ ๐,so ๐ ๐ = ๐ ๐ and so ๐ โ ๐ ๐, which contradicts ๐ = ๐๐ โ ๐ ๐. Thus๐ โ ๐พ, and so (๐, ๐) โ ๐น. Therefore ๐ โ (๐๐โ1)๐๐ดโ
This shows that the left-hand side of (9.11) is contained in theright-hand side.
Thus, for any (๐, ๐) โ ๐น, we have ๐ โ ๐พ and so ๐๐โ1 โ ๐ดโ๐ฅ๐by case a), and thus ๐๐โ1 โ SF(๐ดโ). Hence (๐๐)๐โ1 is in SF(๐ดโ) by(9.11).
This completes the induction step and thus the proof. 9.19 Finis.
Exercises
[See pages 248โ250 for the solutions.]โด9.1 Prove that a language ๐ฟ โ ๐ดโ is rational if and only if SynM ๐ฟ is finite.
[Hint: this is an easy consequence of results in this chapter.]9.2 Let ๐ด = {๐, ๐}. Let ๐ฟ be the language of words over ๐ด that contain
at least one symbol ๐ and at least one symbol ๐. (That is, ๐ฟ = ๐ด+ โ({๐}+ โช {๐}+).) Find a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ that recognizes ๐ฟ.[Hint: ๐ can be taken to have 3 elements.]
โด9.3 A Dyck word is a string of balanced parentheses: that is, a word in Dyck word{ ( , ) }โ where every opening parenthesis ( matches a correspondingclosing parentheses ) to its right, and vice versa. For instance,
( ) ( ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ) ( ( ) ) is a Dyck word, but
( ) ) ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ( ( ( ) ( is not a Dyck word.
An equivalent characterization of Dyck words is the following: definea map ๐ถ โถ { ( , ) }โ ร โ โช {0} โ โค as follows: let ๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) bethe number of symbols ( minus the number of symbols ) in the prefix๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐. A word ๐ค is a Dyck word if and only if ๐ถ(๐ค, |๐ค|) = 0 and
Exercises โข 201
๐ถ(๐ค, ๐) โฉพ 0 for all ๐ = 1,โฆ , |๐ค|. Consider the two example wordsabove, with ๐ถ(๐ค, ๐) plotted graphically:
If ๐ค = ( ) ( ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ) ( ( ) ) , then ๐ถ(๐ค, |๐ค|) = 0 and๐ถ(๐ค, ๐) โฉพ 0 for all ๐.
If ๐ค = ( ) ) ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ( ( ( ) ( , then ๐ถ(๐ค, |๐ค|) โ 0 and๐ถ(๐ค, ๐) < 0 for some ๐.
Let๐ท be the language of Dyck words. Prove that SynM๐ท is isomor-phic to the bicyclic monoid.
โด9.4 Without using the Eilenberg correspondence, prove that the corres-pondence N in Example 9.9(c) (with N(๐ด+) being the class of finiteor cofinite languages over ๐ด) is a variety of rational languages.
โด9.5 Let RB be the S-pseudovariety of rectangular bands. Let RB be thevariety of rational +-languages associated to RB by the Eilenberg cor-respondence. Prove that RB(๐ด+) is the class of all +-languages of theform
๐ โช โ๐โ๐๐๐ดโ๐ โช
๐
โ๐=1๐๐๐ดโ๐โฒ๐, (9.12)
where ๐ โ ๐ด and ๐๐, ๐โฒ๐ โ ๐ด with ๐๐ โ ๐โฒ๐ for each ๐.
Notes
For further reading on automata and rational languages, seeHopcroft & Ullman, Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Compu-tation, ch. 2, Lawson, Finite Automata, or Howie, Automata and Languages. โTheorem 9.1 is due to Rabin & Scott, โFinite automata and their decision prob-lemsโ. โ Theorem 9.2 was first stated, in rather different terminology, in Kleene,โRepresentation of events in nerve nets and finite automataโ. โ The discussion ofsyntactic monoids and semigroups and Eilenbergโs correspondence is based onEilenberg, Automata, Languages, and Machines (Vol. B), ch. vii and Pin, โSyn-tactic semigroupsโ, ยงยง 2.2โ3. โ The proof of Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem is a blendof the original proof by Schรผtzenberger, โOn finite monoids having only trivialsubgroupsโ and its exposition in Pin, Varieties of Formal Languages, ยง 4.2 โ Forfurther reading on the connection between semigroups and languages, see Pin,Varieties of Formal Languages or Pin, โMathematical Foundations of AutomataTheoryโ.
โข
202 โขAutomata & finite semigroups
Solutions to exercises
โ A solution which does not prepare for the next roundwith some increased insight is hardly a solution at all. โ
โ R.W. Hamming,The Art of Doing Science and Engineering, p. 200.
Exercises for chapter 1
[See pages 32โ34 for the exercises.]1.1 Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ since ๐ is a right identity, and ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ since ๐ is
a right zero. Hence ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐. Thus ๐ is the only element of ๐.1.2 a) If ๐ contains a zero, then ๐0 = ๐ and there is nothing to prove.
Otherwise ๐0 = ๐ โช {0}. Then ๐ฅ1 = ๐ฅ1 = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ since 1 isan identity for ๐, and 01 = 10 = 0 by the definition of ๐0. Hence 1is an identity for ๐0.
b) The reasoning is similar to part a).1.3 Let ๐ be left-cancellative and let ๐ โ ๐ be an idempotent. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐.
Since ๐ is idempotent, ๐๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ. Since ๐ is left-cancellative, ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ.Since ๐ฅ โ ๐ was arbitrary, this proves that ๐ is a left identity for ๐ฅ.
Suppose now that ๐ is cancellative and that ๐, ๐ โ ๐ are idem-potents. By the preceding paragraph and the symmetric result forright-cancellativity, ๐ and ๐ are left and right identities for ๐. By Pro-position 1.3, ๐ = ๐.
1.4 Let ๐ be a right zero semigroup. Suppose ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐ are such that๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ. Since ๐ is a right zero semigroup, ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ฅ and ๐ง๐ฆ = ๐ฆ. Hence๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ = ๐ฆ. That is, ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. So ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ for all๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐ and thus ๐ is left-cancellative.
1.5 Let ๐ be a finite cancellative semigroup. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ is periodicand so some power of ๐ฅ is an idempotent. By Exercise 1.3, this idem-potent is an identity 1๐ for ๐. Now let ๐ฆ โ ๐ be arbitrary. Then ๐ฆ๐ isidempotent for some ๐ โ โ. Again by Exercise 1.3, ๐ฆ๐ = 1๐ and so๐ฆ๐โ1 is a left and right inverse for ๐ฆ. Since ๐ฆ โ ๐ was arbitrary, ๐ is agroup.
1.6 Let ๐ โ B๐. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then
(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ โ id๐โ (โ๐ง โ ๐)((๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐ โง (๐ง, ๐ฆ) โ id๐) [by definition of โ]
โข 203
โ (โ๐ง โ ๐)((๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐ โง (๐ง = ๐ฆ)) [by definition of id๐]โ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐.
So ๐ โ id๐ = ๐ and similarly id๐ โ ๐ = ๐. So id๐ is the identity of B๐.The zero ofB๐ is the empty relationโ . So see this, we must prove
that ๐ โ โ = โ โ ๐ = โ . So suppose, with the aim of obtaining acontradiction, that ๐ โ โ โ โ . Then (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ๐ โ โ for some ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐.Then there exists ๐ง โ ๐ such that (๐ฅ, ๐ง) โ ๐ and (๐ง, ๐ฆ) โ โ . But(๐ง, ๐ฆ) โ โ is a contradiction. So ๐ โ โ = โ and similarlyโ โ ๐ = โ .
1.7 No. Let ๐ be a non-trivial semigroup. Choose some element ๐ฅ โ ๐and let ๐ = { ๐ฅ๐ โถ ๐ โ โ } be the subsemigroup generated by ๐ฅ.If ๐ is finite (that is, if ๐ฅ is periodic), then some ๐ฅ๐ is idempotentand so {๐ฅ๐} is a subsemigroup of ๐; furthermore, it must be a propersubsemigroup since ๐ is non-trivial. If, on the other hand, ๐ is infinite,then { ๐ฅ2๐ โถ ๐ โ โ } is a proper subsemigroup of ๐ and hence of ๐.
1.8 The easiest examples are infinite right or left zero semigroups, andthe semigroups (โ,โณ) and (โค,โณ) from Example 1.7(a)โ(b).
1.9 The empty relationโ is a partial transformation. It is a zero for B๐,so it is certainly a zero for P๐. By Proposition 1.4, this is the uniqueleft and right zero in P๐.
Let us prove that the semigroup of transformations T๐ containsexactly |๐| right zeros, namely the constantmaps ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐ โ ๐ definedby ๐ฆ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฆ โ ๐. Each map ๐๐ฅ is a right zero because for any๐ โ T๐, we have ๐ฆ๐๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ฆ โ ๐, and so ๐๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ. Suppose๐ โ T๐ is a right zero. Then ๐๐ = ๐ for all ๐ โ T๐. In particular, thisis true for all ๐ โ S๐. Choose some ๐ฆ โ ๐ and let ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐. Now let๐ง โ ๐. Choose ๐ โ S๐ with ๐ง๐ = ๐ฆ. Then ๐ง๐ = ๐ง๐๐ = ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. Since๐ง โ ๐ was arbitrary, we have ๐ = ๐๐ฅ. Thus the right zeros in T๐ areprecisely the constant maps ๐๐ฅ.
Suppose ๐ โ T๐ is a left zero. Then for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, we have ๐ =๐๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ since ๐ is a left zero and ๐๐ฅ is a right zero. Hence |๐| = 1and so T๐ is trivial (and so contains a zero). Hence if |๐| โฉพ 2, thenT๐ cannot contain a left zero.
1.10 a) Define ๐ โถ ๐ โ โ๐ by ๐ง๐ = {๐ง}. Then
(๐ง๐)(๐ก๐) = {๐ง}{๐ก} = {๐ง๐ก} = (๐ง๐ก)๐.
and
๐ง๐ = ๐ก๐ โ {๐ง} = {๐ก} โ ๐ง = ๐ก.
So ๐ is a monomorphism and so ๐ โถ ๐ โ im ๐ โ โ๐ is anisomorphism.
b) For any๐ โ โ๐, we have
๐โ = { ๐ฅ๐ฆ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ โง ๐ฆ โ โ } = โ
204 โขSolutions to exercises
12
๐
๐
12
๐
๐
(1 ๐)|1 2|(1 ๐)
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
=
12
๐
๐
12
๐
๐
|๐ 2|
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
12
๐
๐
12
๐
๐
(1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐)
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
=
12
๐
๐
12
๐
๐
|๐ ๐|
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
โฎ
(a) (b)
FIGURE S.3Generating (a) |2 ๐| and (b) |๐ ๐|using transpositions and |1 2|.
and similarlyโ ๐ = โ . Soโ is a zero forโ๐. If๐,๐ โ (โ๐) โ {โ }then there exist ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ and so ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐๐ and hence๐๐ โ โ . So (โ๐) โ {โ } is a subsemigroup of โ๐.
c) Suppose๐ is non-trivial. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {1๐}. Let ๐ = ๐ โ {๐ฅ}.Then๐ โ ๐ โ โ but๐๐ = ๐ and๐๐ = ๐ since both๐and๐ contain 1๐. Hence (โ๐) โ {โ } is not cancellative.
On the other hand, suppose๐ is trivial. Then โ๐ = {โ ,๐}.Hence (โ๐) โ {โ } is trivial and thus cancellative.
d) Let ๐ be a right zero semigroup. Let๐,๐ โ (โ๐) โ {โ }. Then
๐๐ = { ๐ฅ๐ฆ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ โง ๐ฆ โ ๐ }= { ๐ฆ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ โง ๐ฆ โ ๐ } [since ๐ฆ is a right zero]= { ๐ฆ โถ ๐ฆ โ ๐ }= ๐.
So (โ๐) โ {โ } is a right zero semigroup.On the other hand, if โ๐ is a right zero semigroup, so is its
subsemigroup im๐ โ ๐, where ๐ is the monomorphism frompart a). So ๐ is a right zero semigroup.
1.11 a) To prove the four identities, we have to show that the transforma-tions on each side act the same way on every element of ๐. Forthe first identity, let ๐ โฉพ 3. Then:
1(1 ๐)|1 2|(1 ๐) = ๐|1 2|(1 ๐) = ๐(1 ๐) = 1 = 1|๐ 2|;2(1 ๐)|1 2|(1 ๐) = 2|1 2|(1 ๐) = 2(1 ๐) = 2 = 2|๐ 2|;๐(1 ๐)|1 2|(1 ๐) = 1|1 2|(1 ๐) = 2(1 ๐) = 2 = 2|๐ 2|;๐ฅ(1 ๐)|1 2|(1 ๐) = ๐ฅ|1 2|(1 ๐) = ๐ฅ(1 ๐) = ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ|๐ 2|
for ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {1, 2, ๐}.
(Figure S.3(a) illustrates the first identity diagrammatically.) Thesecond identity is proved similarly.
For the third identity, let ๐, ๐ โฉพ 3 with ๐ โ ๐. Then:
1(1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐)= ๐|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐(1 ๐) = 1 = 1|๐ ๐|;
Solutions to exercises โข 205
2(1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = 2(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐)= ๐|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = 2(1 ๐) = 2 = 2|๐ ๐|;
๐(1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = 1(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐)= 1|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = 2(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐(1 ๐) = ๐ = ๐|๐ ๐|;
๐(1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐)= 2|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = 2(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐(1 ๐) = ๐ = ๐|๐ ๐|;
๐ฅ(1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐ฅ(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐)= ๐ฅ|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐ฅ(2 ๐)(1 ๐) = ๐ฅ(1 ๐) = ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ|๐ ๐|
for ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {1, 2, ๐, ๐}.
(Figure S.3(b) illustrates the third identity diagrammatically.)For the fourth identity, let ๐ โ ๐. Then:
๐(๐ ๐)|๐ ๐|(๐ ๐) = ๐|๐ ๐|(๐ ๐) = ๐(๐ ๐) = ๐ = ๐|๐ ๐|;๐(๐ ๐)|๐ ๐|(๐ ๐) = ๐|๐ ๐|(๐ ๐) = ๐(๐ ๐) = ๐ = ๐|๐ ๐|;๐ฅ(๐ ๐)|๐ ๐|(๐ ๐) = ๐ฅ|๐ ๐|(๐ ๐) = ๐ฅ(๐ ๐) = ๐ = ๐ฅ|๐ ๐|
for ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {๐, ๐}.
b) To prove that |๐ ๐|๐โฒ = ๐, we must show that both sides act thesame way on every element of๐. By the definition of ๐โฒ,
๐|๐ ๐|๐โฒ = ๐๐โฒ = ๐๐,๐ฅ|๐ ๐|๐โฒ = ๐ฅ๐โฒ = ๐ฅ๐ for ๐ฅ โ ๐.
c) Since โจ๐, ๐โฉ = S๐, we have (๐ ๐) โ โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐.From part a), the first two identities show that |๐ 2| and |1 ๐| are inโจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐โ {1, 2}. Combining this with the fourthidentity shows that |2 ๐| and |๐ 1| are in โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ. Together withthe third identity, this shows that |๐ ๐| โ โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ for all ๐, ๐ โ ๐.
Now proceed by induction on |๐ โ im๐|. If |๐ โ im๐| = 0,then im๐ = ๐ and so ๐ is surjective and so (since ๐ is finite)injective. Hence ๐ โ S๐ = โจ๐, ๐โฉ โ โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ. So assume that๐ โ โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ is true for all ๐ โ T๐ with |๐ โ im๐| = ๐ โ 1 < ๐.Let ๐ be such that |๐ โ im๐| = ๐. Then by parts a) and b), wehave ๐ = |๐ ๐|๐โฒ = (1 ๐)(2 ๐)|1 2|(2 ๐)(1 ๐)๐โฒ, where im๐โฒ โ im๐.Hence |๐ โ im๐โฒ| = ๐ โ 1 and so ๐โฒ โ โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ. Hence ๐ โโจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ. By induction, T๐ = โจ๐, ๐, |1 2|โฉ.
1.12 Suppose ๐ฅ is right invertible. Then there exists ๐ฆ โ ๐ such that ๐ฅ๐ฆ = 1.Since ๐ is finite, ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐ for some ๐,๐ โ โ. So 1 = ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐ =๐ฅ๐+๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐โ1๐ฅ and so ๐ฅ๐โ1 is a left inverse for ๐ฅ. Similarly,if ๐ฅ is left invertible, it is right invertible.
1.13 a) Let ๐ โ T๐ be left-invertible. Then there exists ๐ โ T๐ such that๐ โ ๐ = id๐. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then ๐ฅ(๐ โ ๐) = ๐ฅ. So (๐ฅ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ. So ๐ issurjective.
206 โขSolutions to exercises
Now let ๐ โ T๐ be surjective. Define ๐ โ T๐ as follows. Foreach ๐ฅ โ ๐, choose ๐ฆ โ ๐ such that ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. (Such a ๐ฆ existsbecause ๐ is surjective.) Define ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ. Clearly ๐ โ ๐ = id๐ andso ๐ is left-invertible.
b) Let ๐ โ T๐ be right-invertible. Then there exists ๐ โ T๐ such that๐ โ ๐ = id๐. Then ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ (๐ฅ๐)๐ = (๐ฆ๐)๐ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ and so ๐is injective.
Now let ๐ โ T๐ be injective. Define ๐ โ T๐ as follows. For๐ฅ โ im ๐, let ๐ฆ โ ๐ be the unique element such that ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ.Define ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ. For ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ im ๐, define ๐ฅ๐ arbitrarily. Clearly๐ โ ๐ = id๐ and so ๐ is right-invertible.
1.14 a) By definition, ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฅ. So the least upper bound of ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ and๐ฅ (which is the definition of (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ฅ) must be ๐ฅ itself. Dualreasoning gives (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ.
b) Assume that for all๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐, we have๐โ(๐โ๐) = (๐โ๐)โ(๐โ๐).(We have re-labelled variables to avoid confusion.) Then
(๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ (๐ฅ โ ๐ง)= ((๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ฅ) โ ((๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง)
[by assumption, with ๐ = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ), ๐ = ๐ฅ, ๐ = ๐ง]= ๐ฅ โ ((๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ) โ ๐ง) [by part a)]= ๐ฅ โ ((๐ฅ โ ๐ง) โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง))
[by assumption, with ๐ = ๐ง, ๐ = ๐ฅ, ๐ = ๐ฆ]= (๐ฅ โ (๐ฅ โ ๐ง)) โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง) [by associativity of โ]= ๐ฅ โ (๐ฆ โ ๐ง). [by part a)]
The other direction is similar.1.15 There are many examples. For instance, let ๐ be any non-trivial mon-
oid, let ๐ = ๐0, and define ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ by ๐ฅ๐ = 0 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. It is easyto see that ๐ is a homomorphism, but 1๐๐ = 0 โ 1๐0 .
1.16 a) Let ๐ be a monomorphism (that is, an injective homomorphism),and let ๐1, ๐2 โถ ๐ โ ๐ be such that ๐1 โ ๐ = ๐2 โ ๐. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐.Then ๐ฅ๐1๐ = ๐ฅ๐2๐ and so ๐ฅ๐1 = ๐ฅ๐2 since ๐ is injective. Sincethis is true for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, it follows that ๐1 = ๐2. This proves that๐ is a categorical monomorphism.
Now let ๐ be a categorical monomorphism. Suppose, withthe aim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐ is not injective. Thenthere exist ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ with ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐. Define maps๐1, ๐2 โถ โ โ ๐ by ๐๐1 = ๐ฅ๐ and ๐๐2 = ๐ฆ๐. It is easy to see that๐1 and ๐2 are homomorphisms. Then for any ๐ โ โ,
๐๐1๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ = (๐ฅ๐)๐ = (๐ฆ๐)๐ = ๐ฆ๐๐ = ๐๐2๐,
and so ๐1 โ ๐ = ๐2 โ ๐. Hence ๐1 = ๐2 by (1.16), which contradicts1๐1 = ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ = 1๐2 and so proves that ๐ is a monomorphism.
Solutions to exercises โข 207
b) i) Let ๐ be a surjective homomorphism. Suppose ๐1, ๐2 โถ ๐ โ๐ are such that ๐ โ ๐1 = ๐ โ ๐2. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then since ๐ issurjective, there exists ๐ฆ โ ๐ with ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. Thus
๐ฅ๐1 = ๐ฆ๐๐1 = ๐ฆ๐๐2 = ๐ฅ๐2.
Since this holds for all ๐ฅ โ ๐, it follows that ๐1 = ๐2. Thisproves that ๐ is a categorical epimorphism.
ii) Let ๐1, ๐2 โถ โค โ ๐ be such that ๐1 โ ๐2 (which is thenegation of the right-hand side of (1.17)). Then there exists๐ โ โค such that ๐๐1 โ ๐๐2. Either ๐ or โ๐ lies in im ๐, and soeither ๐๐๐1 โ ๐๐๐2 or (โ๐)๐๐1 โ (โ๐)๐๐2, and thus ๐โ๐1 โ ๐โ๐2(which is the negation of the left-hand side of (1.17) with ๐ = ๐).Thus ๐ is a categorical epimorphism.
1.17 Suppose ๐ is a right zero semigroup. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ โ๐ง๐๐ฅ = ๐ง๐๐ฆ โ ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ and so the map ๐ฅ โฆ ๐๐ฅ is injective.
Suppose now that ๐ is a left zero semigroup. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ with๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ. Then ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ for all ๐ง โ ๐. Hence ๐ง๐๐ฅ = ๐ง๐๐ฆ for all ๐ง โ ๐, andso ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ. Thus ๐ฅ โฆ ๐๐ฅ is not injective.
1.18 For each ๐ฆ โ ๐, let ๐๐ฆ be a copy of ๐, and define a map ๐๐ฆ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ฆ
๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = {๐ if ๐ฅ โฉพ ๐ฆ,๐ง otherwise.
Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฅโฒ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then
(๐ฅ๐๐ฆ) โ (๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฆ) = ๐ โ ๐ = ๐ = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฅโฒ)๐๐ฆ if ๐ฅ, ๐ฅโฒ โฉพ ๐ฆ;(๐ฅ๐๐ฆ) โ (๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฆ) = ๐ โ ๐ง = ๐ง = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฅโฒ)๐๐ฆ if ๐ฅ โฉพ ๐ฆ, ๐ฅโฒ โฑ ๐ฆ;(๐ฅ๐๐ฆ) โ (๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฆ) = ๐ง โ ๐ = ๐ง = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฅโฒ)๐๐ฆ if ๐ฅ โฑ ๐ฆ, ๐ฅโฒ โฉพ ๐ฆ;(๐ฅ๐๐ฆ) โ (๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฆ) = ๐ง โ ๐ง = ๐ง = (๐ฅ โ ๐ฅโฒ)๐๐ฆ if ๐ฅ, ๐ฅโฒ โฑ ๐ฆ.
So ๐๐ฆ is a homomorphism. It is clearly surjective. Now,
(โ๐ฆ โ ๐)(๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฆ)โ (๐ฅ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฅ) โง (๐ฅ๐๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฅโฒ)โ (๐ = ๐ฅโฒ๐๐ฅ) โง (๐ฅ๐๐ฅโฒ = ๐)โ (๐ฅโฒ โฉพ ๐ฅ) โง (๐ฅ โฉพ ๐ฅโฒ)โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅโฒ.
So the collection of surjective homomorphisms { ๐๐ฆ โถ ๐ โ ๐๐ฆ โถ๐ฆ โ ๐ } separates elements of ๐, and so ๐ is a subdirect product of{ ๐๐ฆ โถ ๐ฆ โ ๐ }.
1.19 Define a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐/๐ผ โ ๐/๐ฝ by [๐ฅ]๐ผ๐ = [๐ฅ]๐ฝ. Since ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ,the homomorphism ๐ is well defined. Its image is clearly ๐/๐ฝ. Now,([๐ฅ]๐ผ, [๐ฆ]๐ผ) โ ker๐ โ [๐ฅ]๐ฝ = [๐ฆ]๐ฝ โ ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ โ [๐ฅ]๐ผ, [๐ฆ]๐ผ โ ๐ฝ/๐ผ.Hence, by Theorem 1.24, ๐/๐ฝ โ (๐/๐ผ)/ker๐ โ (๐/๐ผ)/(๐ฝ/๐ผ).
208 โขSolutions to exercises
1.20 Notice that ๐ผ๐ฝ โ ๐ผ๐โฉ๐๐ฝ โ ๐ผโฉ๐ฝ, so ๐ผโฉ๐ฝ โ โ . Furthermore, ๐(๐ผโฉ๐ฝ)๐ โ๐๐ผ๐โฉ๐๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ผโฉ๐ฝ, since ๐ผ and ๐ฝ are ideals; thus ๐ผโฉ๐ฝ is an ideal. Similarly,๐(๐ผ โช ๐ฝ)๐ โ ๐๐ผ๐ โช ๐๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ผ โช ๐ฝ and so ๐ผ โช ๐ฝ is an ideal.
Define a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ผ โ (๐ผ โช ๐ฝ)/๐ฝ by ๐ฅ๐ = [๐ฅ]๐ฝ. Let[๐ฆ]๐ฝ โ (๐ผ โช ๐ฝ)/๐ฝ. If ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ then let ๐ง โ ๐ผโฉ๐ฝ and notice that ๐ง๐ = [๐ง]๐ฝ =[๐ฆ]๐ฝ; if ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ then ๐ฆ โ ๐ผ and ๐ฆ๐ = [๐ฆ]๐ฝ. Hence im๐ is (๐ผ โช ๐ฝ)/๐ฝ. Nowfor any ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ผ, we have (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ker๐ โ [๐ฅ]๐ฝ = [๐ฆ]๐ฝ โ ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ.Hence (๐ผ โช ๐ฝ)/๐ฝ โ ๐ผ/(๐ผ โฉ ๐ฝ) by Theorem 1.24.
1.21 Suppose first that ๐ = ๐บ โช {0๐} and let ๐ก โ ๐ โ {0๐} = ๐บ. Then๐ก๐บ = ๐บ๐ก = ๐บ by Lemma 1.9 and ๐ก0๐ = 0๐๐ก = 0๐, so ๐ก๐ = ๐๐ก = ๐.
Conversely, suppose that ๐ก๐ = ๐๐ก = ๐ for all ๐ก โ ๐ โ {0๐}. Let๐บ = ๐ โ {0๐}. By assumption, ๐ contains at least one element otherthan 0๐, so ๐บ โ โ . For any ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐, we have ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ ๐ = ๐, so ๐ is asubsemigroup.
Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that thereexist ๐, โ โ ๐บ with ๐โ = 0๐. Then
๐ = ๐๐ โ ๐๐ = (๐๐)(โ๐) = ๐(๐โ)๐ = ๐0๐๐ = {0๐},
contradicting ๐บ โ โ . So for all ๐, โ โ ๐บ, we have ๐โ โ ๐บ. Since๐0๐ = 0๐๐ = 0๐, it follows that ๐๐บ = ๐บ๐ = ๐บ for all ๐ โ ๐บ. Hence, byLemma 1.9, ๐บ is a subgroup of ๐.
Exercises for chapter 2
[See pages 51โ53 for the exercises.]2.1 a) Let ๐บ be a group and suppose that ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐บ are such that๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐ก. Then we can take ๐ = ๐งโ1๐ฅ = ๐ก๐ฆโ1, and it follows that๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ and ๐ก = ๐๐ฆ.
b) Suppose ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง, ๐ก โ ๐ดโ are such that ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐ก. Let ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐ก =๐1โฏ๐๐, where ๐๐ โ ๐ด. Then, by the definition of multiplicationin ๐ดโ, we have
๐ฅ = ๐1โฏ๐๐, ๐ฆ = ๐๐+1โฏ๐๐, ๐ง = ๐1โฏ๐โ, ๐ก = ๐โ+1โฏ๐๐,
for some 0 โฉฝ ๐, โ โฉฝ ๐ + 1. (We allow ๐ and โ to take the values 0and ๐+1 and formally take subwords ๐๐โฏ๐๐ where ๐ < ๐ to meanthe empty word ๐.) If ๐ โฉฝ โ, then the situation is as follows:
๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ง๐ก =๐ฅโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐1โฏ๐๐
๐ฆโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐๐+1โฏ๐โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐ง
๐โ+1โฏ๐๐โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐ก
and thus we let ๐ = ๐๐+1โฏ๐โ; then ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ and ๐ฆ = ๐๐ก. On theother hand, if ๐ โฉพ โ, let ๐ = ๐โ+1โฏ๐๐; then ๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ and ๐ก = ๐๐ฆ.
Solutions to exercises โข 209
2.2 If ๐ข = ๐ค๐ and ๐ฃ = ๐ค๐, then ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ค๐+๐ = ๐ฃ๐ข.In the other direction, suppose that ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ข. First note that if๐ข = ๐, then we can take ๐ค = ๐ฃ, so that ๐ข = ๐ค0 and ๐ฃ = ๐ค1; similarreasoning holds when ๐ฃ = ๐. So assume henceforth that neither ๐ข nor๐ฃ is the empty word. Now proceed by induction on |๐ข๐ฃ|. If |๐ข๐ฃ| โฉฝ 2and ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ข, then since neither ๐ข nor ๐ฃ is ๐, it follows that ๐ข and ๐ฃboth have length 1, so ๐ข = ๐ฃ. So assume the result holds for |๐ข๐ฃ| < ๐and suppose ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ข. By Exercise 2.1, there exists ๐ โ ๐ดโ such that๐ข = ๐ฃ๐ and ๐ข = ๐๐ฃ (or there exists ๐ โ ๐ดโ such that ๐ฃ = ๐ข๐ and๐ฃ = ๐๐ข, which says the same thing). If ๐ = ๐ then ๐ข = ๐ฃ. Otherwise,since ๐ฃ๐ = ๐๐ฃ, the induction hypothesis shows that ๐ฃ = ๐ค๐ and๐ = ๐ค๐ for some ๐ค โ ๐ดโ and ๐, ๐ โ โ. Thus ๐ข = ๐ค๐+๐. Hence, byinduction, the result holds for all ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ.
2.3 a) Suppose ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ค. If |๐ฃ| = 0, then let ๐ = ๐, ๐ก = ๐ข, ๐ = 0. Since๐ฃ = ๐ and ๐ข = ๐ค, we have ๐ข = ๐ ๐ก, ๐ฃ = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ , ๐ค = ๐ก๐ . So supposethe result holds for |๐ฃ| < ๐. Then if |๐ฃ| = ๐, by equidivisibility wehave either ๐ข = ๐ฃ๐ and ๐๐ฃ = ๐ค for some ๐ โ ๐ดโ or ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ and๐ฃ = ๐๐ค for some ๐ โ ๐ดโ. In the former case, let ๐ = ๐ฃ, ๐ก = ๐,and ๐ = 0; then ๐ข = ๐ ๐ก, ๐ฃ = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ , and ๐ค = ๐ก๐ . In the latter case,first note that if |๐| = 0 we have ๐ข๐ = ๐๐ค, with |๐| < |๐ฃ|. By theinduction hypothesis, ๐ข = ๐ ๐ก, ๐ก = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ , and ๐ค = ๐ก๐ for some๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ดโ and ๐ โ โโช {0}. Then ๐ฃ = ๐ข๐ = (๐ ๐ก)๐+1๐ . This proves theinduction step.
b) Let ๐ be maximal such that ๐ฃ = ๐ข๐๐ for some ๐ โ ๐ดโ. Then๐ข๐+1๐ = ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ค = ๐ข๐๐ ๐ค and so by cancellativity ๐ข๐ = ๐ ๐ค. So byequidivisibility, either ๐ is a left factor of ๐ข or ๐ข is left factor of ๐ . Butthe latter contradicts the maximality of ๐. Hence ๐ข = ๐ ๐ก for some๐ก โ ๐ดโ. Hence ๐ฃ = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ and so (๐ ๐ก)๐+1๐ = ๐ข๐ฃ = ๐ฃ๐ค = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ ๐คand so by cancellativity ๐ค = ๐ก๐ .
2.4 First, notice that if โจ๐ข, ๐ฃโฉ is free, then every element of โจ๐ข, ๐ฃโฉ hasa unique representation as a a product of elements of {๐ข, ๐ฃ}; hence๐ข๐ฃ โ ๐ฃ๐ข.
So suppose โจ๐ข, ๐ฃโฉ is not free. Without loss of generality, assume|๐ข| โฉพ |๐ฃ| and let ๐ข = ๐ฃ๐๐ง, where ๐ โ โ โช {0} is maximal and ๐ง โ ๐ดโ.Then there are two distinct products ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ and ๐ฆ1โฏ๐ฆ๐ (where๐ฅ๐, ๐ฆ๐ โ {๐ข, ๐ฃ}) such that๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ1โฏ๐ฆ๐. By cancellativity, assume๐ฅ1 โ ๐ฆ1. Interchanging the two products if necessary, assume ๐ฅ1 = ๐ขand ๐ฆ1 = ๐ฃ. Let โ โ โ be maximal such that ๐ฆ1 = ๐ฆ2 = โฆ = ๐ฆโ =๐ฃ. Then ๐ฃ๐๐ง๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฃโ๐ฆโ+1โฏ๐ฆ๐. By cancellativity, ๐ง๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐ =๐ฃโโ๐๐ฆโ+1โฏ๐ฆ๐. By equidivisibility, either ๐ง = ๐ฃ๐ and ๐๐ฅ2โฏ๐ฅ๐ =๐ฃโโ๐๐ฆโ+1โฏ๐ฆ๐ for some ๐ โ ๐ดโ, or ๐ฃ = ๐ง๐ and ๐๐ฃโโ๐๐ฆโ+1โฏ๐ฆ๐. Theformer case is impossible since ๐ is maximal; thus the latter case holds.So ๐ข = (๐ง๐)๐๐ง. Repeat this reasoning but focusing on ๐ข๐ and ๐ฃ๐shows that ๐ฃ is a right factor of ๐ข. But since ๐ข = (๐ง๐)๐๐ง and |๐ฃ| =
210 โขSolutions to exercises
|๐ง| + |๐| = |๐๐ง|, we conclude that ๐ฃ = ๐๐ง. Hence ๐ง๐ = ๐ฃ = ๐๐ง, and so๐ข๐ฃ = (๐๐ง)๐๐ง๐๐ง = (๐ง๐)๐๐ง๐๐ง = ๐ง๐(๐ง๐)๐๐ง = ๐ง๐(๐๐ง)๐๐ง = ๐ฃ๐ข.
2.5 Suppose that ๐1โฆ๐๐ = ๐1โฆ๐โ, where ๐๐, ๐๐ โ ๐. Suppose, with theaim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐ โ โ. Without loss of generality,assume ๐ < โ. Let ๐ โ ๐ โ {๐๐+1}; such an element ๐ exists since|๐| โฉพ 2. Now, ๐1โฏ๐๐๐๐1โฏ๐โ = ๐1โฏ๐โ๐๐1โฏ๐๐. Both productshave length ๐ + โ + 1 and so their corresponding terms are equal bythe supposition. In particular, ๐ = ๐๐+1, which contradicts the choiceof ๐. Hence ๐ = โ, and so by the supposition ๐๐ = ๐๐ for all ๐. Since ๐is generated by๐, this proves that ๐ is free with basis๐.
2.6 a) Define ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ by ๐๐ โฆ {๐ฅ๐}. Since (๐๐๐๐)๐ = {๐ฅ๐} โช {๐ฅ๐} ={๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ๐} = {๐ฅ๐}โช{๐ฅ๐} = (๐๐๐๐)๐ and (๐2๐ )๐ = {๐ฅ๐}โช{๐ฅ๐} = {๐ฅ๐} = ๐๐๐,the monoid๐ satisfies the defining relations in ๐ with respect to๐.
b) Let๐ค โ ๐ดโ. We can find a sequence of elementary transition from๐ค to a word ๐๐11 ๐
๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ โ ๐, where each ๐๐ โฉฝ 1 as follows. First
we use the defining relations (๐๐๐๐, ๐๐๐๐) to find a sequence from๐ค to a word ๐๐11 ๐
๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ , where each ๐๐ โ โ โช {0}. Then we use
the defining relations (๐2๐ , ๐๐) to find a sequence from this wordto one where each ๐๐ โฉฝ 1.
c) Let ๐๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ , ๐
๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ โ ๐ so that ๐๐, ๐๐ โฉฝ 1. Then:
(๐๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ )๐โ = (๐
๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ )๐โ
โ {๐ฅ๐ โถ ๐๐ = 1 } = { ๐ฅ๐ โถ ๐๐ = 1 }โ (โ๐)(๐๐ = ๐๐)โ ๐๐11 ๐
๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ = ๐
๐11 ๐๐22 โฏ๐๐๐๐ .
Hence ๐โ|๐ is injective.2.7 We apply Method 2.9. For brevity, let ๐ด = {๐, ๐} and ๐ = {(๐๐๐, ๐)}.
Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ โค be defined by ๐๐ = 1 and ๐๐ = โ2. Then โค satisfiesthe defining relation in ๐ since (๐๐๐)๐โ = 1โ2+1 = 0 = ๐๐โ. [Recallthat 0 is the identity of โค under addition.] Let
๐ = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ โ โช {0} } โช { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ โ } โช { ๐๐๐ โถ ๐ โ โ }.
Now, there are sequences of elementary transitions
๐๐ โ๐ ๐๐๐๐๐ โ๐ ๐๐
and
๐๐๐ โ๐ ๐๐๐๐๐๐ โ๐ ๐๐๐ โ๐ ๐.
Thus we can first of all transform any word in๐ด+ by applying definingrelations to replace subwords ๐๐ by ๐๐, which ultimately yields a word
Solutions to exercises โข 211
of the form ๐๐๐๐. Then we can replace subwords ๐๐๐ by ๐, which mustultimately yield a word consisting either entirely of symbols ๐, entirelyof symbols ๐, or by a single symbol ๐ followed by symbols ๐; that is, aword in๐. Finally note that
๐๐๐โ = ๐ for ๐ โ โ โช {0},๐๐๐โ = โ2๐ for ๐ โ โ,(๐๐๐)๐โ = โ2๐ + 1 for ๐ โ โ.
It is now easy to see that ๐โ|๐ is injective. Hence Monโจ๐ด | ๐โฉ defines(โค, +)
2.8 Deleting a subword ๐๐๐ is an elementary ๐-transition, and so does notalter the element represented. Thus given any word ๐ค โ ๐ดโ, one canobtain a word ๐ค โ ๐ with ๐ค =๐ ๐ค by deleting subwords ๐๐๐. Thusevery element of๐ has at least one representative in๐; it remains toprove uniqueness.
So suppose some element of ๐ has two representatives ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ๐ with ๐ข โ ๐ฃ. Since ๐ข =๐ ๐ฃ, there is a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions
๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ ๐ค1 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ.
Consider the collection of such sequences with the maximum lengthof an intermediate word ๐ค๐ being minimal, and choose and fix such asequence where the fewest words๐ค๐ have this maximum length. Notethat ๐ > 0 since ๐ข โ ๐ฃ. Consider some intermediate word ๐ค๐ of thismaximum length. Note that ๐ โ 0 and ๐ โ ๐, since the words ๐ค0 and๐ค๐ do not contain subwords ๐๐๐, and so the words ๐ค1 and ๐ค๐ mustbe obtained by inserting subwords ๐๐๐ into ๐ค0 and ๐ค๐ respectively,and so |๐ค1| > |๐ค0| and |๐ค๐โ1| > |๐ค๐|. So there are words ๐ค๐โ1 and๐ค๐+1, and these are obtained from ๐ค by applying the defining relation(๐๐๐, ๐). Because ๐ค๐ has maximum length among the intermediatewords,๐ค๐โ1 and๐ค๐+1 must both be obtained by deleting subwords ๐๐๐from ๐ค๐. Now, they cannot be obtained by deleting the same subword๐๐๐, for then
๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ ๐ค1 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐โ1 = ๐ค๐+1 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ.
would be a sequence of elementary ๐-transitions from ๐ข to ๐ฃwhere thenumber of intermediate words of maximum length is smaller, or (if noother intermediate word had length |๐ค๐|) a smaller maximum lengthof intermediate words; in either case, this is a contradiction. Hence๐ค๐โ1 and๐ค๐+1 are obtained by deleting different subwords ๐๐๐ from๐ค๐.Thus๐ค๐ = ๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐ for some๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ, and either๐ค๐โ1 = ๐๐๐๐๐๐and๐ค๐+1 = ๐๐๐๐๐๐, or๐ค๐โ1 = ๐๐๐๐๐๐ and๐ค๐+1 = ๐๐๐๐๐๐. Assume the
212 โขSolutions to exercises
former case; the latter is similar.Then there is a sequence of elementary๐-transitions
๐ข = ๐ค0 โ๐ ๐ค1 โ๐ โฆโ๐ ๐ค๐โ1 = ๐๐๐๐๐๐โ๐ ๐๐๐ โ ๐๐๐๐๐๐ = ๐ค๐+1 โ๐ โฆ โ๐ ๐ค๐ = ๐ฃ.
Since |๐๐๐| < |๐ค๐|, this is a sequence where the number of intermedi-ate words of maximum length is smaller, or (if no other intermediateword had length |๐ค๐|) a smaller maximum length of intermediatewords; in either case, this is a contradiction. Hence every element of๐ has a unique representative in๐.
2.9 To define an assignment of generators ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ต2, proceed as
follows. As noted in the question, ๐ง๐must be the zero matrix [0 00 0].
Furthermore, (๐๐)2 and (๐๐)2 must be the zero matrix. Calculatingthe squares of the available matrices shows that ๐๐ and ๐๐must be
in {[0 10 0] , [0 01 0]}. Since ๐ and ๐ can be swapped in ๐ โช ๐ to give
the same set of defining relations, it does not matter which matrix weassign to each of ๐๐ and ๐๐. So define
๐๐ = [0 10 0] , ๐๐ = [0 01 0] , ๐ง๐ = [
0 00 0] .
Straightforward calculations show that ๐ต2 satisfies all the definingrelations in ๐ โช ๐ with respect to ๐.
Let๐ = {๐ง, ๐, ๐, ๐๐, ๐๐}. Let๐ค โ ๐ด+. If๐ค contains a symbol ๐ง, thenapplying defining relations from ๐ shows that (๐ค, ๐ง) is a consequenceof ๐ โช ๐. If ๐ค contains ๐2 or ๐2, then applying a single relation (๐2, ๐ง)or (๐2, ๐ง) introduces a symbol ๐ง, and so by the previous sentence(๐ค, ๐ง) is a consequence of ๐ โช ๐. Finally, if ๐ค contains no ๐2 or ๐2 or๐ง, then it consists of alternating symbols ๐ and ๐, and so applyingrelations (๐๐๐, ๐) or (๐๐๐, ๐) transforms it to a word ๐ข โ {๐, ๐, ๐๐, ๐๐},and (๐ค, ๐ข) is a consequence of ๐ โช ๐.
Lastly, ๐+|๐ is injective since the five words in๐ = {๐ง, ๐, ๐, ๐๐, ๐๐}correspond to the five matrices in ๐ต2 (in the order listed in the ques-tion).
2.10 a) Suppose ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ is idempotent. If ๐พ > ๐ฝ, then
(๐๐พ๐๐ฝ)2 =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐๐พ+๐พโ๐ฝ๐๐ฝ โ ๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ.
If ๐พ < ๐ฝ, then
(๐๐พ๐๐ฝ)2 =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ+๐ฝโ๐พ โ ๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ.
Hence ๐พ = ๐ฝ. On the other hand, (๐๐พ๐๐พ)2 = ๐๐พ๐๐พ๐๐พ๐๐พ =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐พ andso ๐๐พ๐๐พ is idempotent.
Solutions to exercises โข 213
FIGURE S.4Part of the Cayley graph of the
bicyclic monoid.๐
๐
๐
๐๐
๐2๐2
๐3๐2
๐4๐2
๐2๐3
๐3๐3
๐4๐3
๐2๐4
๐3๐4
๐4๐4
๐2
๐3
๐4
๐2๐
๐3๐
๐4๐
๐2 ๐3 ๐4
๐๐2 ๐๐3 ๐๐4
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
๐
b) Suppose first that ๐ is right-invertible. Then there exists ๐๐๐๐ suchthat ๐๐๐๐๐ =๐ต ๐. But this is impossible, since ๐1+๐๐๐ โ ๐ต ๐ since1 + ๐ > 0. Now suppose that ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ, where ๐พ โฉพ 1, has a right inverse๐ฅ. Then ๐๐๐พโ1๐๐ฝ๐ฅ =๐ต ๐ and so ๐ is right-invertible, which is acontradiction. Hence if ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ is right-invertible, then ๐พ = 0. Onthe other hand, ๐๐ฝ๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐ and so ๐๐ฝ is a right inverse for ๐๐ฝ.
2.11 The Cayley graph ๐ค(๐ต, {๐, ๐}) is shown in Figure S.4.2.12 a) Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐ฅ๐ =
๐ฅ๐+๐ for some ๐,๐ โ โ. Then ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ๐. Then๐ฆ = ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐โ1๐ = ๐ฅ๐โ1 and so ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐, which is acontradiction. So ๐ฅ is not periodic. Similarly ๐ฆ is not periodic.
b) Suppose ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆโ. Then ๐ฅ๐+โ+1 = ๐ฅโ+1๐ฆโ = ๐ฅ. Since ๐ฅ is notperiodic, this forces ๐ = โ = 0.
c) Suppose ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ = ๐. Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradic-tion, that โ > 0. Then ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ =๐, which is a contradiction. Thus โ = 0, and so ๐ฆ๐+1 = ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆ andso ๐ = 0 since ๐ฆ is not periodic.
d) Suppose, with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ =๐ฆ๐๐ฅ๐ with either ๐ โ ๐ or โ โ ๐. Assume ๐ โ ๐; the other caseis similar. Interchanging the two products if necessary, assumethat ๐ < ๐. Then ๐ฅโ = ๐๐ฅโ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐๐ฅโ = ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ฆ๐โ๐๐ฅ๐ =๐ฆ๐โ๐๐ฅ๐. If โ โฉพ ๐, then ๐ฆ๐โ๐ = ๐ฆ๐โ๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅโ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅโโ๐, whichcontradicts part b). If โ โฉฝ ๐, then ๐ = ๐ฅโ๐ฆโ = ๐ฆ๐โ๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆโ =๐ฆ๐โ๐๐ฅ๐โโ, which contradicts part c).
e) Define ๐ โถ ๐ต โ โจ๐ฅ, ๐ฆโฉ by ๐๐ = ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ๐. The given propertiesof ๐, ๐ฅ, and ๐ฆ show that ๐ is a well-defined homomorphism; it isclearly surjective; part d) shows that it is injective.
214 โขSolutions to exercises
2.13 Let ๐ = ๐๐, ๐ฅ = ๐๐, and ๐ฆ = ๐๐. Since ๐ is a homomorphism, ๐, ๐ฅ, and๐ฆ satisfy the conditions ๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ, ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฆ, and ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐. Notefurther that ๐ = โจ๐ฅ, ๐ฆโฉ since ๐ is surjective. If the condition ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐is also satisfied, then by Exercise 2.12, ๐ is isomorphic to the bicyclicmonoid. On the other hand, if ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐, then every element of ๐ is left-and right-invertible and so ๐ is a group.
Exercises for chapter 3
[See pages 68โ70 for the exercises.]3.1 Let ๐บ be a subgroup of a semigroup. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐บ. Let ๐ = ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ and๐ = ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ. Then ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. So ๐ฅ R ๐ฆ. Similarly ๐ฅ L ๐ฆ.Hence ๐ฅ H ๐ฆ.
3.2 Suppose ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ดโ are such that ๐ข R ๐ฃ. Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโsuch that ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ and ๐ฃ๐ = ๐. Then ๐ข๐๐ = ๐, so |๐ข| + |๐| + |๐| = |๐ข|,and so |๐| = |๐| = 0. Thus ๐ = ๐ = ๐ and so ๐ข = ๐ฃ. That is, R is theidentity relation id๐ดโ . Similarly, the Greenโs relations L, and J are theidentity relation. Hence H = R โ L and D = R โ L are the identityrelation.
3.3 a) Suppose ๐ L ๐. Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ T๐ such that ๐๐ = ๐ and๐๐ = ๐. Therefore
im๐ = ๐๐ โ (๐๐)๐ = im(๐๐) = im ๐,
and similarly im ๐ โ im(๐๐) = im๐. Hence im๐ = im ๐.Now suppose im๐ = im ๐. For each ๐ฅ โ ๐, we have ๐ฅ๐ โ
im ๐ = im๐ and so we can define ๐ฅ๐ to be some element of ๐such that (๐ฅ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ๐. Then ๐๐ = ๐. Similarly we can define๐ โ T๐ so that ๐๐ = ๐. Hence ๐ L ๐.
b) Suppose ๐ R ๐. Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ T๐ such that ๐๐ = ๐and ๐๐ = ๐. Therefore (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ker๐ โ ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฅ๐๐ =๐ฆ๐๐ โ ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ker ๐. Thus ker๐ โ ker ๐. Similarly,ker ๐ โ ker๐. Hence ker๐ = ker ๐.
Now suppose ker๐ = ker ๐. We aim to define ๐ โ T๐ suchthat ๐๐ = ๐. For each ๐ฅ โ im๐, choose ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐ such that ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ.Note that each ๐ง โ ๐ is related by ker๐ to ๐ฆ๐ง๐ and to no other ๐ฆ๐ฅ.Since ker๐ = ker ๐, we have (๐ง, ๐ฆ๐ง๐) โ ker ๐ and so ๐ง๐ = ๐ฆ๐ง๐๐. Foreach ๐ฅ โ im๐, define ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ฅ๐. For ๐ฅ โ im๐, let ๐ฅ๐ be arbitrary.Then for all ๐ง โ ๐, we have ๐ง๐ โ im๐ and so ๐ง๐๐ = ๐ฆ๐ง๐๐ = ๐ง๐;hence ๐๐ = ๐. Similarly, we can define ๐ โ T๐ so that ๐๐ = ๐.Hence ๐ R ๐.
c) Suppose ๐ D ๐. Then there exists ๐ โ T๐ such that ๐ L ๐ R ๐.Since ๐ R ๐, there exist ๐, ๐ โ T๐ such that ๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐.
Solutions to exercises โข 215
Hence ๐๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐๐ = ๐. Therefore ๐|im ๐ โถ im ๐ โ im ๐and ๐|im ๐ โถ im ๐ โ im ๐ are mutually inverse bijections. So|im ๐| = |im ๐|. Since ๐ L ๐, we have im๐ = im ๐ and thus|im๐| = |im ๐| = |im ๐|.
Now suppose |im๐| = |im ๐|. Then there is a bijection ๐ โถim๐ โ im ๐. Extend ๐ to amap๐ โ T๐ by defining ๐ฅ๐ arbitrarilyfor๐ฅ โ ๐โim๐. Similarly extend๐โ1 to amap๐ โ T๐. Let ๐ = ๐๐.Then ๐๐ = ๐, so ๐ R ๐. Furthermore im ๐ = im(๐๐) = im(๐๐) =im ๐, so ๐ L ๐ by part a). Hence ๐ D ๐.
Suppose ๐ J ๐. Then there exist ๐, ๐, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ โ T๐ such that๐ = ๐๐๐ and ๐ = ๐โฒ๐๐โฒ. Therefore
|im๐| = |๐๐| = |๐๐๐๐| โฉฝ |๐๐๐| โฉฝ |๐๐| = |im ๐|;
similarly |im ๐| โฉฝ |im๐|. So |im๐| = |im ๐|. Hence ๐ D ๐. There-fore J โ D. Since D โ J in general, it follows that D = J.
3.4 Consider the following elements of T{1,2,3}:
๐ = (1 2 31 2 2) ; ๐ = (1 2 31 3 3) ; ๐ = (
1 2 31 1 3) .
Notice that
๐๐ = (1 2 31 3 3) ; ๐๐ = (1 2 31 1 1) ; ๐๐ = (
1 2 31 3 3) .
Thus im๐ = im ๐ = {1, 3}, but im ๐๐ = {1, 3} โ {1} = im ๐๐ andso (๐, ๐) โ L but (๐๐, ๐๐) โ L by Exercise 3.3(a). So L is not a leftcongruence in T{1,2,3}. Similarly, ker ๐ = ker๐ but ker ๐๐ โ ker๐๐and so (๐, ๐) โ R but (๐๐, ๐๐) โ R by Exercise 3.3(b). So R is not aright congruence in T{1,2,3}.
3.5 Let (โ1, ๐1), (โ2, ๐2) โ ๐ต. Then
(โ1, ๐1) R (โ2, ๐2) โ (โ(๐, ๐ ) โ ๐ต)((โ1, ๐1)(๐, ๐ ) = (โ2, ๐2))โ (โ(๐, ๐ ) โ ๐ต)((โ1, ๐ ) = (โ2, ๐2))โ โ1 = โ2.
On the other hand, if (โ, ๐1), (โ, ๐2) โ {โ}ร๐ , then (โ, ๐1)(โ, ๐2) = (โ, ๐2)and (โ, ๐2)(โ, ๐1) = (โ, ๐1) and so (โ, ๐1) R (โ, ๐2). So the R-classes of๐ต are the sets {โ} ร ๐ .
The result for L-classes is proved similarly. Therefore
(โ1, ๐1) H (โ2, ๐2) โ ((โ1, ๐1) L (โ2, ๐2)) โง ((โ1, ๐1) L (โ2, ๐2))โ (๐1 = ๐2) โง (โ1 = โ2),
and so H is the identity relation.Finally, let (โ1, ๐1), (โ2, ๐2) โ ๐ต. Then (โ1, ๐1) R (โ1, ๐2) L (โ2, ๐2)
and so (โ1, ๐1) D (โ2, ๐2). Hence ๐ต has consists of a single D-class.
216 โขSolutions to exercises
3.6 If ๐ฅ R ๐ฆ, then there exist ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 with ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ and ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. So๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฅ. Suppose that๐๐ โ ๐.Then for any ๐ง โ ๐, we have ๐ฅ๐๐๐ง = ๐ฅ๐งand so ๐๐๐ง = ๐ง by cancellativity. So ๐๐ is a left identity for ๐ and inparticular an idempotent. By Exercise 1.3, ๐๐ is an identity, which is acontradiction. So ๐๐ โ ๐ and thus ๐๐ = 1, the adjoined identity of ๐1.Hence ๐ = ๐ = 1 and so ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. Thus R = id๐. Similarly L = id๐, andso H = R โ L = id๐ and D = R โ L = id๐.
3.7 Let ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ โ with ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ > 0. Then
[๐ ๐0 1] [๐ ๐0 1] = [
๐๐ ๐๐ + ๐0 1 ] ;
since ๐๐ > 0 and ๐๐+๐ > 0, we see that ๐ is a subsemigroup of๐2(โ).Furthermore,
det [๐ ๐0 1] = ๐ > 0;
thus every matrix in ๐ is invertible; hence ๐ is a subsemigroup of thegeneral linear group GL2(โ) and so cancellative. Furthermore,
[๐ ๐0 1] [๐ ๐0 1] = [
๐ ๐0 1]
โ [๐๐ ๐๐ + ๐0 1 ] = [๐ ๐0 1]
โ ๐๐ = ๐ โง ๐๐ + ๐ = ๐โ ๐ = 1 โง ๐๐ + ๐ = ๐โ ๐ = 1 โง ๐ = 0,
which shows that ๐ does not contain a left identity; thus ๐ does notcontain an identity. Finally, let ๐, โ โ โ with ๐, โ > 0. Choose ๐ = 1,๐ = 0, ๐ = โ/(๐ + ๐), and ๐ = ๐/๐๐. Then ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ > 0 and
[๐ ๐0 1] [๐ ๐0 1] [๐ ๐0 1]
= [๐๐๐ ๐๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐0 1 ]
= [๐๐(๐/๐๐) (โ/(๐ + ๐))๐ + (โ/(๐ + ๐))๐0 1 ]
= [๐ โ0 1] .
Thus for any ๐ฅ โ ๐, we have ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ and so ๐ is simple. HenceJ = ๐ ร ๐.
Solutions to exercises โข 217
3.8 Suppose๐ป๐ is a subgroup. Then ๐2 โ ๐ป๐. In particular, ๐ D ๐2 andso |im ๐| = |im ๐2|.
Now suppose that |im ๐| = |im(๐2)|. First, notice that im(๐2) =๐๐2 โ ๐๐ = im ๐. Since |im(๐2)| = |im ๐|, we have im ๐2 = im ๐ sinceim(๐2) and im ๐ are finite (because๐ is finite). Also, (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ker ๐ โ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฅ๐2 = ๐ฆ๐2 โ (๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) โ ker(๐2), and so ker ๐ โ ker(๐2).So each ker(๐2)-class is a union of ker ๐-classes. Suppose, with theaim of obtaining a contradiction, that ker(๐2) โ ker ๐ โ โ . Thensome ker(๐2)-class is a union of at least two distinct ker ๐-classes. Soim(๐2) โ im ๐. Hence, since im(๐2) and im ๐ are finite, |im(๐2)| <|im ๐|, which is a contradiction. So ker(๐2) = ker ๐. Hence ๐ L ๐2and ๐ R ๐2 and so ๐ H ๐2. Therefore๐ป๐ is a subgroup.
3.9 First, let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ { ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ โถ ๐ฝ โ โ โช {0} }. Interchanging ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ ifnecessary, suppose ๐ฅ = ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ and ๐ฆ = ๐๐พ๐๐ฟ where ๐ฝ โฉฝ ๐ฟ.Then ๐ฅ๐๐ฟโ๐ฝ =๐ฆ and ๐ฆ๐๐ฟโ๐ฝ = ๐ฅ. Hence ๐ฅ R ๐ฆ.
Now suppose ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ R ๐๐พ+๐๐๐ฟ for some ๐ > 0. Then sinceR is a leftcongruence, we have ๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ R ๐๐พ๐๐พ+๐๐๐ฟ =๐ต ๐๐๐๐ฟ. Thereforethere exists ๐ โ ๐ต such that ๐๐๐๐ฟ๐ =๐ต ๐๐ฝ. Hence ๐๐๐๐ฟ๐๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐ andso ๐๐ is right-invertible, which contradicts Exercise 2.10(b). Hence{ ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ โถ ๐ฝ โ โ โช {0} } is an R-class.
Similarly, L-classes are of the form { ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ โถ ๐พ โ โ โช {0} }. Finally,note that ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ R ๐๐พ๐๐ฟ L ๐๐๐๐ฟ and so ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ D ๐๐๐๐ฟ. Thus ๐ต consistsof a single D-class.
3.10 Let ๐ โ ๐ฟ โฉ ๐ be idempotent. Then ๐ is a right identity for ๐ฟ and aleft identity for ๐ . For any ๐ฆ โ ๐ , we have ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆ and so ๐๐ฆ|๐ฟ is abijection from ๐ฟ to ๐ฟ๐ฆ. Let ๐ง โ ๐ท. Choose ๐ฆ โ ๐ โฉ ๐ฟ๐ง. Since ๐๐ฆ|๐ฟ is abijection, there exists ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ such that ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐๐ฆ|๐ฟ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ .
Hence ๐ท โ ๐ฟ๐ . Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ . Since ๐ฟ โฉ ๐ contains theidempotent ๐, we have ๐ฅ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฆ โฉ ๐ ๐ฅ โ ๐ท by Proposition 3.18. Hence๐ฟ๐ โ ๐ท.
3.11 Let ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ. Then ๐ค = ๐ฝ1โฏ๐ฝ๐, where each ๐ฝ๐ is either ๐๐ or๐. Let
๐ผ๐ = {๐ if ๐ฝ๐ = ๐๐,๐๐ if ๐ฝ๐ = ๐.
Then
๐ผ๐โฏ๐ผ1๐ค = ๐ผ๐โฏ๐ผ1๐ฝ1โฏ๐ฝ๐= ๐ผ๐โฏ๐ผ2๐๐๐๐ฝ2โฏ๐ฝ๐=๐ ๐ผ๐โฏ๐ผ2๐ฝ2โฏ๐ฝ๐โฎ
=๐ ๐.
Clearly, ๐ค๐ =๐ ๐ค, so if ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ, then ๐ค L ๐.
218 โขSolutions to exercises
Now suppose ๐ค โ ๐ with ๐ค L ๐. Then there is a word ๐ข โ ๐such that ๐ข๐ค =๐ ๐. By Exercise 2.8, ๐ can be obtained from ๐ข๐ค bydeleting subwords ๐๐๐. Neither ๐ข nor ๐ฃ contain subwords ๐๐๐, so ๐ข๐คmust have a subword ๐๐๐ across the โboundaryโ of ๐ข and ๐ค. That is,we have either:โ ๐ค = ๐๐๐คโฒ and ๐ข = ๐ขโฒ๐, with ๐ขโฒ๐คโฒ =๐ ๐ข๐ค =๐ ๐; orโ ๐ค = ๐๐คโฒ and ๐ข = ๐ขโฒ๐๐, with ๐ขโฒ๐คโฒ =๐ ๐ข๐ค =๐ ๐.
Again, ๐ขโฒ and ๐คโฒ, being subwords of ๐ข and ๐ค, do not contain sub-words ๐๐๐, so the same reasoning applies. Proceeding by induction,we see that ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ (and ๐ข โ Monโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ, although that isnot important). Hence if ๐ค L ๐, then ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ.
Symmetrical reasoning shows that ๐ค R ๐ if and only if ๐ค โMonโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ. Since H = L โฉ R, it follows that ๐ค H ๐ if and only if๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ โฉMonโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ = {๐}.
Since ๐ is an idempotent, Exercise 3.10 shows that theD-class of ๐is Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉMonโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ.
If ๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉMonโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ, then ๐ค D ๐ and so ๐ค J ๐. If๐ค โ Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ๐Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ, then by the results for L and R, thereexist ๐, ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐๐ค๐ =๐ ๐, so ๐๐๐ค๐๐ =๐ ๐๐๐ =๐ ๐.
Now suppose ๐ค โ ๐ with ๐ค J ๐. Then there exist ๐ข, ๐ฃ โ ๐ suchthat ๐ข๐ค๐ฃ =๐ ๐. So ๐ can be obtained from ๐ข๐ค๐ฃ by deleting subwords๐๐๐. Any subwords ๐๐๐ in ๐ข๐ค๐ฃ must be across the boundaries of ๐ขand ๐ค and of ๐ฃ and ๐ค. Proceeding by induction as in the L case, wesee that ๐ค = Monโจ๐๐, ๐โฉ๐ฅMonโจ๐, ๐๐โฉ, where ๐ฅ is either ๐ or a singleletter ๐.
3.12 Since ๐ is regular, L-class and every R-class of ๐ contains an idem-potent. Since there is only one idempotent in ๐, there is only oneR-class and only one L-class in ๐. Hence R = L = H = ๐ ร ๐. So ๐consists of a single๐ป-class, which contains an idempotent and is thusa subgroup.
3.13 a) Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ 1. Then there exists ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐ฅ๐ = 1. Since๐is group-embeddable, ๐๐ฅ = 1. Thus any element of ๐ 1 is right-and left-invertible. On the other hand, if ๐ฅ โ ๐ is right-invertible,then ๐ฅ โ ๐ 1. So ๐ฅ โ ๐ 1 if and only if ๐ฅ is right- and left-invertible.
b) Suppose๐ has at least twoR-classes. Then๐โ๐ 1 is non-empty.Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐ป1. Then ๐ฅ is not right or left invertible. Supposethat ๐ฅ๐ R ๐ฅโ for some ๐ < โ. Then there exists ๐ โ ๐ such that๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅโ๐. Hence ๐ฅโโ๐๐ = 1 and so ๐ฅ has a right inverse ๐ฅโโ๐โ1๐.This is a contradiction. So all of the powers of ๐ฅ lie in differentR-classes.
Solutions to exercises โข 219
Exercises for chapter 4
[See pages 89โ91 for the exercises.]4.1 a) Define ๐ โถ ๐บ โM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] by ๐ฅ โฆ (1, ๐ฅ๐โ111 , 1). Then
(๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐) = (1, ๐ฅ๐โ111 , 1)(1, ๐ฆ๐โ111 , 1)= (1, ๐ฅ๐โ111 ๐11๐ฆ๐โ111 , 1)= (1, ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐โ111 , 1)= (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐.
So ๐ is a homomorphism. Furthermore,
๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ (1, ๐ฅ๐โ111 , 1) = (1, ๐ฆ๐โ111 , 1)โ ๐ฅ๐โ111 = ๐ฆ๐โ111โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ.
So ๐ is injective. Finally, since ๐บ is a group, (1, ๐ฅ๐โ111 , 1) will rangeover M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ, ๐] = {1} ร ๐บ ร {1} as ๐ฅ ranges over ๐บ. So ๐ issurjective. Hence ๐ is an isomorphism.
b) Let๐ = {๐, ๐ง} be a semilattice with ๐ > ๐ง. Let ๐๐๐ = ๐ง. Let (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)and (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) be arbitrary elements of M[๐; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]. Then
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐ฆ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฅ๐ง๐ฆ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ง, ๐).
So M[๐; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] is a null semigroup and so not isomorphic to๐.
4.2 A completely simple semigroup is isomorphic to M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] forsome group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and matrix ๐. Suppose that wehave (๐1, ๐1, ๐1)(๐2, ๐2, ๐2) = (๐1, โ1, ๐1)(๐2, โ2, ๐2). The, by the defin-ition of the product in M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐], we have (๐1, ๐1๐๐1๐2๐2, ๐2) =(๐1, โ1๐๐1๐2โ2, ๐2), and so
๐1 = ๐1, (S.13)๐2 = ๐2, (S.14)
๐1๐๐1๐2๐2 = โ1๐๐1๐2โ2. (S.15)
Let ๐ = (๐2, ๐โ1๐1๐2โโ11 ๐1, ๐1). Then
(๐1, โ1, ๐1)๐= (๐1, โ1, ๐1)(๐2, ๐โ1๐1๐2โ
โ11 ๐1, ๐1) [by definition of ๐]
= (๐1, โ1๐๐1๐2๐โ1๐1๐2โโ11 ๐1, ๐1)
= (๐1, ๐1, ๐1)= (๐1, ๐1, ๐1) [by (S.13)]
220 โขSolutions to exercises
and
๐(๐2, ๐2, ๐2)= (๐2, ๐โ1๐1๐2โ
โ11 ๐1, ๐1)(๐2, ๐2, ๐2) [by definition of ๐]
= (๐2, ๐โ1๐1๐2โโ11 ๐1๐๐1๐2๐2, ๐2)
= (๐2, ๐โ1๐1๐2โโ11 โ1๐๐1๐2โ2, ๐2) [by (S.14) and (S.15)]
= (๐2, โ2, ๐2).
Hence M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] is equidivisible.4.3 a) Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ โM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]with ๐ฅ L ๐ฆ.Then by Proposition 4.12,๐ฅ = (๐, ๐, ๐) and ๐ฆ = (๐, โ, ๐) for some ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ, ๐, โ โ ๐บ, and๐ โ ๐ฌ. Let ๐ง = (๐, ๐, ๐) โ ๐. Then ๐ง๐ฅ = (๐, ๐๐๐๐๐, ๐) and ๐ง๐ฆ =(๐, ๐๐๐๐โ, ๐). Since ๐ง๐ฅ, ๐ง๐ฆ โ ๐ผร๐บร {๐}, we have ๐ง๐ฅ L ๐ง๐ฆ. HenceL is left compatible. We already know L is a right congruenceby Proposition 3.4(a). So L is a congruence. Similarly, R is acongruence and so H = L โฉR is a congruence.
b) Let [(๐, ๐, ๐)]L, [(๐, โ, ๐)]L โ ๐/L. Then [(๐, ๐, ๐)]L[(๐, โ, ๐)]L =[(๐, ๐๐๐๐โ, ๐)]L = [(๐, โ, ๐)]L (since (๐, ๐๐๐๐โ, ๐) and (๐, โ, ๐) areL-related). Hence ๐/L is a right zero semigroup. Similarly ๐/R isa left zero semigroup.
c) Define a map ๐ โถ ๐/Hโ ๐/R ร ๐/L by
[(๐, ๐, ๐)]H๐ = ([(๐, ๐, ๐)]R, [(๐, ๐, ๐)]L).
Using the fact that H = L โฉR, it is easy to show that this map iswell-defined and injective. It is clearly surjective, and is a homo-morphism since R and L are congruences. So ๐/H โ ๐/R ร ๐/L.
4.4 Since ๐ is completely simple, ๐ โM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ, ๐]. Hence |๐| = |๐ผ|ร|๐บ|ร|๐ฌ|.a) Since ๐ = |๐ผ| ร |๐บ| ร |๐ฌ|, one of the following three cases must
hold:i) |๐ผ| = ๐, |๐บ| = 1, and |๐ฌ| = 1. Since ๐บ is trivial and |๐ฌ| = 1,
the R-classes of ๐ are single elements by Proposition 4.12(c).Thus ๐ โ ๐/R is a left zero semigroup by Exercise 4.3(b).
ii) |๐ผ| = 1, |๐บ| = 1, and |๐ฌ| = ๐. This is similar to case i), andshows that ๐ is a right zero semigroup.
iii) |๐ผ| = 1, |๐บ| = ๐, and |๐ฌ| = 1. Then ๐ is a group by Exercise 4.1.b) Since ๐๐ = |๐ผ| ร |๐บ| ร |๐ฌ|, one of the following cases must hold
(interchanging ๐ and ๐ if necessary):i) |๐ผ| = ๐๐, |๐บ| = 1, and |๐ฌ| = 1. As in part a)i), ๐ โ ๐/R is a
left zero semigroup and so a left group by Theorem 4.19. [Wecould also use the fact that ๐ has only one L-class and applyTheorem 4.19.]
Solutions to exercises โข 221
ii) |๐ผ| = ๐, |๐บ| = ๐, and |๐ฌ| = 1. Then ๐ = ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐}. Thus ๐ hasonly one L-class and so is a left group by Theorem 4.19.
iii) |๐ผ| = ๐, |๐บ| = 1, and |๐ฌ| = ๐.Then theH-classes of ๐ are singleelements by Proposition 4.12(d). So ๐ โ ๐/H is a rectangularband by Exercise 4.3(c)
iv) |๐ผ| = 1, |๐บ| = ๐๐, and |๐ฌ| = 1. As in part a)iii), ๐ is a group(and thus both a left and a right group).
v) |๐ผ| = 1, |๐บ| = ๐, and |๐ฌ| = ๐. This is dual to case ii), and showsthat ๐ is a right group.
vi) |๐ผ| = 1, |๐บ| = 1, and |๐ฌ| = ๐๐. This is dual to case i), ๐ โ ๐/Lis a right zero semigroup and so a right group.
4.5 a) Let ๐ง โ ๐. Then ๐ง๐งโ1 R ๐ง and ๐งโ1๐ง L ๐ง. So ๐ง๐งโ1 = ๐งโ1๐ง H ๐ง.Similarly ๐ง๐งโ1 = ๐งโ1๐ง H ๐งโ1. So ๐ง H ๐งโ1. Since every H-classof ๐ is a subgroup, ๐งโ1 is the unique group inverse of ๐ง in thissubgroup. The H-class of ๐ง๐ is also a subgroup and (๐ง๐)โ1 is theunique group inverse of ๐ง๐ in this subgroup. Then ๐|๐ป๐ง is a grouphomomorphism into the subgroup๐ป๐ง๐ and so ๐งโ1๐ = (๐ง๐)โ1.
b) There are many possible examples. Let ๐ = {๐ 1, ๐ 2} and ๐ = {๐ก1, ๐ก2}be left zero semigroups. Define โ1 on ๐ by ๐ โ11 = ๐ 2 and ๐ โ12 = ๐ 1.Define โ1 on ๐ by ๐กโ11 = ๐ก1 and ๐กโ12 = ๐ก2. In both cases, โ1 satisfies(๐ฅโ1)โ1 = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Define ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ by ๐ 1๐ = ๐ก1 and๐ 2๐ = ๐ก2. Then (๐ 1๐)โ1 = ๐กโ11 = ๐ก1 but ๐ โ11 ๐ = ๐ 2๐ = ๐ก2.
4.6 a) i) The isomorphism ๐ maps non-zero R-classes bijectively tonon-zero R-classes. Since the R-classes of M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] aresets of the form {๐}ร๐บร๐ฌ and theR-classes ofM0[๐ป; ๐ฝ,๐ญ;๐]are sets of the form {๐} ร ๐บ ร ๐ญ, there must be a bijection๐ผ โถ ๐ผ โ ๐ฝ such that (๐, ๐, ๐)๐ โ {๐๐ผ} ร ๐ป ร๐ญ. Similarly thereis a bijection ๐ฝ โถ ๐ฌ โ ๐ญ such that (๐, ๐, ๐)๐ โ ๐ผ ร ๐ป ร {๐๐ฝ}.Combining these statements shows that (๐, ๐, ๐)๐ โ {๐๐ผ}ร๐ปร{๐๐ฝ}. Since ๐must map group H-classes to group H-classes,we have ๐๐๐ โ 0 if and only if ๐(๐๐ฝ)(๐๐ผ) โ 0.
ii) Let ๐พ โถ ๐บ โ {1}ร๐บร{1} be defined by ๐ฅ๐พ = (1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1).Then(๐ฅ๐พ)(๐ฆ๐พ) = (1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1)(1, ๐โ111 ๐ฆ, 1) = (1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ๐11๐โ111 ๐ฆ, 1) =(1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ๐ฆ, 1) = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐พ, so ๐พ is a homomorphism. Furthermore,๐พ is injective since ๐ฅ๐พ = ๐ฆ๐พ โ (1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1) = (1, ๐โ111 ๐ฆ, 1) โ๐โ111 ๐ฅ = ๐โ111 ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ. Finally, ๐พ is surjective since for any(1, ๐ฅ, 1) โ {1} ร ๐บ ร {1}, we have (๐11๐ฅ)๐พ = (1, ๐ฅ, 1). So ๐พ is anisomorphism.
Similarly, the map ๐ โถ ๐ป โ {1๐ผ} ร ๐ป ร {1๐ฝ} defined by๐ฅ๐ = (1๐ผ, ๐โ1(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)๐ฅ, 1๐ฝ) is an isomorphism.
By part i), ๐|{1}ร๐บร{1} โถ {1} ร ๐บ ร {1} โ {1๐ผ} ร ๐ป ร{1๐ฝ} is an isomorphism, so the composition ๐ = ๐พ๐๐โ1 =๐พ๐|{1}ร๐บร{1}๐โ1 is an isomorphism from ๐บ to๐ป.
222 โขSolutions to exercises
iii) First,
(๐, 1๐บ, 1)(1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1)(1, ๐โ111 , 1) = (๐, 1๐บ๐11๐โ111 ๐ฅ๐11๐โ111 )= (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐).
Now, for all ๐ฅ โ ๐บ,
(1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1)๐ = ๐ฅ๐พ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ = (1๐ผ, ๐โ1(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)(๐ฅ๐), 1๐ฝ).
Therefore for any ๐ฅ โ ๐บ,
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐= ((๐, 1๐บ, 1)(1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1)(1, ๐โ111 , ๐))๐= (๐, 1๐บ, 1)๐(1, ๐โ111 ๐ฅ, 1)๐(1, ๐โ111 , ๐)๐= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐, 1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ, ๐โ1(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)(๐ฅ๐), 1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ, ๐โ1(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ)= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐๐(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)๐โ1(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)(๐ฅ๐)๐(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)๐โ1(1๐ฝ)(1๐ผ)๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ)= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐(๐ฅ๐)๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ)๐.
Hence
(๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐(๐๐๐๐)๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ)= (๐, ๐๐๐, ๐)๐= ((๐, 1๐บ, ๐)(๐, 1๐บ, ๐))๐= (๐, 1๐บ, ๐)๐(๐, 1๐บ, ๐)๐= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ)(๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ)= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐๐ฃ๐๐(๐๐ฝ)(๐๐ผ)๐ข๐๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ);
thus ๐๐๐๐ = ๐ฃ๐๐(๐๐ฝ)(๐๐ผ)๐ข๐ by cancellativity in๐ป.b) Define a map ๐ โถM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] โM0[๐ป; ๐ฝ,๐ญ;๐] by
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐ = (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐(๐ฅ๐)๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ), and 0๐ = 0.
Then ๐ is a homomorphism since
(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐(๐โฒ, ๐ฆ, ๐โฒ)๐= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐(๐ฅ๐)๐ฃ๐, ๐๐ฝ)(๐โฒ๐ผ, ๐ข๐โฒ(๐ฆ๐)๐ฃ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ)= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐(๐ฅ๐)๐ฃ๐๐(๐๐ฝ)(๐โฒ๐ผ)๐ข๐โฒ(๐ฆ๐)๐ฃ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ)= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐(๐ฅ๐)(๐๐๐โฒ๐)(๐ฆ๐)๐ฃ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ)= (๐๐ผ, ๐ข๐((๐ฅ๐๐๐โฒ๐ฆ)๐)๐ฃ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ)= (๐, ๐ฅ๐๐๐โฒ๐ฆ, ๐โฒ)๐= ((๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐โฒ, ๐ฆ, ๐โฒ))๐.
Furthermore, ๐ is a bijection since ๐ผ, ๐ฝ, and ๐ are all bijections.So ๐ is an isomorphism from M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] to M0[๐ป; ๐ฝ,๐ญ;๐].
Solutions to exercises โข 223
4.7 Suppose ๐ is regular. Then ๐ = M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] is completely simpleand so regular by the Lemma 4.6(b). [Alternatively: Since ๐ containssome non-zero element ๐๐๐, the element (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) is idempotent andthus regular.Thus theD-class ๐ผร๐บร๐ฌ is regular by Proposition 3.19.]
Suppose ๐ is not regular. Then ๐ has a row or a column all ofwhose entries are 0. Suppose all the entries in the row indexed by ๐are 0; the reasoning for columns is similar. Let (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) โ ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐}.Then for (๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) โM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] โ {0}, we have (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)(๐, ๐ฆ, ๐) = 0since ๐๐๐ = 0. Hence there is no element ๐ง โ M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] with(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐)๐ง(๐, ๐ฅ, ๐) = (๐, ๐ฅ, ๐). Thus ๐ is not regular.
4.8 a) Since ๐ satisfies minL, the set of L-classes that are not equal to{0} there is a minimal element. Let ๐ฟ๐ฅ be such a minimal L-classnot equal to {0}. Then ๐๐ฅ is a left ideal not equal to {0}. Suppose๐ฟ is some left ideal contained in ๐๐ฅ and not equal to {0}. Pick๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ โ {0}. Then ๐๐ฆ โ ๐๐ฅ and so ๐ฟ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ. Since ๐ฟ๐ฅ is minimalamong non-{0} L-classes, ๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฆ and so ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ. So ๐๐ฅmustbe a 0-minimal left ideal.
b) i) Let ๐ฅ โ ๐พ โ {0}. Then ๐๐ฅ is a left ideal of ๐ and is contained in๐พ. Since๐พ is 0-minimal, either ๐๐ฅ = ๐พ or ๐๐ฅ = {0}. Suppose,with the aim of obtaining a contradiction, that ๐๐ฅ = {0}. Then{0, ๐ฅ} is a left ideal of ๐ contained in ๐พ and not equal to {0}.Since๐พ is 0-minimal,๐พ = {๐ฅ, 0}. But then๐พ2 = {0}, which isa contradiction. So ๐พ = ๐๐ฅ.
ii) It is immediate that ๐ฟ๐ฅ is a left ideal. Suppose ๐พ โ {0} is a leftideal contained in ๐ฟ๐ฅ. Let ๐ฝ = { ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ โถ ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐พ }. Then ๐ฝ โ ๐ฟand ๐ฝ is a left ideal, since
๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ โง ๐ โ ๐โ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ โง ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐พ โง ๐ โ ๐ [by definition of ๐ฝ]โ ๐ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฟ โง ๐ ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ ๐พ [since ๐ฟ and ๐พ are left ideals]โ ๐ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ. [by definition of ๐ฝ]
Since ๐ฟ is 0-minimal and ๐ฝ โ {0}, we have ๐ฝ = ๐ฟ and so๐ฝ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฅ. Furthermore, ๐ฝ๐ฅ โ ๐พ by the definition of ๐ฝ and๐พ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ by the definition of ๐พ, and so ๐พ = ๐ฝ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ๐ฅ. Hence๐ฟ๐ฅ is 0-minimal.
iii) Note that ๐ฟ๐ is an ideal since ๐๐ฟ๐๐ โ (๐๐ฟ)(๐2) โ ๐ฟ๐. So, since ๐is 0-simple, either ๐ฟ๐ = {0} or ๐ฟ๐ = ๐. Suppose, with the aim ofobtaining a contradiction, that ๐ฟ๐ = {0}.Then ๐ฟ๐ โ ๐ฟ and so ๐ฟis an ideal. Since ๐ฟ โ {0}, we have ๐ฟ = ๐. Hence ๐2 = ๐ฟ๐ = {0}and so ๐ is null, which contradicts ๐ being 0-simple. Therefore๐ฟ๐ = ๐. So there exists ๐ฅ โ ๐ with ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ {0}.
iv) The set๐ is a union of 0-minimal left ideals and is thus itselfa left ideal. By part iii),๐ โ {0}. Let๐ โ ๐ and ๐ก โ ๐. Then
224 โขSolutions to exercises
๐ โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ for some๐ฅ โ ๐ and so๐๐ก โ ๐ฟ๐ฅ๐ก โ ๐. Hence๐๐ โ ๐and so๐ is also a right ideal. So๐ is an ideal and not equalto {0}. Since ๐ is 0-simple, we have๐ = ๐.
v) Let ๐ฟ be a 0-minimal left ideal. For any 0-minimal right ideal๐ , the set ๐ฟ๐ is an ideal and hence, since ๐ is 0-simple, either๐ฟ๐ = {0} or ๐ฟ๐ = ๐. By part iii), there exists some ๐ฅ โ ๐ with๐ฟ๐ฅ โ {0}. By the dual version of part iv), ๐ฅ lies in some 0-minimal right ideal. Fix a 0-minimal right ideal ๐ containing๐ฅ. Then ๐ฟ๐ โ {0} and so ๐ฟ๐ = ๐.
Notice that since ๐ is a right ideal, ๐ ๐ฟ โ ๐ . Similarly,๐ ๐ฟ โ ๐ฟ. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐ฟ โ {0} โ ๐ โ {0}. Then ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ by the dualversion of part i). Since ๐ = ๐ฟ๐ = ๐ฟ๐ฅ๐, we have๐ฟ๐ฅ โ {0} and so๐ฟ๐ฅ is a 0-minimal left ideal by part ii). However, ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ ๐ฟ since๐ฅ โ ๐ ๐ฟ โ ๐ฟ. Therefore, since ๐ฟ is 0-minimal and ๐ฟ๐ฅ โ {0}, wehave ๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐ฟ and so ๐ ๐ฟ๐ฅ = ๐ ๐ฟ. Similarly ๐ฅ๐ ๐ฟ = ๐ ๐ฟ. Hence๐ ๐ฟ is a group with a zero adjoined by Exercise 1.21.
vi) Let ๐ be a non-zero idempotent in ๐ with ๐ โผ ๐. Then ๐๐ =๐๐ = ๐. Since ๐ โ ๐ ๐ฟ โ ๐ โฉ ๐ฟ, it follows from part i) andits dual version that ๐ = ๐๐ and ๐ฟ = ๐๐. Hence ๐ = ๐๐๐ โ๐๐๐ = ๐๐2๐ = (๐๐)(๐๐) = ๐ ๐ฟ, since ๐2 = ๐ by Lemma 3.6. Since๐ ๐ฟ โ {0} is a group, ๐ = ๐. So ๐ is a primitive idempotent.Hence ๐ is completely 0-simple.
4.9 Let ๐ be a right ideal of ๐. Let ๐ โ ๐ and โ โ ๐บ. Then ๐โ โ ๐ โฉ ๐บ since๐ is a right ideal and ๐บ is a left ideal. So ๐ โฉ ๐บ โ โ . Then ๐ โฉ ๐บ is aright ideal of ๐บ, since ๐ is a right ideal and ๐บ is a subgroup. But ๐บ is agroup, and thus its only right ideal is๐บ itself. Hence ๐ โฉ๐บ = ๐บ, and so๐บ โ ๐ . In particular, 1๐บ โ ๐ . Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then 1๐บ๐ฅ = 1๐บ1๐บ๐ฅ since 1๐บis idempotent, and so ๐ฅ = 1๐บ๐ฅ since ๐ is left-cancellative. Therefore๐ฅ = 1๐บ๐ฅ โ 1๐บ๐ โ ๐ ๐ โ ๐ . Hence ๐ โ ๐ and so ๐ = ๐ . Therefore ๐does not contain any proper right ideals and so is right simple. Sinceit is also left-cancellative, ๐ is a right group.
Exercises for chapter 5
[See pages 116โ119 for the exercises.]
5.1 Let ๐ = (1 22 โ) and ๐ = (1 2โ โ). Then ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐. So
๐ = {๐, ๐} is a null semigroup and ๐ does not have an inverse in ๐.
[Of course, ๐ does have an inverse in I๐; indeed ๐โ1 = (1 2โ 1).]
5.2 Let ๐1, ๐2 โ ๐. Then there exist subgroups ๐ป1, ๐ปโฒ1, ๐ป2, and ๐ปโฒ2 of๐บ such that ๐1 โถ ๐ป1 โ ๐ปโฒ1 and ๐2 โถ ๐ป2 โ ๐ปโฒ2 are isomorphisms.
Solutions to exercises โข 225
Then dom(๐1๐2) = (im๐1 โฉ dom๐2)๐โ11 = (๐ปโฒ1 โฉ ๐ป2)๐โ11 . Now,๐ปโฒ1 โฉ ๐ป2 is a subgroup of ๐บ. (In particular, it contains 1๐บ and so isnon-empty.) Thus dom(๐1๐2) is a subgroup of ๐บ and so im(๐1๐2) isalso a subgroup of ๐บ. So ๐1๐2 โ ๐. Thus ๐ is a subsemigroup of I๐บ.Furthermore, ๐โ11 โถ ๐ปโฒ1 โ ๐ป1 is also an isomorphism; thus ๐โ11 โ ๐.Thus ๐ is an inverse subsemigroup of I๐บ.
5.3 a) Suppose that ๐ L ๐. Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ I๐ such that ๐๐ = ๐and ๐๐ = ๐. Therefore
im๐ = ๐๐ โ (๐๐)๐ = im(๐๐) = im ๐,
and similarly im ๐ โ im(๐๐) = im๐. Hence im๐ = im ๐.Now suppose that im๐ = im ๐. Let ๐ = ๐๐โ1. Then
๐๐ = ๐๐โ1๐ = ๐idim๐ = ๐idim ๐ = ๐.
Similarly, let ๐ = ๐๐โ1; then ๐๐ = ๐. Hence ๐ L ๐.b) Suppose that ๐ R ๐. Then there exist ๐, ๐ โ I๐ such that ๐๐ = ๐
and ๐๐ = ๐. Therefore
dom ๐ = dom๐๐ = (im๐ โฉ dom๐)๐โ1
โ (im๐)๐โ1 = dom๐
and similarly dom๐ โ (im ๐)๐โ1 = dom ๐. Thus dom๐ = dom ๐.Now suppose that dom๐ = dom ๐. Let ๐ = ๐โ1๐. Then
๐๐ = ๐๐โ1๐ = iddom๐๐ = iddom ๐๐ = ๐.
Similarly, let ๐ = ๐โ1๐; then ๐๐ = ๐. Hence ๐ R ๐.c) Suppose that๐ D ๐.Then there exists ๐ โ I๐ such that๐ L ๐ R ๐,
and so,
|dom๐| = |im๐| [since ๐ is a partial bijection]= |im ๐| [by part a)]= |dom ๐| [since ๐ is a partial bijection]= |dom ๐|. [by part b)]
Now suppose that |dom๐| = |dom ๐|. Then there is a bijection๐ โถ dom๐ โ dom ๐. Note that ๐ โ I๐. Let ๐ = ๐โ1๐. Then๐ = ๐๐, and so ๐ L ๐. Furthermore,
dom ๐ = dom(๐โ1๐)= (im๐โ1 โฉ dom๐)๐= (dom๐ โฉ dom๐)๐= (dom๐)๐= dom ๐,
226 โขSolutions to exercises
and so ๐ R ๐ by part b). Hence ๐ D ๐.Suppose ๐ J ๐. Then there exist ๐, ๐, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ โ I๐ such that๐ = ๐๐๐ and ๐ = ๐โฒ๐๐โฒ. Therefore
|dom๐| = |im๐| = |๐๐| = |๐๐๐๐|โฉฝ |๐๐๐| = |๐๐| = |im ๐| = |dom ๐|;
similarly, |dom ๐| โฉฝ |dom๐|. Thus |dom๐| = |dom ๐|. Hence๐ D ๐. Therefore J โ D and so D = J.
5.4 a) Since im๐ = dom๐ฝ, it follows that
dom(๐๐ฝ) = (im๐ โฉ dom๐ฝ)๐โ1
= (im๐)๐โ1
= dom๐= dom ๐พ.
Hence ๐๐ฝ R ๐พ by Exercise 5.3(b). Thus there exists ๐โฒ โ I๐ suchthat ๐๐ฝ๐โฒ = ๐พ. Since |im๐ฝ| = |dom๐ฝ| = ๐ โ 1 = |dom ๐พ| = |im ๐พ|,it follows that dom ๐โฒ โ im๐ฝ. Extend ๐โฒ to a permutation ๐ โ S๐.Then ๐ and ๐โฒ agree on im๐ฝ. Hence ๐๐ฝ๐ = ๐๐ฝ๐โฒ = ๐พ.
Since ๐, ๐ โ S๐ = โจ๐, ๐โฉ, it follows from the previous para-graph that ๐ฝ๐โ1 โ S๐๐ฝS๐ โ โจ๐, ๐, ๐ฝโฉ.
b) Let๐ โ ๐ฝ๐. Pick๐ฅ โ ๐โdom๐ and๐ฆ โ ๐โim๐ and extend๐ to๐โฒby defining ๐ฅ๐โฒ = ๐ฆ. Then ๐โฒ โ ๐ฝ๐+1, and ๐ = ๐โฒid๐โ{๐ฅ} โ ๐ฝ๐+1๐ฝ๐โ1.Hence ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝ๐+1๐ฝ๐โ1.
By induction on ๐, we see that ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝ๐โ๐๐โ1 โ โจ๐, ๐, ๐ฝโฉ. Since thisholds for ๐ = 0,โฆ , ๐ โ 1, and since obviously ๐ฝ๐ = S๐ = โจ๐, ๐โฉ โโจ๐, ๐, ๐ฝโฉ, it follows that I๐ = โ
๐๐=0 ๐ฝ๐ โ โจ๐, ๐, ๐ฝโฉ.
5.5 a) Let๐ = โจ๐, ๐โ1โฉ. Note that ๐๐โ1 = id๐, so๐ is amonoid.Wewilluse Method 2.9 to prove that๐ is defined by Monโจ๐, ๐ | (๐๐, ๐)โฉ.
Define ๐ โถ {๐, ๐} โ ๐ by ๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐โ1. Then ๐satisfies the defining relation with respect to ๐ since (๐๐)๐โ =๐๐โ1 = id๐ = ๐๐โ. Let ๐ = { ๐๐๐๐ โถ ๐ โ โ โช {0} }; any word in{๐, ๐}โ can be transformed to one in๐ by applying the definingrelation to delete subwords ๐๐. Finally, let ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ ๐๐ (note thatsuch an ๐ฅ exists since im ๐ โ ๐). Then for ๐ โ โ โช {0}, we have๐ฅ๐๐ โ ๐๐๐โ๐๐๐+1. In particular, the๐ฅ๐๐ are all distinct. Note that๐ฅ โ im ๐ = dom ๐โ1. Thus (๐ฅ๐๐)(๐๐๐๐)๐โ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐โ๐๐๐ is definedif and only if ๐ โฉพ ๐, in which case it is equal to ๐ฅ๐๐โ๐+๐. So theminimum ๐ for which (๐ฅ๐๐)(๐๐๐๐)๐โ is defined is ๐, and the imageof ๐ฅ๐๐ under (๐๐๐๐)๐โ is ๐ฅ๐๐. So (๐๐๐๐)๐โ determines ๐ and ๐, andso ๐โ|๐ is injective. This completes the proof.
[This proof is essentially just Example 2.11(b) rephrased interms of partial bijections.]
Solutions to exercises โข 227
b) Let๐ = โจ{ ๐๐, ๐โ1๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }โฉ. Note that ๐๐๐โ1๐ = id๐, so๐ is amonoid. For any ๐1,โฆ , ๐๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐1,โฆ , ๐๐ โ {1, โ1},
๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐๐๐๐๐ ๐โ๐๐๐๐ โฏ๐
โ๐1๐1 ๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐
๐๐๐๐
= ๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 id๐๐
โ๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 โฏ๐
โ๐1๐1 ๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐
๐๐๐๐
= ๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 ๐โ๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 โฏ๐
โ๐1๐1 ๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐
๐๐๐๐
โฎ= id๐๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐
๐๐๐๐
= ๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐๐๐๐๐ .
So (๐๐1๐1 โฏ๐๐๐๐๐ )โ1 = ๐โ๐๐๐๐ โฏ๐
โ๐1๐1 โ ๐. Hence ๐ is an inverse
monoid. Furthermore, for ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ with ๐ โ ๐ since im ๐๐ andim ๐๐ = dom ๐โ1๐ are disjoint, ๐๐๐โ1๐ = โ , andโ is a zero for B๐and thus for๐. We will use Method 2.9 to prove that๐ is definedby (5.14).
Let ๐ โถ { ๐๐, ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } โช {๐ง} โ ๐ be given by ๐๐๐ = ๐๐ and๐๐๐ = ๐โ1๐ for each ๐ โ ๐ผ, and ๐ง๐ = โ . Then for ๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ with ๐ โ ๐,
(๐๐๐๐)๐โ = ๐๐๐โ1๐ = id๐ = ๐๐โ; (S.16)(๐๐๐๐)๐โ = ๐๐๐โ1๐ = โ = ๐ง๐โ; (S.17)(๐๐๐ง)๐โ = ๐๐โ = โ = ๐ง๐โ; (S.18)(๐ง๐๐)๐โ = โ ๐๐ = โ = ๐ง๐โ; (S.19)(๐๐๐ง)๐โ = ๐โ1๐ โ = โ = ๐ง๐โ; (S.20)(๐ง๐๐)๐โ = โ ๐โ1๐ = โ = ๐ง๐โ; (S.21)(๐ง๐ง)๐โ = โ โ = โ = ๐ง๐โ. (S.22)
Thus๐ satisfies the defining relations in (5.14) with respect to ๐.Let
๐ = { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }โ{ ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }โ โช {๐ง}.
Any word in { ๐ง, ๐๐, ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ }โ can be transformed to one in๐ byapplying defining relations to remove any subwords ๐๐๐๐ (for any๐, ๐ โ ๐ผ, replacing them with ๐ง if ๐ โ ๐), and then to replacing anytwo-symbol subword that contains a ๐ง into ๐ง alone.
The remaining step is to show that ๐โ|๐ is injective. Now,๐ฅ๐๐๐โ1๐ is defined if and only if ๐ = ๐, and ๐ฅ๐โ1๐ is defined if andonly if ๐ฅ โ im ๐๐. So
๐ฅ๐๐โ๐๐โโ1โฏ๐๐1๐โ1๐1 ๐โ1๐2 โฏ๐
โ1๐๐
is defined for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ if and only if โ โฉพ ๐ and ๐โ = ๐โ forโ = 1,โฆ ,๐.
So suppose
(๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ )๐โ = (๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ )๐
โ.
228 โขSolutions to exercises
Interchanging the two sides if necessary, assume๐ โฉฝ ๐โฒ. Now,
๐ฅ๐๐๐๐๐๐โ1โฏ๐๐1 (๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ )๐โ
= ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐๐๐โ1โฏ๐๐1๐โ1๐1 โฏ๐
โ1๐๐ ๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐
is defined for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. So
๐ฅ๐๐๐๐๐๐โ1โฏ๐๐1 (๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ )๐โ
= ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐๐๐โ1โฏ๐๐1๐โ1๐1 โฏ๐
โ1๐๐ ๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐
is defined for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. So ๐ โฉพ ๐โฒ, and thus ๐ = ๐โฒ, and๐โ = ๐โฒโ for โ = 1,โฆ ,๐. Now, ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐๐๐๐๐๐โ1โฏ๐๐1 (๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ )๐
โ,so ๐ฅ(๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ )๐
โ = ๐ฅ(๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ )๐โ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Interchanging
the two sides if necessary, assume ๐ โฉพ ๐โฒ. Then
๐ฅ(๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ )๐โ๐โ1๐๐ โฏ๐
โ1๐1 = ๐ฅ๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐๐
โ1๐๐ โฏ๐
โ1๐1
is defined for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. So
๐ฅ(๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ )๐โ๐โ1๐๐ โฏ๐
โ1๐1 = ๐ฅ๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ๐
โ1๐๐ โฏ๐
โ1๐1
is defined for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. So ๐ โฉฝ ๐โฒ, and thus ๐ = ๐โฒ, and ๐โ = ๐โฒโ forโ = 1,โฆ , ๐. Hence
๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ = ๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ๐๐โฒ1โฏ๐๐โฒ๐โฒ .
Finally, note that we have shown that ๐ฅ(๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ )๐โ is
always defined for some element ๐ฅ โ ๐. Hence ๐ง๐โ = โ โ (๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐๐๐1โฏ๐๐๐ )๐
โ. Thus ๐โ|๐ is injective.5.6 a) Let ๐ be a Clifford semigroup. Then ๐ โ S[๐; ๐บ๐ผ; ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ], for some
semilattice ๐, groups ๐บ๐ผ, and homomorphisms ๐๐ผ,๐ฝ โถ ๐บ๐ผ โ ๐บ๐ฝ.Let ๐ and ๐ be idempotents in ๐. Then ๐ โ ๐บ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐บ๐ฝ forsome ๐ผ, ๐ฝ โ ๐. Thus ๐ = 1๐ผ and ๐ = 1๐ฝ, where 1๐ผ and 1๐ฝ are theidentities of ๐บ๐ผ and ๐บ๐ฝ. So ๐๐ = 1๐ผ1๐ฝ = (1๐ผ๐๐ผ,๐ผโ๐ฝ)(1๐ฝ๐๐ฝ,๐ผโ๐ฝ) =1๐ผโ๐ฝ1๐ผโ๐ฝ = 1๐ผโ๐ฝ. So the idempotents of ๐ form a subsemigroup.Since ๐ is regular by Theorem 5.13, ๐ is orthodox.
b) Let ๐ be completely simple and orthodox. By Theorem 4.11, ๐ โM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] for some group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ and regularmatrix ๐ over๐บ. View ๐ผร๐ฌ as a rectangular band. Without loss ofgenerality, assume that there is a symbol 1 in ๐ผ โฉ ๐ฌ. The elements(1, ๐โ1๐1 , ๐) and (๐, ๐โ11๐ , 1) are idempotents of ๐, and so, since ๐ isorthodox, their product (1, ๐โ1๐1๐)(๐, ๐โ11๐ , 1) = (1, ๐โ1๐1๐๐๐๐โ11๐ , 1)is also an idempotent; hence ๐โ1๐1๐๐๐๐โ11๐ = ๐โ111 . Define a map๐ โถ ๐บ ร (๐ผ ร ๐ฌ) โ ๐ by (๐, (๐, ๐))๐ = (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐๐11๐โ1๐1 , ๐). Then
(๐, (๐, ๐))๐(โ, (๐, ๐))๐= (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐๐11๐โ1๐1 , ๐)(๐, ๐โ11๐ โ๐11๐โ1๐1 , ๐)
Solutions to exercises โข 229
= (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐๐11๐โ1๐1๐๐๐๐โ11๐ โ๐11๐โ1๐1 , ๐)= (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐๐11๐โ111 โ๐11๐โ1๐1 , ๐)= (๐, ๐โ11๐ ๐โ๐11๐โ1๐1 , ๐)= (๐โ, (๐, ๐))๐;
thus ๐ is a homomorphism. It is clearly injective and surjectiveand thus an isomorphism.
For the converse, let๐บ be a group and let ๐ผร๐ฌ be a rectangularband. Let ๐ be the ๐ฌ ร ๐ผmatrix all of whose entries are 1๐บ. It isstraightforward to see that
๐ โถ ๐บ ร (๐ผ ร ๐ฌ) โM[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐], (๐, (๐, ๐)) โฆ (๐, ๐, ๐)
is an isomorphism; thus๐บร(๐ผร๐ฌ) is completely simple. The onlyidempotent in ๐บ is 1๐บ and every element of ๐ผ ร ๐ฌ is idempotent.Hence the set of idempotents of๐บร(๐ผร๐ฌ) is {1๐บ}ร(๐ผร๐ฌ), whichis clearly a subsemigroup. Since ๐บ ร (๐ผ ร ๐ฌ) is completely simple,it is regular by Proposition 4.13, and hence is orthodox.
5.7 Let ๐ be a completely 0-simple inverse semigroup. By Theorem 4.7,๐ โM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] for some group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and regularmatrix ๐ over ๐บ0. Since ๐ is inverse, every L-class and every R-classcontains exactly one idempotent. Now, the non-zero idempotents ofM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] are elements of the form (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐), where ๐ โ ๐ผ and๐ โ ๐ฌ are such that ๐๐๐ โ 0. The non-zeroR-classes ofM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐]are the sets {๐} ร ๐บ ร ๐ฌ; the non-zero L-classes of M0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] arethe sets ๐ผ ร ๐บ ร {๐}. So for each ๐, there is a unique ๐ such that ๐๐๐ isnon-zero, and vice versa. Hence there is a bijection ๐ โถ ๐ผ โ ๐ฌ so that๐๐ is the unique element of ๐ฌ with ๐(๐๐)๐ โ 0. Hence |๐ผ| = |๐ฌ| Since ๐ฌan abstract index set, we can reorder it and the rows of ๐ so that ๐becomes diagonal. Now we can simply replace the index set ๐ฌ with ๐ผ.
Now suppose that ๐ โM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ผ; ๐], where ๐ is diagonal. Then๐ is completely 0-simple and therefore regular. The idempotents ofM0[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ผ; ๐] are the elements (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐). If ๐ โ ๐, then ๐๐๐ = 0 (since๐ is diagonal) and so (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)(๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐) = 0. So the idempotents of ๐commute and so ๐ is inverse.
5.8 a) Let ๐ฅ โ im ๐. Then ๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ for some ๐ง โ ๐1. Let ๐ฆ โ ๐1. Since ๐ isa partial right translation, dom ๐ is a left ideal and so ๐ฆ๐ง โ dom ๐;furthermore, (๐ฆ๐ง)๐ = ๐ฆ(๐ง๐) = ๐ฆ๐ฅ and so ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ im ๐. Thus im ๐ isa left ideal of ๐1.
b) Let ๐, ๐ โ I๐1 be partial right translations. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐1. Suppose๐ฅ๐๐ is defined. Then both ๐ฅ โ dom ๐ and ๐ฅ๐ โ dom๐. Sincedom ๐ is a left ideal, ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ dom ๐ and (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐). Since dom๐is a left ideal, ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐) โ dom๐ and (๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐))๐ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐๐). Hence๐ฆ๐ฅ โ dom(๐๐) and (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐๐ = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐๐). So ๐๐ is a partial righttranslation.
230 โขSolutions to exercises
Suppose ๐ฅ๐โ1 is defined. Let ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐โ1. Then ๐ง โ dom ๐ and๐ง๐ = ๐ฅ. Since dom ๐ is a left ideal, ๐ฆ๐ง โ dom ๐ and (๐ฆ๐ง)๐ =๐ฆ(๐ง๐) = ๐ฆ๐ฅ. So ๐ฆ๐ฅ โ dom ๐โ1 and (๐ฆ๐ฅ)๐โ1 = ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฆ(๐ฅ๐โ1). So๐โ1 is a partial right translation.
Hence the set of partial right translations forms an inversesubsemigroup of I๐1 . Since every ๐๐ฅ is a partial right translation,๐ is a subsemigroup of the set of partial right translation.
5.9 Let ๐ฅ = ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ โ ๐ต be arbitrary. Let ๐ฆ = ๐๐ฝ๐๐พ. Then
๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ๐๐ฝ๐๐พ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ = ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ = ๐ฅ.
So ๐ฅ is regular. The idempotents of ๐ต are elements of the form ๐๐พ๐๐พ byExercise 2.10(a). Thus, given two idempotents ๐ = ๐๐พ๐๐พ and ๐ = ๐๐ฝ๐๐ฝ,we see that if ๐พ โฉพ ๐ฝ,
๐๐ = ๐๐พ๐๐พ๐๐ฝ๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐พโ๐ฝ๐๐ฝ =๐ต ๐๐พ๐๐พ
=๐ต ๐๐ฝ๐๐พโ๐ฝ๐๐พ =๐ต ๐๐ฝ๐๐ฝ๐๐พ๐๐พ = ๐๐
and similarly ๐๐ = ๐๐ if ๐พ โฉฝ ๐ฝ. So ๐ต is a regular semigroup whoseidempotents commute and so is inverse by Theorem 5.1.
5.10 For ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ โ ๐ธ(๐),
๐ฅ โผ ๐ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ [by definition of โผ]โ ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐โ ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐๐ [since idempotents commute in ๐]โ ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ [since ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 and ๐ are idempotents]โ ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ [since ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐]โ ๐ฅ โ ๐ธ(๐).
5.11 Consider an element ๐ข of FInvM({๐ผ}). Let ๐1 be the (unique) Munntree corresponding to ๐ข. Let ๐, ๐, and ๐ be, respectively, the โ๐ฅ-co-ordinatesโ of the leftmost endpoint, the vertex ๐๐, and the rightmostendpoint. Notice that๐ โฉฝ 0, ๐ โฉพ 0, and๐ โฉฝ ๐ โฉฝ ๐, so that (๐, ๐, ๐) โ ๐พ.In this way, we determine a map ๐ โถ FInvM({๐}) โ ๐พ. Clearly, aunique Munn tree of the given form can be reconstructed from anytriple (๐, ๐, ๐) โ ๐พ, so ๐ is injective and surjective.
Let ๐ฃ be another element of FInvM({๐}) and let ๐2 be the corres-ponding Munn tree. Let the triple (๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ) โ ๐พ correspond to ๐2.Consider multiplying ๐ข and ๐ฃ using the corresponding Munn trees๐1 and ๐2 to get a Munn tree ๐ corresponding ๐ข๐ฃ. The process isillustrated in Figure S.5. First we merge the vertices ๐๐1 and ๐ผ๐2 toform a vertex that we callโ, and let ๐ผ๐ = ๐ผ๐1 and ๐๐ = ๐๐2 . Thenwe fold edges together until we get the Munn tree ๐. It is easy to seefrom the diagram that the coordinate of ๐๐ relative to ๐ผ๐ is ๐ + ๐โฒ,that the coordinate of the leftmost endpoint of ๐ relative to ๐ผ๐ is the
Solutions to exercises โข 231
FIGURE S.5Multiplication of elements ofFInvM({๐}) using Munn trees.The numbers ๐, ๐, ๐ are, re-spectively, the โ๐ฅ-coordinatesโrelative to ๐ผ๐1 of the left end-point of๐1 , the vertex๐๐1 , andthe right endpoint of ๐1 ; thenumbers๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒplay a similar
role for๐2 .
๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐๐ผ๐1 ๐๐1๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐
๐ผ๐2 ๐๐2
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐โฒ
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐โฒ
โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ๐โฒ
merge ๐๐1 & ๐ผ๐2 ,let ๐ผ๐ = ๐ผ๐1 and ๐๐ = ๐๐2
๐ ๐ ๐ ๐๐ผ๐๐ ๐ ๐ ๐
๐๐
๐ ๐
๐ ๐โ
folding arrows and merging vertices
๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐ ๐๐ผ๐ ๐๐โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
min{๐, ๐โฒ + ๐}โโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโ
๐ + ๐โฒโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโโmax{๐, ๐ + ๐โฒ}
smaller of ๐ and ๐ + ๐โฒ, and the coordinate of the rightmost endpointof ๐ relative to ๐ผ๐ is the greater of ๐ and ๐ + ๐โฒ. That is, the triple(min{๐, ๐+๐โฒ}, ๐+๐โฒ,max{๐, ๐+ ๐โฒ}) corresponds to ๐. Thus the map๐ is a homomorphism and thus an isomorphism.
5.12 By Exercise 5.11, the monoid ๐พ is isomorphic to FInvM({๐}). Thus itis sufficient to prove that ๐พ is a subdirect product of ๐ต ร ๐ต. The map๐ is a homomorphism since
(๐, ๐, ๐)๐(๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ)๐= (๐โ๐๐โ๐+๐, ๐๐๐โ๐+๐)(๐โ๐โฒ๐โ๐โฒ+๐โฒ, ๐๐โฒ๐โ๐โฒ+๐โฒ)= (๐โ๐+๐โ๐+max{โ๐+๐,โ๐โฒ}๐โ๐โฒ+๐โฒ+๐โฒ+max{โ๐+๐,โ๐โฒ},
๐๐+๐โ๐+max{โ๐+๐,๐โฒ}๐๐โฒโ๐โฒโ๐โฒ+max{โ๐+๐,๐โฒ})= (๐max{โ๐,โ๐โฒโ๐}๐max{โ๐+๐+๐โฒ,โ๐โฒ+๐โฒ}, ๐max{๐,๐+๐โฒ}๐max{๐โ๐โ๐โฒ,โ๐โฒ+๐โฒ})= (๐max{โ๐,โ๐โฒโ๐}๐๐+๐โฒ+max{โ๐,โ๐โฒโ๐}, ๐max{๐,๐+๐โฒ}๐max{๐,๐+๐โฒ}โ๐โ๐โฒ)= (โmax{โ๐, โ๐โฒ โ ๐}, ๐ + ๐โฒ,max{๐, ๐ + ๐โฒ})๐= (min{๐, ๐โฒ + ๐}, ๐ + ๐โฒ,max{๐, ๐ + ๐โฒ})๐= ((๐, ๐, ๐)(๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ))๐.
Furthermore, ๐ is injective since
(๐, ๐, ๐)๐ = (๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ)๐โ (๐โ๐๐โ๐+๐, ๐๐๐โ๐+๐) = (๐โ๐โฒ๐โ๐โฒ+๐โฒ, ๐๐โฒ๐โ๐โฒ+๐โฒ)
232 โขSolutions to exercises
โ (โ๐ = โ๐โฒ) โง (โ๐ + ๐ = โ๐โฒ + ๐โฒ) โง (๐ = ๐โฒ)โ (๐, ๐, ๐) = (๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ).
So๐ embeds๐พ into๐ตร๐ต. Finally, as๐ and ๐ range overโโช{0}, clearly(๐, ๐, ๐)๐๐1 = ๐โ๐๐โ๐+๐ ranges over ๐ต, and as ๐ and ๐ range overโโช {0}, clearly (๐, ๐, ๐)๐๐2 = ๐๐๐โ๐+๐ ranges over ๐ต. So im๐ projectssurjectively to both copies of ๐ต, and so ๐พ is a subdirect product oftwo copies of ๐ต.
5.13 a) Since BR(๐, ๐) is generated by ๐ดโช {๐, ๐}, every element is repres-ented by some word ๐ข โ (๐ดโช {๐, ๐})โ. Using the defining relations(๐๐, ๐), we can delete any subword ๐๐. Then, using defining re-lations of the form (๐๐, (๐๐)๐), we can replace any subword ๐๐by (๐๐)๐ and any subword ๐๐ by ๐(๐๐). Iterating this process, weeventually find a word ๐ฃ containing no subwords ๐๐, ๐๐ or ๐๐: thatis, ๐ฃ = ๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ for some ๐พ, ๐ฝ โ โ โช {0} and ๐ค โ ๐ดโ.
b) i) Suppose that ๐พ = ๐พโฒ, ๐ฝ = ๐ฝโฒ, and ๐ค =๐ ๐คโฒ. Then there is asequence of elementary ๐-transitions from ๐ค to ๐คโฒ. Since ๐is a subset of the defining relations in (5.15), ๐ค and ๐คโฒ repres-ent the same element of BR(๐, ๐). Hence ๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ and ๐๐พ๐คโฒ๐๐ฝrepresent the same element of BR(๐, ๐).
ii) It is easy to prove that for all defining relations (๐ข, ๐ฃ) in (5.15),we have ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐ and so ๐ is well-defined.
Suppose now that ๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ and ๐๐พโฒ๐คโฒ๐๐ฝโฒ represent the sameelement of BR(๐, ๐). Then (๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ)๐ = (๐๐พโฒ๐คโฒ๐๐ฝโฒ)๐. Thus
(๐พ, ๐ค, ๐ฝ) = (0, 1๐, 0)((๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ)๐)= (0, 1๐, 0)((๐๐พโฒ๐คโฒ๐๐ฝโฒ)๐) = (๐พ, ๐คโฒ, ๐ฝ),
and so ๐พ = ๐พโฒ and ๐ฝ = ๐ฝโฒ.c) Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ โ BR(๐, ๐) by ๐ค๐ = ๐ค. This is clearly a
homomorphism, and
๐ค๐ =BR(๐,๐) ๐คโฒ๐ โ ๐0๐ค๐0 =BR(๐,๐) ๐0๐คโฒ๐0 โ ๐ค =๐ ๐คโฒ
by parts a) and b). Hence ๐ is injective and so๐ embeds intoBR(๐, ๐).
5.14 Let ๐ = BR(๐, ๐). We aim to show that ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Suppose๐ฅ = ๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ, where ๐ค โ ๐. Let ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐ be an arbitrary element of ๐. Let๐ = ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐พ+1 and ๐ = ๐๐ฝ+1๐๐. Then
๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐พ+1๐๐พ๐ค๐๐ฝ๐๐ฝ+1๐๐
=๐ ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐ค๐๐๐
=๐ ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐(๐ค๐)๐๐
=๐ ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐๐๐
=๐ ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐.
Solutions to exercises โข 233
So ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐ = ๐๐ฅ๐ โ ๐๐ฅ๐. Since ๐๐ฟ๐ข๐๐ โ ๐was arbitrary, ๐ = ๐๐ฅ๐. Henceany ideal of ๐must be ๐ itself. So ๐ is simple.
Exercises for chapter 6
[See page 128 for the exercises.]6.1 For clarity, let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ and ๐โฒ โถ ๐ โ ๐บโฒ be the embedding maps.
Define ๐ โถ ๐บ โ ๐ป by (๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐)โ1๐ = (๐ฅ๐โฒ)(๐ฆ๐โฒ)โ1 for ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Let๐ฅ1, ๐ฅ2, ๐ฆ1, ๐ฆ2 โ ๐. Then
(๐ฅ1๐)(๐ฆ1๐)โ1 = (๐ฅ2๐)(๐ฆ2๐)โ1
โ (๐ฅ1๐)(๐ฆ2๐) = (๐ฅ2๐)(๐ฆ1๐)โ ๐ฅ1๐ฆ2 = ๐ฅ2๐ฆ1 [since ๐ is an injective homomorphism]โ (๐ฅ1๐โฒ)(๐ฆ2๐โฒ) = (๐ฅ2๐โฒ)(๐ฆ1๐โฒ)
[since ๐โฒ is an injective homomorphism]โ (๐ฅ1๐โฒ)(๐ฆ1๐โฒ)โ1 = (๐ฅ2๐โฒ)(๐ฆ2๐โฒ)โ1
โ ((๐ฅ1๐)(๐ฆ1๐)โ1)๐ = ((๐ฅ2๐)(๐ฆ2๐)โ1)๐.
The forward implication shows ๐ is well-defined; the reverse implica-tion shows it is injective. Furthermore
((๐ฅ1๐)(๐ฆ1๐)โ1)๐((๐ฅ2๐)(๐ฆ2๐)โ1)๐= (๐ฅ1๐โฒ)(๐ฆ1๐โฒ)โ1(๐ฅ2๐โฒ)(๐ฆ2๐โฒ)โ1 [by definition of ๐]= (๐ฅ1๐โฒ)(๐ฅ2๐โฒ)(๐ฆ1๐โฒ)โ1(๐ฆ2๐โฒ)โ1 [by commutativity]= (๐ฅ1๐ฅ2)๐โฒ((๐ฆ2๐ฆ1)๐โฒ)โ1 [by inverses in๐ป]= (((๐ฅ1๐ฅ2)๐)(๐ฆ2๐ฆ1๐)โ1)๐ [by definition of ๐]= ((๐ฅ1๐)(๐ฅ2๐)(๐ฆ1๐)โ1(๐ฆ2๐)โ1)๐ [by inverses in ๐บ]= (((๐ฅ1๐)(๐ฆ1๐)โ1)((๐ฅ2๐)(๐ฆ2๐)โ1))๐, [by commutativity]
so ๐ is a homomorphism.Finally, let ๐ ๐ โ ๐๐. Then for arbitrary ๐ง โ ๐,
(๐ ๐)๐ = ((๐ ๐ง๐)(๐ง๐)โ1)๐ = ((๐ ๐ง๐โฒ)(๐ง๐โฒ)โ1) = ๐ ๐โฒ,
so ๐ is clearly maps ๐๐ surjectively to ๐๐โฒ.6.2 Fix ๐ฅ โ ๐ผ. For ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ผ. Define ๐ ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ to be (๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ )๐); notice that๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ผ since ๐ผ is an ideal. Now, for ๐ โฒ โ ๐ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ผ,
(๐ ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ)(๐ฆ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ)= (๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ )๐)(๐ฆ๐) [by definition of ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ]= (๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ ๐ฆ)๐) [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= (๐ ๐ฆ)๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ; [by definition of ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ]
234 โขSolutions to exercises
furthermore, (๐ ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ)(๐ฆ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ) = (๐ ๐ฆ)๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ by commutativity of ๐ and ๐บ. For๐ , ๐ โฒ โ ๐,
(๐ ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ)(๐ โฒ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ)= (๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ )๐)(๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ โฒ)๐) [by definition of ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ]= (๐ฅ๐)โ1(๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ )๐)((๐ฅ๐ โฒ)๐) [since ๐บ is abelian]= (๐ฅ๐)โ1(๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ ๐ฅ๐ โฒ)๐) [since ๐ is a homomorphism]= (๐ฅ๐)โ1(๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ฅ๐ ๐ โฒ)๐) [since ๐ is commutative]= (๐ฅ๐)โ1(๐ฅ๐)โ1(๐ฅ๐)((๐ฅ๐ ๐ โฒ)๐)
[since ๐ is a homomorphism and ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ๐ ๐ โฒ โ ๐ผ]= (๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ ๐ โฒ)๐) [since (๐ฅ๐)โ1(๐ฅ๐) = 1๐บ]= (๐ ๐ โฒ)๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ. [by definition of ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ]
Together with the fact that ๐ is a homomorphism, this shows that ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝis a homomorphism.
Finally, suppose ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ is a homomorphism extending ๐.Then (๐ฅ๐ )๐ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ ๐) for any ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐ผ. Hence (๐ฅ๐ )๐ = (๐ฅ๐)(๐ ๐)since ๐ฅ, ๐ฅ๐ โ ๐ผ, and so ๐ ๐ = (๐ฅ๐)โ1((๐ฅ๐ )๐) = ๐ ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ. Hence ๐ = ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ and so๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ is the unique extension of ๐ to ๐.
6.3 Let ๐ = gcd(๐); this is well-defined since ๐ โ {0}. Then if ๐ฅ โ ๐, then๐ฅ = ๐๐ โ ๐โ, so ๐ โ ๐โ. Furthermore, there exist ๐ง1,โฆ , ๐ง๐ โ ๐ and๐1,โฆ , ๐๐ โ โค such that ๐1๐ง1 + ๐2๐ง2 +โฏ + ๐๐๐ง๐ = ๐, hence movingall the terms where ๐๐ is negative to the right of the equality, we get๐ + ๐ = ๐ โฒ for two elements ๐ and ๐ โฒ of ๐. Suppose ๐ = ๐๐ก and ๐ โฒ = ๐๐กโฒ.Now let ๐ โ โ with ๐ โฉพ (๐ก โ 1)๐ก + (๐ก โ 1); we aim to prove that ๐๐ โ ๐.Let ๐ = ๐๐ก + ๐, where ๐ โ โ and 0 โฉฝ ๐ < ๐ก. Then ๐ โฉพ (๐ก โ 1) โฉพ ๐ andso ๐ โ ๐ โฉพ 0. Now, ๐ = (๐๐ก + ๐) + (๐ โ ๐)๐ก = ๐(๐ก + 1) + (๐ โ ๐)๐ก, and so๐๐ = ๐(๐๐ก + ๐) + (๐ โ ๐)๐ก๐ = ๐(๐ + ๐) + (๐ โ ๐)๐ = ๐๐ โฒ + (๐ โ ๐)๐ โ ๐.Thus, if ๐ฅ โ ๐โโ๐, then ๐ฅ = ๐๐ for ๐ < (๐กโ1)๐ก+ (๐กโ1). Thus ๐โโ๐is finite.
6.4 If ๐ = {0}; then all three conditions hold. So assume ๐ โ {0} andsuppose ๐ contains both a positive integer ๐ and a negative integer๐. Let ๐+ = { ๐ โ ๐ โถ ๐ > 0 } and ๐โ = { ๐ โ ๐ โถ ๐ < 0 }; clearly ๐+and ๐โ are subsemigroups of ๐. Let ๐ = gcd(๐), ๐+ = gcd(๐+), and๐โ = gcd(๐โ). Clearly, ๐ โฉฝ ๐+ and ๐ โฉฝ ๐โ. Since ๐ = ๐ โ ๐ โฒ for some๐ , ๐ โฒ โ ๐, we have ๐ = (๐ + ๐๐) โ (๐ โฒ + ๐๐) = (๐ + ๐๐) โ (๐ โฒ + ๐๐) forall ๐ โ โ. Thus ๐ is both the difference between two elements of ๐+and the difference between two elements of ๐โ. Hence ๐ โฉพ ๐+ and๐ โฉพ ๐โ and hence ๐ = ๐+ = ๐โ. Thus ๐+ โ ๐โ and ๐โ โ โ๐โ, and๐โ โ ๐+ and โ๐โ โ ๐โ are finite. Hence ๐๐, ๐(๐ + 2) โ ๐+ โ ๐ andโ๐(๐ + 1) โ ๐โ โ ๐ for large ๐. Hence ๐ = ๐(๐ + 2) โ ๐(๐ + 1) โ ๐ andโ๐ = ๐๐โ๐(๐+1) โ ๐. So ๐โค โ ๐ โ ๐โโช{0}โช๐+ โ โ๐โโช{0}โช๐โ =๐โค. Hence ๐ = ๐โค is a subgroup of โค.
Solutions to exercises โข 235
6.5 a) From the definition, โผ is clearly reflexive and symmetric. Suppose๐ผ โผ ๐ฝ and ๐ฝ โผ ๐พ. Then there exist ๐ฟ and ๐ with ๐ฟ โ ๐ผ, ๐ฟ โ ๐ฝ,๐ โ ๐ผ, and ๐ โ ๐ฝ. Let ๐ = ๐๐โ1๐ฟ. Then dom ๐ โ dom ๐ and forany ๐ฅ โ dom ๐, we have
๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐โ1๐ฟ = ๐ฅ๐ฟ = ๐ฅ๐ฝ = ๐ฅ๐
and so ๐ โ ๐ฟ โ ๐ผ and ๐ โ ๐ โ ๐พ. Hence ๐ผ โผ ๐พ. Therefore โผ istransitive.
Suppose ๐ผ1 โผ ๐ฝ1 and ๐ผ2 โผ ๐ฝ2. Then there exist ๐ฟ1 and ๐ฟ2 with๐ฟ1 โ ๐ผ1, ๐ฟ1 โ ๐ฝ1, ๐ฟ2 โ ๐ผ2 and ๐ฟ2 โ ๐ฝ2. Hence ๐ฟ1๐ฟ2 โ ๐ผ1๐ผ2 and๐ฟ1๐ฟ2 โ ๐ฝ1๐ฝ2. Hence ๐ผ1๐ผ2 โผ ๐ฝ1๐ฝ2. Therefore โผ is a congruence.
b) Let ๐ผ, ๐ฝ โ ๐. Let ๐ = ๐ผโ1๐ฝ and ๐ = ๐ฝ๐ผโ1. Then ๐ผ๐ = ๐ผ๐ผโ1๐ฝ โ ๐ฝand so ๐ผ๐ โผ ๐ฝ; similarly ๐๐ผ = ๐ฝ๐ผโ1๐ผ โ ๐ฝ and so ๐๐ผ โผ ๐ฝ. Thusfor any [๐ผ]โผ, [๐ฝ]โผ โ ๐บ, there exist [๐]โผ, [๐]โผ โ ๐บ with [๐ผ]โผ[๐]โผ =[๐]โผ[๐ผ]โผ = [๐ฝ]โผ; hence [๐ผ]โผ๐บ = ๐บ[๐ผ]โผ = ๐บ for any [๐ผ]โผ โ ๐บ.Thus ๐บ is a group.
c) Let ๐ผ, ๐ฝ โ ๐. Then im๐ผ is a left ideal of ๐ by Exercise 5.8(a) anddom๐ฝ is a left ideal of ๐ since ๐ฝ is a partial right transformation.Since ๐ is right-reversible, im๐ผ โฉ dom๐ฝ โ โ . Hence ๐ผ๐ฝ โ โ .
Since ๐ is generated by the non-empty elements ๐๐ฅ and ๐โ1๐ฅ ,we see that ๐ does not contain the empty relation.
d) Suppose ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐; then [๐๐ฅ]โผ = [๐๐ฆ]โผ and so ๐๐ฅ โผ ๐๐ฆ. Thenthere exists ๐ฟ โ ๐ such that ๐ฟ โ ๐๐ฅ and ๐ฟ โ ๐๐ฆ. By the previousparagraph, ๐ฟ is not the empty relation. So let ๐ง โ dom ๐ฟ. Then๐ง๐๐ฅ = ๐ง๐๐ฆ. Thus ๐ง๐ฅ = ๐ง๐ฆ and so ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ by cancellativity. Hence๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐บ is a monomorphism and so ๐ is group-embeddable.
6.6 Let (๐, ๐), (๐, ๐), (๐, ๐ ) โ ๐. Then
(๐, ๐)((๐, ๐)(๐, ๐ )) = (๐, ๐)(๐ + ๐, 2๐๐ + ๐ )= (๐ + ๐ + ๐, 2๐+๐๐ + 2๐๐ + ๐ )= (๐ + ๐ + ๐, 2๐(2๐๐ + ๐) + ๐ )= (๐ + ๐, 2๐๐ + ๐)(๐, ๐ )= ((๐, ๐)(๐, ๐))(๐, ๐ );
thus the multiplication is associative.Let (๐1, ๐1), (๐2, ๐2) โ ๐. Let ๐1 = ๐2, ๐1 = 2๐1๐2, ๐2 = ๐1, and๐2 = 2๐2๐2. Then
(๐1, ๐1)(๐1, ๐1) = (๐1 + ๐1, 2๐1๐1 + ๐1)= (๐1 + ๐2, 2๐2๐2 + 2๐1๐2)
and
(๐2, ๐2)(๐2, ๐2) = (๐2 + ๐2, 2๐2๐2 + ๐2)= (๐2 + ๐1, 2๐1๐2 + 2๐2๐2);
236 โขSolutions to exercises
so (๐1, ๐1)(๐1, ๐1) = (๐2, ๐2)(๐2, ๐2). Since (๐1, ๐1) and (๐2, ๐2)were arbitrary, ๐ is left-reversible.
Suppose ๐ is right-reversible.Then (1, 0) and (1, 1) have a commonleftmultiple. Hence there exist elements (๐1, ๐1) and (๐2, ๐2) such that(๐1, ๐1)(1, 0) = (๐2, ๐2)(1, 1). Thus (๐1 + 1, 2๐1) = (๐2 + 1, 2๐2 + 1),which is a contradiction, since 2๐1 is even and 2๐2+1 is odd.Therefore๐ is not right-reversible.
Exercises for chapter 7
[See pages 147โ148 for the exercises.]7.1 Let๐ be a group. Then๐ is simple and so๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐.
Now suppose๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then for each ๐ฅ โ ๐,there exists ๐, ๐ โ ๐ such that ๐๐ฅ๐ = 1๐. Hence ๐ฅ J 1๐ and so๐ฅ H 1๐ by Proposition 7.1. Thus ๐ฅ lies in the group of units of๐. Soall elements of๐ are invertible and so๐ is a group.
7.2 In finite semigroups, J = D, so ๐ฝ๐ฅ = ๐ท๐ฅ. Since ๐ท๐ฅ is non-trivial, itcontains some element ๐ง โ ๐ฅ such that ๐ง R ๐ฅ. That is, there exist๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ง and ๐ง๐ = ๐ฅ; notice that๐, ๐ โ ๐ since ๐ฅ โ ๐ง.Hence ๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฅ, and so ๐ฅ(๐๐)๐ = ๐ฅ for all ๐ โ โ. Since ๐ is finite,there is some โ โ โ such that (๐๐)โ is idempotent. Let ๐ฆ = (๐๐)โ;then ๐ฆ2 = ๐ฆ and ๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ. By the ordering of J-classes, ๐ฝ๐ฅ = ๐ฝ๐ฅ๐ฆ โฉฝ ๐ฝ๐ฆ.Since ๐ฆ is idempotent and thus regular, every element of๐ท๐ฆ = ๐ฝ๐ฆ isregular by Proposition 3.19.
7.3 a) Let ๐ be a finite nilsemigroup. Let ๐ = |๐|. Let ๐ฅ1,โฆ , ๐ฅ๐+1 โ ๐.Consider the ๐ + 1 products
๐ฅ1, ๐ฅ1๐ฅ2, โฆ , ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐, ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐+1.
Since |๐| = ๐, at least two of these ๐ + 1 products must be equal:that is, ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐+โ for some ๐ โ {1,โฆ , ๐} and โ โ{1,โฆ , ๐ + 1 โ ๐}. Hence
๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅ๐+โ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐(๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅ๐+โ)๐
for all๐ โ โ. Since ๐ is a nilsemigroup, there is some๐ โ โwith(๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅ๐+โ)๐ = 0. Thus ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐(๐ฅ๐+1โฏ๐ฅ๐+โ)๐ = 0and so ๐ฅ1โฏ๐ฅ๐ = 0 (since ๐ โฉฝ ๐). Therefore ๐๐ = {0} and so ๐ isnilpotent.
b) Let ๐ = {0}โช{ ๐ฅ๐,๐ โถ ๐ โ โ, ๐ โฉฝ ๐ }. Define a product on ๐ as follows:
๐ฅ๐,๐๐ฅ๐,โ = {๐ฅ๐,๐+โ if ๐ = ๐ and ๐ + โ โฉฝ ๐,0 otherwise,
๐ฅ๐,๐0 = 0๐ฅ๐,๐ = 00 = 0.
Solutions to exercises โข 237
It is easy to check that this operation is associative. For any ๐ฅ๐,๐ โ ๐,we have ๐ฅ๐+1๐,๐ = 0 since ๐(๐ + 1) > ๐. Thus ๐ is a nilsemigroup.However, for any ๐ โ โ, we have ๐ฅ๐๐,1 = ๐ฅ๐,๐ โ 0, so ๐๐ โ {0}.Thus ๐ is not nilpotent.
7.4 a) Let ๐ฅโฒ, ๐ฆโฒ โ ๐ฝ๐. Then ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅ๐ and ๐ฆโฒ = ๐ฆ๐ for some ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ.Thus there exist ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐ โ ๐1 such that ๐๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ and ๐๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ.Then (๐๐)๐ฅโฒ(๐๐) = ๐ฆโฒ and (๐๐)๐ฆโฒ(๐ ๐) = ๐ฅโฒ (where we view 1๐as the identity of (๐โฒ)1) and so ๐ฅโฒ J ๐ฆโฒ. So all elements of ๐ฝ๐ arecontained within a single J-class ๐ฝโฒ of ๐โฒ.
b) Let ๐ฅโฒ โ ๐ฝโฒ. Then ๐ฅโฒ = ๐ฅ๐ for some ๐ฅ โ ๐. Let ๐ฝ = ๐ฝ๐ฅ. Since allelements of ๐ฝ๐ are J-related by part a), we see that ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ.
Let ๐ฝ be minimal such that ๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ. Let ๐ผ = ๐1๐ฝ๐1. Then๐ผ = ๐1๐ฅ๐1 for any ๐ฅ โ ๐ฝ, by the definition of J. Let ๐ฆโฒ โ ๐ฝโฒ.Then ๐ฆโฒ J ๐ฅ๐ and so there exist ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ โ (๐โฒ)1 such that ๐ฆโฒ =๐โฒ(๐ฅ๐)๐โฒ. Therefore ๐ฆโฒ โ (๐โฒ)1(๐ฅ๐)(๐โฒ)1 = (๐1๐ฅ๐1)๐ = ๐ผ๐ since ๐is surjective. So ๐ฝโฒ โ ๐ผ๐.
Let ๐ฆ โ ๐ผ and let ๐พ = ๐ฝ๐ฆ. By part a), there exists some J-class ๐พโฒ of ๐โฒ such that ๐พ๐ โ ๐พโฒ. We now want to prove that๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ implies ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ. So suppose that ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ. Then ๐พ = ๐ฝ๐ฆ < ๐ฝ.Therefore ๐พ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ since ๐ฝ was chosen to be minimal such that๐ฝ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ. Hence ๐พโฒ โ ๐ฝโฒ. Suppose, with the aim of obtaining acontradiction, that ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ. Then there exists ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐โฒ, ๐ โฒ โ (๐โฒ)1with ๐โฒ(๐ฆ๐)๐โฒ = ๐ฅ๐ and ๐โฒ(๐ฅ๐)๐ โฒ = ๐ฆ๐ for some ๐ฅ โ ๐ฝ. Since๐ is surjective, this shows that ๐ฆ J ๐ฅ and so ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ, which is acontradiction. Therefore ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ.
Thus for any ๐ฆ โ ๐ผ, we have ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ implies ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ. Hence๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฝโฒ implies ๐ฆ โ ๐ฝ, which implies ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐ฝ๐. Since ๐ฝโฒ โ ๐ผ๐, thisshows that ๐ฝโฒ โ ๐ฝ๐. Thus ๐ฝ๐ = ๐ฝโฒ.
7.5 It suffices to prove this when ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ and when ๐is a homomorphic image of ๐. In both cases, ๐ is finite because ๐ is,and thus for both ๐ and ๐ the property of havingH being the equalityrelation is equivalent to aperiodic.
Let ๐ be a subsemigroup of ๐. Let ๐ฅ โ ๐. Since ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ isaperiodic, there exists ๐ โ โ such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1. Since this is truefor all ๐ฅ โ ๐, the subsemigroup ๐ is aperiodic. Now let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ bea surjective homomorphism. Let ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then there exists ๐ฅ โ ๐ suchthat ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ. Since ๐ is aperiodic, ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1 for some ๐ โ โ. Hence๐ฆ๐ = (๐ฅ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐+1๐ = (๐ฅ๐)๐+1 = ๐ฆ๐+1. Since this is true forall ๐ฆ โ ๐, the semigroup ๐ is aperiodic. This completes the proof.
In the free semigroup {๐}+, the relation H is the equality relation,but any finite non-trivial cyclic group is a homomorphic image of{๐}+, and in groups all elements are H-related.
238 โขSolutions to exercises
7.6 Let (๐ 1, ๐ก1), (๐ 2, ๐ก2), (๐ 3, ๐ก3) โ ๐ โ๐ ๐. Then
((๐ 1, ๐ก1)(๐ 2, ๐ก2))(๐ 3, ๐ก3)= (๐ 1 ๐ 2๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2)(๐ 3, ๐ก3) [by (7.1)]= (๐ 1 ๐ 2๐ก1 ๐ 3๐ก1๐ก2 , ๐ก1๐ก2๐ก3) [by (7.1)]
= (๐ 1 ๐ 2๐ก1 ( ๐ 3๐ก2 )๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2๐ก3) [by the definition of a left action]
= (๐ 1 (๐ 2 ๐ 3๐ก2 )๐ก1 , ๐ก1๐ก2๐ก3) [since the action is by endomorphisms]
= (๐ 1, ๐ก1)(๐ 2 ๐ 3๐ก2 , ๐ก2๐ก3) [by (7.1)]= (๐ 1, ๐ก1)((๐ 2, ๐ก2)(๐ 3, ๐ก3)); [by (7.1)]
thus the multiplication (7.1) is associative.7.7 Suppose๐ and๐ are groups. Then๐ โ ๐ is a monoid with identity(๐, 1๐) by Proposition 7.7. Let (๐, ๐) โ ๐ โ ๐. Define ๐โฒ โ ๐ โ ๐by (๐ฅ)๐โฒ = ((๐ฅ๐โ1)๐)โ1. Then
(๐, ๐)(๐โฒ, ๐โ1)= (๐ ๐โฒ๐ , ๐๐โ1)= (๐, 1๐),
since
(๐ฅ)๐ ๐โฒ๐ = (๐ฅ)๐(๐ฅ๐)๐โฒ = (๐ฅ)๐((๐ฅ๐๐โ1)๐)โ1
= (๐ฅ)๐((๐ฅ)๐)โ1 = 1๐,
and
(๐โฒ, ๐โ1)(๐, ๐)
= (๐โฒ ๐๐โ1, ๐โ1๐)
= (๐, 1๐),
since
(๐ฅ)๐โฒ ๐๐โ1= (๐ฅ)๐โฒ(๐ฅ๐โ1)๐ = (๐ฅ)๐โฒ((๐ฅ)๐โฒ)โ1 = 1๐;
thus (๐โฒ, ๐โ1) is a right and left inverse for (๐, ๐). Hence๐ โ ๐ is agroup.
7.8 The wreath product ๐ โ ๐must be right-cancellative but is not neces-sarily left-cancellative. For (๐, ๐ ), (๐, ๐ก), (โ, ๐ข) โ ๐ โ ๐,
(๐, ๐ )(โ, ๐ข) = (๐, ๐ก)(โ, ๐ข)โ (๐ โ๐ , ๐ ๐ข) = (๐ โ๐ก , ๐ก๐ข)โ ๐ โ๐ = ๐ โ๐ก โง ๐ ๐ข = ๐ก๐ขโ (โ๐ฅ โ ๐)((๐ฅ)๐(๐ฅ๐ )โ = (๐ฅ)๐(๐ฅ๐ก)โ) โง ๐ = ๐ก
[since ๐ is cancellative]
Solutions to exercises โข 239
โ (โ๐ฅ โ ๐)((๐ฅ)๐(๐ฅ๐ )โ = (๐ฅ)๐(๐ฅ๐ )โ) โง ๐ = ๐ก[substituting ๐ = ๐ก]
โ (โ๐ฅ โ ๐)((๐ฅ)๐ = (๐ฅ)๐) โง ๐ = ๐ก [since ๐ is cancellative]โ ๐ = ๐ โง ๐ = ๐ก.
Now let ๐ = ๐ = โ โช {0} (under +) and define a map ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐by (0)๐ = 1 and (๐ฅ)๐ = 0 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐ โ {0} and a map ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ by(๐ฅ)๐ = 0 for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Then
(๐, 1)(๐, 1) = (๐ ๐1 , 2) = (๐ ๐1 , 2) = (๐, 1)(๐, 1)
since (๐ฅ)๐ ๐1 = (๐ฅ)๐ + (๐ฅ + 1)๐ = 0 + 0 = (๐ฅ)๐ + (๐ฅ + 1)๐ = (๐ฅ)๐ ๐1for all ๐ฅ โ ๐. Hence ๐ โ ๐ is not left-cancellative.
7.9 This is a tedious analysis of products of three elements in ๐ถ(๐). Eachelement is either in ๐ or ๐โฒ; there are thus eight cases. Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐.Then:โ (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง = ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง), since ๐ is a subsemigroup of ๐ โช ๐โฒ;โ (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐งโฒ = ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐งโฒ);โ (๐ฅ๐ฆโฒ)๐ง = ๐ฆโฒ๐ง = (๐ฆ๐ง)โฒ = ๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง)โฒ = ๐ฅ(๐ฆโฒ๐ง);โ (๐ฅ๐ฆโฒ)๐งโฒ = ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅ(๐ฆโฒ๐งโฒ);โ (๐ฅโฒ๐ฆ)๐ง = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)โฒ๐ง = ((๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ง)โฒ = (๐ฅ(๐ฆ๐ง))โฒ = ๐ฅโฒ(๐ฆ๐ง), using associ-
ativity in ๐ for the third equality;โ (๐ฅโฒ๐ฆ)๐งโฒ = ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ(๐ฆ๐งโฒ);โ (๐ฅโฒ๐ฆโฒ)๐ง = ๐ฆโฒ๐ง = (๐ฆ๐ง)โฒ = ๐ฅโฒ(๐ฆ๐ง)โฒ = ๐ฅโฒ(๐ฆโฒ๐ง);โ (๐ฅโฒ๐ฆโฒ)๐งโฒ = ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ๐งโฒ = ๐ฅโฒ(๐ฆโฒ๐งโฒ).
Therefore the product defined by (7.4) is associative.7.10 Define a map ๐ โถ ๐ถ(๐) โ T๐ by ๐ฅ๐ = ๐๐ฅ and ๐ฅโฒ๐ = ๐๐ฅ for ๐ฅ โ ๐.
Clearly im๐ = { ๐๐ฅ, ๐๐ฅ โถ ๐ฅ โ ๐ }. We cannot have ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆโฒ๐, for๐ฅ๐ is a non-constant map and ๐ฆโฒ๐ is a constant map. So to checkinjectivity, we simply check that ๐|๐ and ๐๐โฒ are injective:
๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ โ ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ โ 1๐๐ฅ = 1๐๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ,๐ฅโฒ๐ = ๐ฆโฒ๐ โ ๐๐ฅ = ๐๐ฆ โ 1๐๐ฅ = 1๐๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ = ๐ฆ.
Finally, to check that๐ is a homomorphism,wemust check the variouscases of multiplication in the definition of ๐ถ(๐):
(๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆโฒ๐) = ๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆโฒ๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆโฒ)๐(๐ฅโฒ๐)(๐ฆโฒ๐) = ๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฆ = ๐ฆโฒ๐ = (๐ฅโฒ๐ฆโฒ)๐(๐ฅโฒ๐)(๐ฆ๐) = ๐๐ฅ๐๐ฆ = ๐๐ฅ๐ฆ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ)โฒ๐.
So ๐ is an isomorphism.
240 โขSolutions to exercises
7.11 Let ๐ฅ โ ๐ and ๐ฆ โ ๐ถ(๐). Then
(๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)(๐ ๐๐ )con]= ((๐ฅ)๐ ๐๐ )โฒ [by definition of con]= ((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ(๐ฅ๐)๐ [by def. of the product and action]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con](๐ฅ)[(๐โฒ)๐ext] [by definition of ext and con]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con](๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ๐โฒ)๐ext] [by def. of the product in ๐ถ(๐)]
= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con(๐ฆ) ๐ext๐โฒ ] [by multiplication in ๐ถ(๐)๐]
= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con ๐ext๐โฒ ]; [by multiplication in (๐ถ(๐)๐)๐ถ(๐)]
this proves (7.6). Next,
(๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con]= ((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ [by definition of con]= (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ [by def. of the product in ๐ถ(๐)]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext](๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ๐)๐con] [by definition of ext and con]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext(๐ฆ) ๐con๐ ] [by multiplication in ๐ถ(๐)๐]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐ext ๐con๐ ]; [by multiplication in (๐ถ(๐)๐)๐ถ(๐)]
this proves (7.7). Finally,
(๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con]= ((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ [by definition of con]= ((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ((๐ฅ)๐)โฒ [by def. of the product in ๐ถ(๐)]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con](๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ๐)๐con] [by definition of con]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con(๐ฆ) ๐con๐ ] [by multiplication in ๐ถ(๐)๐]= (๐ฅ)[(๐ฆ)๐con ๐con๐ ]; [by multiplication in (๐ถ(๐)๐)๐ถ(๐)]
this proves (7.8).
Exercises for chapter 8
[See pages 173โ174 for the exercises.]8.1 a) Suppose ๐ค = ๐ข. Then for any homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ we
have ๐ค๐ = ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐ = (๐ฃโฒ๐)(๐ค๐). Then for any ๐ โ ๐, we have๐(๐ค๐) = ๐(๐ฃโฒ๐)(๐ค๐) and so by cancellativity ๐ = ๐(๐ฃโฒ๐). So ๐ฃโฒ๐ isa right identity for ๐ and thus (by cancellativity) an identity. Let ๐and ๐ be the first and last letters of ๐ฃโฒ (which may or may not bedistinct). For ๐ โ ๐, put ๐๐ = ๐๐ = ๐ to see that ๐ is right and leftinvertible. Thus ๐ is a group.
Solutions to exercises โข 241
b) Suppose ๐ค โ ๐ข. Since ๐ค is the longest common suffix of ๐ข and ๐ฃ,we know that ๐ขโฒ and ๐ฃโฒ end with different letters ๐ and ๐ of๐ด. Thatis, ๐ขโฒ = ๐ขโณ๐ and ๐ฃโฒ = ๐ฃโณ๐. Let ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐. Let ๐ โถ ๐ด โ ๐ be such that๐๐ = ๐ and ๐๐ = ๐ก.Then (๐ขโณ๐)๐ (๐ค๐) = ๐ข๐ = ๐ฃ๐ = (๐ฃโณ๐)๐ก(๐ค๐) andso (๐ขโณ๐)๐ = (๐ฃโณ๐)๐ก by cancellativity. Hence ๐ and ๐ก have a commonleft multiple. Since this holds for all ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐, the semigroup ๐ isgroup-embeddable by Exercise 6.5.
8.2 a) Let N be the class of finite nilpotent semigroups. Let ๐ โ N. So๐๐ = {0} for some ๐ โ โ. First, let ๐ be a subsemigroup of ๐.Then ๐๐ โ ๐๐ = {0}; hence ๐ โ N. So N is closed under ๐.Second, let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be a surjective homomorphism. Then๐๐ = (๐๐)๐ = ๐๐๐ โ {0๐}๐ = {0๐}. So ๐ โ N. Thus N is closedunder โ. Third, let ๐1,โฆ , ๐๐ be nilpotent; then ๐๐๐๐ = {0๐๐ } forsome ๐๐ โ โ for each ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐. Let ๐ be the maximum of thevarious ๐๐. Then
(๐1รโฆร๐๐)๐ โ ๐๐1 รโฆ๐๐๐ = {0๐1 }รโฆ {0๐๐ } = {(0๐1 ,โฆ , 0๐๐ )};
hence ๐1 รโฆ ร ๐๐ โ N. Thus N is closed under โfin. ThereforeN is a pseudovariety.
b) Let ๐ด = {๐}. For each ๐ โ โ, let ๐ผ๐ = {๐ค โ ๐ด+ โถ |๐ค| โฉพ ๐ }. Then๐ผ๐ is an ideal of ๐ด+. Let ๐๐ = ๐ด+/๐ผ๐; then ๐๐๐ = {0๐๐ }. So each ๐๐is nilpotent. Let ๐ = โโ๐=1 ๐๐. Let ๐ โ ๐ be such that (๐)๐ = ๐ โ ๐๐for all ๐ โ โ. Then for any ๐ โ โ, we have (๐ + 1)๐ ๐ = ๐๐ โ ๐๐+1;hence (๐ + 1)๐ ๐ โ 0๐๐+1 , and so ๐ ๐ โ 0๐ for any ๐ โ โ. Thus๐๐ โ {0๐} for any ๐ โ โ. Hence ๐ is not nilpotent. Therefore theclass of nilpotent semigroups is not closed under โ and so is nota variety.
8.3 Note first that we are working with algebras of type {(โ, 2), (โ1, 1)}. Let๐ be an orthodox completely regular semigroup. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ bea surjective homomorphism. Then ๐ is regular by Proposition 4.20,and furthermore (๐ฅ๐)โ1 = (๐ฅโ1๐) since homomorphisms for algebrasof this type must also preserve โ1. Therefore since ๐ is completelyregular and thus satisfies the laws (4.2), ๐ also satisfies these laws,so ๐ is completely regular. Finally, if ๐, ๐ โ ๐ are idempotents, then๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 and ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 for some ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ by Theorem 4.15. Let๐, ๐ โ ๐ be such that ๐๐ = ๐ฅ and ๐๐ = ๐ฆ. Then ๐๐โ1 and ๐๐โ1 areidempotent. So ๐๐โ1๐๐โ1 is idempotent (since ๐ is orthodox) and so(๐๐โ1๐๐โ1)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 = ๐๐ is idempotent. So the idempotentsof ๐ form a subsemigroup and so ๐ is orthodox.
Now let ๐ be a subalgebra of ๐. Then ๐ also satisfies the laws(4.2) and is thus completely regular. Finally, the set of idempotentsof ๐ is the intersection of the set of idempotents of ๐, which is asubsemigroup, and ๐, which is also a subsemigroup. Hence the set ofidempotents of ๐ is a subsemigroup.
242 โขSolutions to exercises
Finally, let { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } be a collection of orthodox completelyregular semigroups. Then each ๐๐ satisfies the laws (4.2) and so theirproduct โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ does also. The set of idempotents in โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ is theproduct of the sets of idempotents in each ๐๐ and hence forms asubsemigroup.
Now let ๐ be an orthodox completely regular semigroup. Then๐ satisfies the laws (4.2). Let ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Note that ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ and ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 areidempotents, and so their product ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 is idempotent since ๐ isorthodox. Thus
๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ= ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ= ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฆ [since ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 is idempotent]= ๐ฅ๐ฆ.
Therefore ๐ satisfies the law ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ.Now suppose ๐ satisfies the laws (4.2) and ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ.
Then ๐ is completely regular. Let ๐, ๐ โ ๐ be idempotents; then ๐ =๐ฅโ1๐ฅ and ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 for some ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐ by Theorem 4.15. Then
(๐๐)2
= (๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1)2
= ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1
= ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1; [since ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฆ = ๐ฅ๐ฆ]= ๐๐.
Hence the idempotents of ๐ form a subsemigroup and so ๐ is orthodox.8.4 a) Let ๐ = ๐ฟ ร ๐ be a rectangular band, where ๐ฟ is a left zero semi-
group and ๐ is a right zero semigroup.Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be a surjective homomorphism. Fix (โ, ๐) โ ๐.
Let ๐ฟ๐ = (๐ฟ ร {๐})๐ and ๐ ๐ = ({โ} ร ๐ )๐. Notice that ๐ฟ๐ is a leftzero semigroup and ๐ ๐ is a right zero semigroup; hence ๐ฟ๐ ร๐ ๐ isa rectangular band. Define๐ โถ ๐ฟ๐ร๐ ๐ โ ๐ by (โ๐ก, ๐๐ก)๐ = โ๐ก๐๐ก. Let(โ(1)๐ก , ๐
(1)๐ก ), (โ
(2)๐ก , ๐(2)๐ก ) โ ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐. Let โ(1), โ(2) โ ๐ฟ and ๐(1), ๐(2) โ ๐
be such that (โ(๐), ๐)๐ = โ(๐)๐ก and (โ, ๐(๐))๐ = ๐(๐)๐ก for ๐ = 1, 2. Then
(โ(1)๐ก , ๐(1)๐ก )๐(โ
(2)๐ก , ๐(2)๐ก )๐
= โ(1)๐ก ๐(1)๐ก โ(2)๐ก ๐(2)๐ก
= (โ(1), ๐)๐(โ, ๐(1))๐(โ(2), ๐)๐(โ, ๐(2))๐= ((โ(1), ๐)(โ, ๐(1))(โ(2), ๐)(โ, ๐(2)))๐= (โ(1), ๐(2))๐= ((โ(1), ๐)(โ, ๐(2)))๐= (โ(1), ๐)๐(โ, ๐(2))๐
Solutions to exercises โข 243
= โ(1)๐ก ๐(2)๐ก
= (โ(1)๐ก , ๐(2)๐ก )๐
= ((โ(1)๐ก , ๐(1)๐ก )(โ(2)๐ก , ๐(2)๐ก ))๐;
thus ๐ is a homomorphism. Furthermore,
(โ(1)๐ก , ๐(1)๐ก )๐ = (โ
(2)๐ก , ๐(2)๐ก )๐
โ โ(1)๐ก ๐(1)๐ก = โ
(2)๐ก ๐(2)๐ก
โ (โ(1), ๐)๐(โ, ๐(1))๐ = (โ(2), ๐)๐(โ, ๐(2))๐โ ((โ(1), ๐)(โ, ๐(1)))๐ = ((โ(2), ๐)(โ, ๐(2)))๐โ (โ(1), ๐(1))๐ = (โ(2), ๐(2))๐โ (โ(1), ๐(1))๐(โ, ๐)๐ = (โ(2), ๐(2))๐(โ, ๐)๐
โง (โ, ๐)๐(โ(1), ๐(1))๐ = (โ, ๐)๐(โ(2), ๐(2))๐โ ((โ(1), ๐(1))(โ, ๐))๐ = ((โ(2), ๐(2))(โ, ๐))๐
โง ((โ, ๐)(โ(1), ๐(1)))๐ = ((โ, ๐)(โ(2), ๐(2)))๐โ (โ(1), ๐)๐ = (โ(2), ๐)๐ โง (โ, ๐(1))๐ = (โ, ๐(2))๐
โ โ(1)๐ก = โ(2)๐ก โง ๐
(1)๐ก = ๐
(2)๐ก
โ (โ(1)๐ก , ๐(1)๐ก ) = (โ
(2)๐ก , ๐(2)๐ก ),
so ๐ is injective. Finally, ๐ is surjective since
im๐ = ๐ฟ๐๐ ๐= (๐ฟ ร {๐})๐({โ} ร ๐ )๐= ((๐ฟ ร {๐})({โ} ร ๐ ))๐= (๐ฟ ร ๐ )๐ = ๐.
Hence ๐ is isomorphic to the rectangular band ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐; thus๐ โ RB. So RB is closed under forming homomorphic images.
Now let ๐ be a subsemigroup of ๐. Let ๐ฟ๐ = { โ โ ๐ฟ โถ (โ๐ โ๐ )((โ, ๐) โ ๐) } and ๐ ๐ = { ๐ โ ๐ โถ (โโ โ ๐ฟ)((โ, ๐) โ ๐) }. Noticethat ๐ฟ๐ is also a left zero semigroup and ๐ ๐ is also a right zerosemigroup. Clearly ๐ โ ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐; we now establish the oppositeinclusion. Let (โ๐ก, ๐๐ก) โ ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐. Then there exist ๐ โ ๐ and โ โ ๐ฟsuch that (โ๐ก, ๐) โ ๐ and (โ, ๐๐ก) โ ๐.Thus (โ๐ก, ๐๐ก) โ (โ๐ก, ๐)(โ, ๐๐ก) โ ๐.So๐ = ๐ฟ๐ร๐ ๐ is a rectangular band. So RB is closed under takingsubsemigroups.
Finally, let { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } be a collection of rectangular bands.Then ๐๐ โ ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐ for some left zero semigroup ๐ฟ๐ and right zerosemigroup ๐ ๐, for each ๐ โ ๐ผ. Then
โ๐โ๐ผ๐๐ = โ๐โ๐ผ(๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐) โ (โ
๐โ๐ผ๐ฟ๐) ร (โ
๐โ๐ผ๐ ๐).
244 โขSolutions to exercises
Sinceโ๐โ๐ผ ๐ฟ๐ is a left zero semigroup andโ๐โ๐ผ ๐ ๐ is a right zerosemigroup,โ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ โ RB. Hence RB is closed under forming directproducts.
Thus RB is a variety.b) Let ๐ = ๐ฟร๐ be a rectangular band. Let ๐ฅ = (๐1, ๐1) and๐ฆ = (๐2, ๐2).
Then ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = (๐1, ๐1)(๐2, ๐2)(๐1, ๐1) = (๐1, ๐1) = ๐ฅ. So ๐ satisfies thislaw.
Suppose ๐ satisfies the law ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Fix some ๐ก โ ๐. Let ๐ฟ = ๐๐กand ๐ = ๐ก๐. Then for any ๐๐ก, ๐โฒ๐ก โ ๐ฟ, we have ๐๐ก๐โฒ๐ก = ๐๐ก bythe law (with ๐ฅ = ๐ก and ๐ฆ = ๐โฒ). So ๐ฟ is a left zero semigroupand similarly ๐ is a right zero semigroup. Furthermore, for any๐, ๐.๐ โ ๐,
๐๐ = ๐๐๐๐ [by the law with ๐ฅ = ๐ and ๐ฆ = ๐]= ๐๐๐๐๐๐ [by the law with ๐ฅ = ๐ and ๐ฆ = ๐]= ๐๐๐. [by the law with ๐ฅ = ๐ and ๐ฆ = ๐๐]
}}}}}
(S.23)
Define ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ฟ ร ๐ by ๐๐ = (๐๐ก, ๐ก๐). Then
(๐๐)(๐๐) = (๐๐ก, ๐ก๐)(๐๐ก, ๐ก๐)= (๐๐ก, ๐ก๐)= (๐๐๐ก, ๐ก๐๐) [using (S.23) in both components]= (๐๐)๐,
so ๐ is a homomorphism. Notice that this also shows that for any๐๐ก โ ๐ฟ, ๐ก๐ โ ๐ , we have (๐๐)๐ = (๐๐ก, ๐ก๐); thus ๐ is surjective.Finally, for any ๐, ๐ โ ๐,
๐๐ = ๐๐โ (๐๐ก, ๐ก๐) = (๐๐ก, ๐ก๐)โ ๐๐ก = ๐๐ก โง ๐ก๐ = ๐ก๐โ ๐๐ก๐ = ๐๐ก๐ โง ๐๐ก๐ = ๐๐ก๐โ ๐๐ก๐ = ๐๐ก๐โ ๐ = ๐, [applying the law on both sides]
so ๐ is injective. So ๐ is [isomorphic to] a rectangular band andso ๐ โ RB.
c) Any rectangular band satisfies the law ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง by (S.23). Everyelement of a rectangular band is idempotent, so ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ is alsosatisfied.
Let ๐ satisfy the laws ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง. To prove that๐ is a rectangular band, follow the reasoning in part b) with thefollowing minor differences: First, ๐ฟ is a left zero semigroup since๐๐ก๐โฒ๐ก = ๐๐ก๐ก = ๐๐ง by applying first ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง and then ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ;
Solutions to exercises โข 245
similarly ๐ is a right zero semigroup. Second, to prove ๐ is ahomomorphism, apply ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง to both components. Finally,the last step in proving ๐ is injective becomes ๐๐ก๐ = ๐๐ก๐ โ ๐2 =๐2 โ ๐ = ๐, by applying first ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง and then ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ.
d) Let ๐ be a non-trivial null semigroup. Then for any ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ, ๐ง โ ๐, wehave ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = 0๐ and ๐ฅ๐ง = 0๐. However, ๐ is not a rectangular bandbecause ๐ฅ2 โ ๐ฅ for any ๐ฅ โ 0๐.
8.5 Let ๐ = ๐บ ร ๐ฟ ร ๐ , where ๐บ is a group, ๐ฟ is a left zero semigroup, and๐ is a right zero semigroup. Let ๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ be a homomorphism. Fix(1๐บ, โ, ๐) โ ๐. Let ๐ป = (๐บ ร {โ} ร {๐})๐, ๐ฟ๐ = ({1๐บ} ร ๐ฟ ร {๐})๐ and๐ ๐ = ({1๐บ} ร {โ} ร ๐ )๐. Reasoning parallel to Example 8.4 shows that๐ โ ๐ป ร ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐.
Notice that (๐, โ, ๐)โ1 = (๐โ1, โ, ๐). Let ๐ be a subalgebra of ๐. Let๐ป = { ๐ โ ๐บ โถ (โ(โ, ๐) โ ๐ฟ ร ๐ )((๐, โ, ๐) โ ๐ }. We first prove that if(๐, โ, ๐) โ ๐, then๐ป ร {(โ, ๐)} โ ๐. Let โ โ ๐ป; then (โ, โโฒ, ๐โฒ) โ ๐ forsome โโฒ โ ๐ฟ, ๐โฒ โ ๐ . Hence ๐ contains
(๐, โ, ๐)(๐, โ, ๐)โ1(โ, โโฒ, ๐โฒ)(๐, โ, ๐)(๐, โ, ๐)โ1
= (๐๐โ1โ๐๐โ1, โ, ๐)= (โ, โ, ๐),
and thus๐ป ร {(โ, ๐)} โ ๐. Now reason as in Example 8.4 to see that๐ = ๐ป ร ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐ and thus ๐ โ X.
Let { ๐๐ โถ ๐ โ ๐ผ } be a collection of semigroups in X. Then for all๐ โ ๐ผ, we have ๐๐ โ ๐บ๐ ร๐ฟ๐ ร๐ ๐ for some group๐บ๐, left zero semigroup๐ฟ๐ and right zero semigroup ๐ ๐. Hence
โ๐โ๐ผ๐๐ โ โ๐โ๐ผ(๐บ๐ ร ๐ฟ๐ ร ๐ ๐) โ (โ
๐โ๐ผ๐บ๐) ร (โ
๐โ๐ผ๐ฟ๐) ร (โ
๐โ๐ผ๐ ๐);
sinceโ๐โ๐ผ ๐บ๐ is a group,โ๐โ๐ผ ๐ฟ๐ is a left zero semigroup, andโ๐โ๐ผ ๐ ๐is a right zero semigroup, we see thatโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ is [isomorphic to] thedirect product of a group and a rectangular band. Soโ๐โ๐ผ ๐๐ โ X.
Let ๐ = ๐บ ร ๐ฟ ร ๐ , where ๐บ is a group, ๐ฟ is a left zero semigroup,and ๐ is a right zero semigroup. Let ๐ฅ = (๐, โ, ๐) and ๐ฆ = (๐โฒ, โโฒ, ๐โฒ).Then
๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = (๐, โ, ๐)(๐โ1, โ, ๐)= (1๐บ, โ, ๐)= (๐โ1, โ, ๐)(๐, โ, ๐)= ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ
and
๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ = (๐โ1, โ, ๐)(โ, โโฒ, ๐โฒ)(โโ1, โโฒ, ๐โฒ)(๐, โ, ๐)= (๐โ1โโโ1๐, โ, ๐)
246 โขSolutions to exercises
= (1๐บ, โ, ๐)= (๐โ1, โ, ๐)(๐, โ, ๐)= ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ.
So ๐ satisfies these laws.Now suppose that ๐ satisfies the given laws. For any ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐,
we have ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ โ ๐๐ฆ๐. So ๐ is simple by theanalogue of Lemma 3.7 for simple semigroups. Let ๐, ๐ โ ๐ be idem-potents; then ๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 and ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ฆโ1 for some ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ โ ๐. Then๐๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฆ๐ฆโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐ฅ๐ฅโ1 = ๐. So the idempotentsof ๐ form a rectangular band by Example 8.4. Since rectangular bandsare completely simple, they contain primitive idempotents. Hence ๐contains a primitive idempotent. So ๐ is completely simple. Since theidempotents of ๐ form a subsemigroup, ๐ is orthodox. Hence ๐ is adirect product of a rectangular band and a group by Exercise 5.6(b).
8.6 Let ๐ โ โ๐โ๐ผ V๐. Then ๐ โ V๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ผ. Let ๐ be a homomorphicimage (respectively, subalgebra) of ๐. Since each V๐ is a pseudovariety,๐ โ V๐ for all ๐ โ ๐ผ. Hence ๐ โ โ๐โ๐ผ V๐. So โ๐โ๐ผ V๐ is closed underforming homomorphic images and subalgebras. Now let ๐1,โฆ , ๐๐ โโ๐โ๐ผ V๐.Then ๐๐ โ V๐ for each ๐ โ ๐ผ and ๐ = 1,โฆ , ๐. So ๐1รโฆร๐๐ โ V๐for each ๐ โ ๐ผ and so ๐1 รโฆร ๐๐ โ โ๐โ๐ผ V๐. Soโ๐โ๐ผ V๐ is closed underforming finitary direct products. Thereforeโ๐โ๐ผ V๐ is a pseudovariety.
8.7 Let V be an S-pseudovariety of semigroups. Then
๐ โ (VMon)Sgโ ๐1 โ VMon [by (8.7)]โ ๐1 is a monoid in Vโ ๐ โ V. [since ๐ is closed under taking subsemigroups]
Let V be the S-pseudovariety of rectangular bands. Then VMon = 1,since the only monoid that is a rectangular band is the trivial monoid,and so (VMon)Sg = VS(1) = 1 โ V.
8.8 Let ๐ be a completely regular semigroup. Let ๐ โ ๐. By Theorem 4.15,๐ lies in a subgroup ๐บ of ๐. If ๐ โถ ฮฉ{๐ฅ}Sโ ๐ is such that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ , then๐ฅ๐๐ is the idempotent power of ๐, whichmuch be the identity of๐บ. So๐ฅ๐+1๐ = (๐ฅ๐๐)(๐ฅ๐) = 1๐ = ๐ = ๐ฅ๐, so ๐ satisfies the pseudoidentity๐ฅ๐+1 = ๐ฅ.
Now suppose that ๐ satisfies ๐ฅ๐+1 = ๐ฅ. Let ๐ โ ๐ and choose๐ โถ ฮฉ{๐ฅ}S โ ๐ with ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ . Then ๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ ๐ for some ๐ โ โ. So๐ ๐ = ๐ฅ๐๐ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ . Thus ๐ lies in the cyclic group {๐ , ๐ 2,โฆ , ๐ ๐โ1}.Hence every element of ๐ lies in a subgroup and so ๐ is completelyregular by Theorem 4.15.
8.9 Let ๐ be a completely simple semigroup; thus ๐ = M[๐บ; ๐ผ, ๐ฌ; ๐] forsome group ๐บ, index sets ๐ผ and ๐ฌ, and matrix ๐ over ๐บ. Let (๐, ๐, ๐)
Solutions to exercises โข 247
and (๐, โ, ๐) be elements of ๐. If ๐ โถ ฮฉ{๐ฅ}S โ ๐ is such that ๐ฅ๐ =(๐, ๐, ๐) and ๐ฆ๐ = (๐, โ, ๐), then we have (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐ = (๐, ๐, ๐)(๐, โ, ๐) =(๐, ๐๐๐๐โ, ๐). Now, (๐, ๐๐๐๐โ, ๐)๐ = (๐, (๐๐๐๐โ๐๐๐)๐โ1๐๐๐๐โ, ๐) for all๐ โ โ. Thus (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ is (๐, (๐๐๐๐โ๐๐๐)๐โ1๐๐๐๐โ, ๐) for some ๐. Since(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ is always an idempotent, we have (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐). There-fore we have ((๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ)๐ = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)(๐, ๐, โ) = (๐, ๐โ1๐๐ , ๐)(๐, ๐, ๐) =(๐, ๐โ1๐๐ ๐๐๐๐, ๐) = (๐, ๐, ๐) = ๐ฅ๐. Thus ๐ satisfies the pseudoidentity(๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ = ๐ฅ.
Now suppose that ๐ satisfies (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐+1 = ๐ฅ. Let ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ and choose๐ โถ ฮฉ{๐ฅ}S โ ๐ with ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ and ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ก. Then (๐ฅ๐ฆ)๐๐ฅ๐ = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ forsome ๐ โ โ. Hence ๐ = (๐ ๐ก)๐๐ โ ๐๐ก๐ and so ๐ is simple by the analogueof Lemma 3.7 for simple semigroups. Arguing as in Exercise 8.8 butwith ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ , we see that ๐ lies in the {๐ , ๐ 2,โฆ , ๐ 2๐}. Henceevery element of ๐ lies in a subgroup and so ๐ is completely regular byTheorem 4.15. Since ๐ is completely regular and simple, it is completelysimple by Theorem 4.16.
8.10 Let ๐ be left simple. Let ๐ be an idempotent of ๐. Then ๐๐ = ๐ since ๐is left simple. Let ๐ โ ๐; then ๐ = ๐ โฒ๐ for some ๐ โฒ โ ๐. Therefore ๐ ๐ =๐ โฒ๐๐ = ๐ โฒ๐ = ๐ , and so ๐ is a right identity for ๐. For any homomorphism๐ โถ ฮฉ{๐ฅ,๐ฆ}(๐), the element ๐ฆ๐๐ is an idempotent of ๐. Hence (๐ฅ๐ฆ๐)๐ =(๐ฅ๐)(๐ฆ๐๐) = ๐ฅ๐. Thus ๐ satisfies the pseudoidentity ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ.
Now suppose ๐ satisfies ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ฅ. Let ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐. Let ๐ โถ ฮฉ{๐ฅ,๐ฆ}S besuch that ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ and ๐ฆ๐ = ๐ก. Then (๐ฆ๐)๐ will be some idempotentpower of ๐ก, say ๐ก๐ for some ๐ โ โ. Then ๐ ๐ก๐ = (๐ฅ๐ฆ๐)๐ = ๐ฅ๐ = ๐ .Hence ๐ โ ๐๐ก. Thus ๐ = ๐๐ก for all ๐ก โ ๐ and so ๐ is left simple.
Exercises for chapter 9
[See pages 201โ202 for the exercises.]
9.1 Suppose ๐ฟ is rational. Then it is recognized by a finite semigroup ๐ byTheorem 9.4. By Proposition 9.6, SynM ๐ฟ divides ๐. Hence SynM ๐ฟ isfinite.
Suppose SynM ๐ฟ is finite. The monoid SynM ๐ฟ recognizes ๐ฟ byProposition 9.6. Since ๐ฟ is recognized by a finite monoid, it is rationalby Theorem 9.4.
9.2 Let ๐ be the three element semilattice {0, ๐ฅ, ๐ฆ} with ๐ฅ > 0 and ๐ฆ > 0.Let ๐๐ = ๐ฅ and ๐๐ = ๐ฆ.Then {๐ฅ}๐โ1 = {๐}+ and {๐ฆ}๐โ1 = {๐}+; hence{0}๐โ1 = ๐ฟ.
9.3 By definition, SynM๐ท = { ( , ) }โ/๐๐ท. Let ๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐ โ { ( , ) }โ. Then
248 โขSolutions to exercises
for any ๐, ๐,
๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐ ( )๐ค๐+1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) =
{{{{{{{{{{{
๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) if ๐ โฉฝ ๐,๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) + 1 if ๐ = ๐ + 1,๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) if ๐ = ๐ + 2,๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) if ๐ โฉพ ๐ + 2.
In particular,
๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐ ( )๐ค๐+1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐ + 2) = 0 โ ๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) = 0,๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐ ( )๐ค๐+1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) โฉพ 0 for all ๐โ ๐ถ(๐ค1โฏ๐ค๐, ๐) โฉพ 0 for all ๐.
Hence for any words ๐, ๐ โ { ( , ) }โ, we have ๐ ( ) ๐ โ ๐ท if and only if๐๐ โ ๐ท. Hence ( ) ๐๐ท ๐.That is, [ ( ]๐๐ท [ ) ]๐๐ท = [๐]๐๐ท . Furthermore, ) (is not a Dyck word, so ) ( is not ๐๐ท-related to ๐. That is [ ) ]๐๐ท [ ( ]๐๐ท โ [๐]๐๐ท . Hence, by Exercise 2.12 with ๐ฅ = [ ( ]๐๐ท , ๐ฆ = [ ) ]๐๐ท , and ๐ =[๐]๐๐ท , and noting that [ ( ]๐๐ท and ๐ฆ = [ ) ]๐๐ท generate SynM๐ท, we seethat SynM๐ท is isomorphic to the bicyclic monoid.
9.4 Let ๐พ, ๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+). If both ๐พ and ๐ฟ are finite, then ๐พ โช ๐ฟ and ๐พ โฉ ๐ฟare finite and so ๐พ โช ๐ฟ,๐พ โฉ ๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+). If one of ๐พ or ๐ฟ is finiteand the other cofinite, then๐พ โช ๐ฟ is cofinite and ๐พ โฉ ๐ฟ is finite andso ๐พ โช ๐ฟ,๐พ โฉ ๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+). If both ๐พ and ๐ฟ are cofinite, then ๐พ โช ๐ฟand ๐พ โฉ ๐ฟ are cofinite and so ๐พ โช ๐ฟ,๐พ โฉ ๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+). So N(๐ด+) isclosed under union and intersection. If ๐พ is finite, ๐ด+ โ ๐พ is cofiniteand so ๐ด+ โ ๐พ โ N(๐ด+); if ๐พ is cofinite, ๐ด+ โ ๐พ is finite and so๐ด+ โ ๐พ โ N(๐ด+). So N(๐ด+) is closed under complementation.
Let ๐ฟ โ N(๐ด+) and ๐ โ ๐ด. If ๐ฟ is finite, it contains only word oflength less than ๐ for some fixed ๐ โ โ. So ๐โ1๐ฟ and ๐ฟ๐โ1 containonly words of length less than ๐ โ 1. So ๐โ1๐ฟ and ๐ฟ๐โ1 are finite andso ๐โ1๐ฟ, ๐ฟ๐โ1 โ N(๐ด+). On the other hand, if ๐ฟ is cofinite, it containsall words in๐ด+ of length greater than ๐ for some fixed ๐ โ โ. So ๐โ1๐ฟand ๐ฟ๐โ1 contain all words in๐ด+ of length greater than ๐โ1. So ๐โ1๐ฟand ๐ฟ๐โ1 are cofinite and so ๐โ1๐ฟ, ๐ฟ๐โ1 โ N(๐ด+).
Let ๐ฟ โ N(๐ต+) and let ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐ต+ be a homomorphism. If ๐ฟ isfinite, it contains only word of length less than ๐ for some fixed ๐ โ โ.Let ๐ค โ ๐ด+ have length greater than ๐. Then ๐ค๐ has length greaterthan ๐ and so๐ค๐ โ ๐ฟ. So ๐ฟ๐โ1 contains only words of length less than๐; thus ๐ฟ๐โ1 is finite and so ๐ฟ๐โ1 โ N(๐ด+). On the other hand, if ๐ฟ iscofinite, it contains all words in ๐ด+ of length greater than ๐ for somefixed ๐ โ โ. Let ๐ค โ ๐ด+ have length greater than ๐. Then ๐ค๐ haslength greater than ๐ and so๐ค๐ โ ๐ฟ. So ๐ฟ๐โ1 contains all words in๐ด+of length greater than ๐; thus ๐ฟ๐โ1 is cofinite and so ๐ฟ๐โ1 โ N(๐ด+).
9.5 Suppose that ๐พ is a +-language over ๐ด recognized by some finiterectangular band ๐. Then there is a homomorphism ๐ โถ ๐ด+ โ ๐
Solutions to exercises โข 249
such that ๐พ = ๐พ๐๐โ1. Recall from Exercise 8.4(c) that ๐ satisfiesthe pseudoidentities ๐ฅ2 = ๐ฅ and ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ง = ๐ฅ๐ง. Thus, for ๐, ๐โฒ โ ๐ดand ๐ค โ ๐ดโ, we have (๐๐ค๐โฒ)๐ โ ๐พ๐ if and only if (๐๐โฒ)๐ โ ๐พ๐, orequivalently ๐๐ค๐โฒ โ ๐พ if and only if ๐๐โฒ โ ๐พ. Therefore
๐๐ดโ๐โฒ โฉ ๐พ โ โ โ (โ๐ข โ ๐ดโ)(๐๐ข๐โฒ โ ๐พ)โ ๐๐โฒ โ ๐พโ (โ๐ค โ ๐ดโ)(๐๐ค๐โฒ โ ๐พ)โ ๐๐ดโ๐โฒ โ ๐พ.
On the other hand, if ๐๐ดโ๐โฒ โ ๐พ, then obviously ๐๐ดโ๐โฒ โฉ ๐พ โ โ .Therefore:
๐๐ดโ๐โฒ โ ๐พ โ ๐๐ดโ๐โฒ โฉ ๐พ โ โ . (S.24)
Reasoning similar to the above and also using (๐๐)๐ = ๐๐ proves that
๐๐ดโ๐ โ ๐พ โ ๐ โ ๐พ. (S.25)
Let ๐ be the subset of ๐ด that lies in ๐พ and let ๐พ1 = ๐ โช โ๐โ๐ ๐๐ดโ๐.
Then by (S.25), ๐พ1 โ ๐พ. Again by (S.25), ๐พ1 must be precisely thewords in๐พ that start and end with the same letter. Let๐พ2 be the set ofwords in๐พ that start and end with different letters. By (S.24), if there aword in๐พ2 that starts with ๐ and ends with ๐โฒ, then all words in ๐๐ดโ๐โฒlie in ๐พ2. There are only finitely many possible choices for ๐ and ๐โฒ,so ๐พ2 = โ
๐๐=1 ๐๐๐ด
โ๐โฒ๐ for suitable ๐๐ and ๐โฒ๐. Hence ๐พ = ๐พ1 โช ๐พ2 is alanguage of the form (9.12).
Now suppose that ๐พ has the form (9.12). Then whether a wordin ๐ด+ lies in ๐พ depends only on its first and last letters. Let ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ด+.Then for any ๐, ๐ โ ๐ดโ, the first letters of ๐๐ ๐ก๐ ๐ and ๐๐ ๐ are eitherboth the first letter of ๐, and thus equal, or (when ๐ = ๐) both thefirst letter of ๐ , and thus equal. Similarly, the last letters of ๐๐ ๐ก๐ ๐ and๐๐ ๐ are equal. So ๐๐ ๐ก๐ ๐ โ ๐พ if and only if ๐๐ ๐ โ ๐พ. Hence ๐ ๐ก๐ ๐๐พ ๐ ,or [๐ ]๐๐พ [๐ก]๐๐พ [๐ ]๐๐พ = [๐ ]๐๐พ . Since ๐ , ๐ก โ ๐ด
+ were arbitrary, this provesthat SynS๐พ satisfies the pseudoidentity ๐ฅ๐ฆ๐ฅ = ๐ฅ. Hence SynS๐พ is arectangular band and SynS๐พ โ RB.
โข
250 โขSolutions to exercises
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254 โขBibliography
Index
โ Never index your own book. โโ Kurt Vonnegut, Catโs Cradle, ch. 55.
โข In this index, the ordering of entries is strictly lexico-graphic, ignoring punctuation and spacing. Symbols outside the Latinalphabet are collected at the start of the index, even if โauxiliaryโ Latinsymbols are used: thus ๐1 is included in this set, since it is the notationโ 1โ that is being defined. Brief definitions are given for notation.
This index currently covers only Chapter 1 and part of Chapter 3, plusnames and โnamed resultsโ. It will gradually be expanded to a full index.
โง: logical conjunction; โandโ0-simple, 58โ60โจ: logical disjunction; โorโ1, 1๐: identity of a semigroup ๐0, 0๐: zero of a semigroup ๐๐1: monoid obtained by adjoining an
identity to ๐ if necessary; 4๐0: semigroup obtained by adjoining a
zero to ๐ if necessary; 4โจ๐โฉ: subsemigroup generated by๐; 10โจ ๐, ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ: meet; 17โจ๐, ๐ฅ โ ๐ฆ: join; 17๐R: reflexive closure of ๐; 22๐S: symmetric closure of ๐; 22๐T: transitive closure of ๐; 22๐E: equivalence relation generated by ๐;
22๐C: smallest left and right compatible
relation containing ๐; 24๐#: congruence generated by ๐; 24๐๐ฅ: transformation that right-multiplies
by ๐ฅ; 19
action: see โsemigroup actionโAlmeida, Jorge, v, 174, 251Andersen, Olaf, 71, 251antichain, 15anti-homomorphism, 20, 30anti-symmetric binary relation, 15associativity: see โbinary operation,
associativeโ
automaton: see โfinite state automatonโ;viโvii
Baader, Franz, 53, 251biber, 261BibLaTEX, 261bijection, 13binary operation, 1
associative, 1โ2binary relation, 11โ15, 20, 22Birkhoff โs theorem, 154Book, Ronald V., 53, 251Bourbaki, Nicolas, vbracket, 2Brown, Arthur A., 253B๐: set of binary relations on๐; 12
Cain, Alan James, iโii, viโvii, 92, 251cancellative semigroup, 6, 7, 20, 32
finite implies group, 32cartesian product, 4
finitary, 4category theory, 1, 33, 35Cayley graph, 30โ31
of a group, 31right/left, 30โ31
Cayleyโs theorem, 19chain, 15, 58Chesterton, Gilbert Keith, 73Clifford, A. H., 34, 70โ71, 91โ92, 119, 129,
251
โข 255
Clifford, Alfred Hoblitzelle, 71, 92, 119,251, 253
commutative semigroup, vโvi, 6, 7โ8of idempotents, 18
comparable elements, 15compatible binary relation, 20, 24โ26complete lattice: see โlattice, completeโcomplete lower semilattice: see
โsemilattice, completeโcomplete upper semilattice: see
โsemilattice, completeโcomposition of binary relations, 11congruence, 20โ21, 28
lattice of congruences, 26congruence generated by a binary
relation, 24โ26characterization of, 25
converse of a relation, 11correction, vicoset, viiCosta, Alfredo Manuel Gouveia da, 251Cottingham, John, 175Couto, Miguel รngelo Marques Lourenรงo
do, viiCreative Commons, iicyclic group, 1
D: see also โGreenโs relationโ; 55โ57๐ท๐: D-class of ๐; 57Danskin, John Moffatt, 253Descartes, Renรฉ, 175determinant: see โmatrix, determinant of
aโdihedral group, 1direct product, 1, 4, 8, 28, 30DโIsraeli, Isaac, vDistler, Andreas, 34, 174, 251distributivity, 33dom ๐: domain of ๐; 12Dyck, Walther Franz Anton von: see
โDyck wordโDyck word, 201โ202
๐ธ(๐): set of idempotents of ๐; 5Eco, Umberto, 251Egri-Nagy, Attila, viiEilenberg correspondence, 189โ201Eilenberg, Samuel: see also โEilenberg
correspondenceโ, โEilenbergโstheoremโ; 174, 202, 252
Eilenbergโs theorem, 190โempty semigroupโ, 1, 35End(๐): endomorphisms of ๐; 19endomorphism, 19
epimorphism, 34categorical, 33โ34of groups, 35
equivalence class, 15, 20equivalence relation, 15, 22โ27, 55
characterization of join, 27commuting
characterization of join, 27generated by a binary relation
characterization of, 22lattice of equivalence relations, 26โ27
exponent, 5laws, 5
factor group, viifactor semigroup, 20โ22, 59โ60Feyeraband, Paul Karl, 149finitely generated, 10finite semigroup, vโvi, 5, 33
cancellative implies group, 32finite state automaton, vFoley, D., 253โfolkloreโ, 34free semigroup, vifull map: see โmapโfull transformation: see โtransformationโ
Gallagher, Peter Timothy, 53, 252Garcรญa Martinez, Xabier, viiGarcรญa-Sรกnchez, Pedro A., 129, 254Gell-Mann, Murray, 121generating set, 10Gould, Sydney Henry, 253graph, viigreatest lower bound: see โmeetโGreen, James Alexander: see also โGreenโs
lemmaโ, โGreenโs relationsโ; 71, 252Greenโs lemma, 60Greenโs relation: see also โH, L, R, D, Jโ;
55โ57inclusion of, 56โ57partial order from L, R, J, 57
Grillet, Pierre Antoine, 34โ35, 71, 129, 252Grinberg, Darij, viigroup, vii, 1โ2, 6, 10, 32, 55โ56, 58, 60
composition series, 60group-embeddable semigroup, 19group of units, 9groupoid, 1
H: see also โGreenโs relationโ; 55, 56๐ป๐: H-class of ๐; 57Hall, P., 92, 254Hamming, Richard Wesley, 203
256 โขIndex
Ham, Nick, viiHardy, Godfrey Harold, 1Harju, Tero Juhani, 53, 252Hasse diagram, 15โ16, 18, 56Herman, Samuel, viiHewitt, Edwin, 253Higgins, Peter Michael, 34, 53, 252homomorphic image, 19homomorphism, 19โ20, 21, 28โ30, 33โ34
kernel of a, 19, 21monoid, 19, 33
Hopcroft, John Edward, 202, 252Howie, A., 253Howie, John Mackintosh, v, 34, 53, 70, 91,
119, 174, 202, 252Huxley, Thomas Henry, 131
๐ผ(๐ฅ): the set ๐ฝ(๐ฅ) โ ๐ฝ๐ฅ; 59id๐: identity relation on๐; 11ideal, 9โ10, 34, 55โ60
left: see โleft idealโminimal
uniqueness of, 58principal, 9right: see โright idealโtwo-sided: see โidealโ
ideal extension, 22, 28โ29idempotent, 5, 7โ8, 32
partial order of, 17idempotents
semigroup of: see โsemigroup ofidempotentsโ
identity: see also โmonoidโ; 1, 3, 7, 9, 12, 32adjoining, 4, 32left: see โleft identityโright: see โright identityโtwo-sided: see โidentityโuniqueness of, 3
identity relation, 11, 12, 19, 32im ๐: image of ๐; 12index of an element, 5infimum: see โmeetโintegers
as a partially ordered set, 15as a semigroup, 3
inverse, 1, 6โ7, 8inverse semigroup, vโviinvertible element, 6, 8โ9, 33isomorphism, 19, 21
J: see also โGreenโs relationโ; 55, 56โ57๐ฝ๐: J-class of ๐; 57๐ฝ(๐ฅ): principal ideal generated by ๐ฅ; 9join, 17, 56
join semilattice: see โsemilatticeโโJordanโHรถlder theoremโ for semigroups,
60
๐พ(๐): kernel of a semigroup; 58ker๐: kernel of the homomorphism ๐; 19kernel, 58, 59
of a homomorphism: seeโhomomorphism, kernel of aโ
Kleene, Stephen Cole: see also โKleeneโstheoremโ; 202, 252
Kleeneโs theorem, 180Knuth, Donald Ervin, vKoga, Akihiko (ๅค่ณๆๅฝฆ), viiKorzybski, Alfred Habdank Skarbek, 55Krohn, Kenneth Bruce: see also
โKrohnโRhodes theoremโ; 148, 252KrohnโRhodes theorem, 146
L: see also โGreenโs relationโ; 55, 57commutes with R, 56๐ฟ๐: L-class of ๐; 57๐ฟ(๐ฅ): principal left ideal generated by ๐ฅ; 9Lallement, Gรฉrard, 148, 252language, vii
regular: see โregular languageโlattice, 17, 33
complete, 17of congruences: see โcongruence,
lattice of congruencesโof equivalence relation: see also
โequivalence relation, lattice ofequivalence relationsโ
Lawson, Mark Verus, 119, 202, 252โ253least upper bound: see โjoinโleft-cancellative semigroup, 6, 32left-compatible binary relation, 20left congruence, 20, 57left ideal, 9โ100-minimal, 58minimal, 58principal, 9
left identity, 3, 32left inverse, 6left-invertible element, 6, 33left zero, 3, 32left zero semigroup, 3, 6, 8, 34Linderholm, C. E., 35, 253linear algebra, viiLisbon, iLjapin, Evgeniฤญ Sergeevich (ะัะฟะธะฝ,
ะะฒะณะตะฝะธะน ะกะตัะณะตะตะฒะธั), 34, 253Lothaire, M., 53, 253lower bound, 17
Index โข 257
lower semilattice: see โsemilatticeโLuaLaTEX, vi, 261Lyndon, Roger Conant, 253
Mac Lane, Saunders, 35, 253magma, 1Malcev, Anatoly Ivanovich (ะะฐะปััะตะฒ,
ะะฝะฐัะพะปะธะน ะะฒะฐะฝะพะฒะธั), 53, 253Maltcev, Victor, viimap, 12
domain of, 12image of, 12notation for, 4, 30preimage under, 12
matrixdeterminant of a, 7
matrix semigroup, 7maximal element, 16maximum element, 16McCarthy, John, 252meet, 17, 56meet semilattice: see โsemilatticeโMiller, Don Dalzell, 71, 253minimal element, 16minimum element, 16Monโจ๐โฉ: submonoid generated by๐; 11monogenic semigroup, 10monoid: see also โidentityโ; 3, 7, 11โ12,
28โ29, 32โ33presentation of: see โmonoid
presentationโtrivial: see โtrivial semigroupโ
monomorphism, 19, 34categorical, 33โ34
multiplication, 2Munn, William Douglas, 119, 253
natural homomorphism: see โnatural mapโnatural map, 21, 29natural numbers
as a semigroup, 2, 10, 30, 60nilpotent group, 6nilpotent semigroup, 5nilsemigroup, 5Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
(ไน็ซ ็ฎ่ก; Jiuzhฤng Suร nshรน), viiNipkow, Tobias, 53, 251null semigroup, 3, 58โ59
opposite semigroup, 8order, 15Ore, รystein: see also โOreโs theoremโ; 129,
253Oreโs theorem, 128
Otto, Friedrich, 53, 251
โ๐: power set; set of all subsets of๐P๐: set of partial transformations on๐;
12partially ordered set, 15, 16
subset of, 15partial map, 12partial order, 15โ18, 17partial transformation, 12โ13Pascal, Blaise, 93periodic element, 5periodic semigroup, 5, 33, 56โ57
infinite, 32period of an element, 5Petrich, Mario, 92, 119, 253PGF/TikZ, 261Pin, Jean-รric, v, 174, 202, 253Porto, iPorto, University of, viposet: see โpartially ordered setโpower, 5
positive, 5power semigroup, 32power set, 15, 17presentation, vโvi
monoid: see โmonoid presentationโsemigroup: see โsemigroup
presentationโPreston, Gordon Bamford: see also
โVagnerโPreston theoremโ; 34, 70โ71,91โ92, 119, 129, 251โ253
principal factor, 59โ60principal series, 60product of elements, 2product of subsets, 5pseudovariety, vโvi
quaternion group, 1quotient semigroup: see โfactor
semigroupโ
R: see also โGreenโs relationโ; 55, 57commutes with L, 56๐ ๐: R-class of ๐; 57๐ (๐ฅ): principal right ideal generated by ๐ฅ;
9Rabin, Michael Oser ( ืืืืจืจืืืขืืืืื ), 202,
254rectangular band, 8Rรฉdei, Lรกszlรณ: see also โRรฉdeiโs theoremโ;
129, 254Rรฉdeiโs theorem, 127Rees congruence, 21
258 โขIndex
Rees, David: see also โReesโSuschkewitschtheoremโ; 92, 129, 254
Rees factor semigroup, 21โ22ReesโSuschkewitsch theorem, 80, 83reflexive binary relation, 15, 20, 22reflexive closure of a binary relation,
22โ24characterization of, 22
regular element, 6โ7regular language, vregular semigroup, vโvi, 6Reilly, Norman R., 254Reitermanโs theorem, 167relation: see โbinary relationโRhodes, John Lewis: see also
โKrohnโRhodes theoremโ; 148, 174,252, 254
right-cancellative semigroup, 6right-compatible binary relation, 20right congruence, 20, 57right ideal, 9โ100-minimal, 58minimal, 58principal, 9
right identity, 3, 32right inverse, 6right-invertible element, 6, 33right regular representation, 19, 34right zero, 3, 32right zero semigroup, 3, 5, 8, 10, 31โ32, 34ring, 3Rito, Guilherme Miguel Teixeira, viiRobertson, Edmund Frederick, 92, 251Robinson, Derek J. S., 71, 254Rosales, Josรฉ Carlos, 129, 254Rozenberg, Grzegorz, 253Ruลกkuc, Nikola, 53, 92, 251, 254
S๐: set of bijections on๐; 12Salomaa, A., 253Santiago de Compostella, University of, viSantos, Josรฉ Manuel dos Santos dos, viiSchelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von,
37Schรผtzenberger group, 65โ68
right and left, 67Schรผtzenberger, Marcel-Paul: see also
โSchรผtzenberger groupโ,โSchรผtzenbergerโs theoremโ; 71, 202,253โ254
Schรผtzenbergerโs theorem, 196Scott, Dana, 202, 254semigroup, vโvi, 1โ15, 19โ22, 24โ350-simple: see โ0-simple semigroupโ
cancellative: see โcancellativesemigroupโ
commutative: see โcommutativesemigroupโ
finite: see โfinite semigroupโfree: see โfree semigroupโinverse: see โinverse semigroupโleft zero: see โleft zero semigroupโmatrix: see โmatrix semigroupโnull: see โnull semigroupโperiodic: see โperiodic semigroupโpresentation of: see โsemigroup
presentationโregular: see โregular semigroupโright zero: see โright zero semigroupโsimple: see โsimple semigroupโtrivial: see โtrivial semigroupโzero-simple: see โ0-simple semigroupโ
semigroup action, 29โ30by endomorphisms, 30free, 30left, 30regular, 30right, 30transitive, 30
semigroup of binary relations, 12, 13, 32semigroup of idempotents, 5semigroup of partial transformations, 13,
30, 32computation(, 14computation), 14
semigroup of transformations, 13, 19,29โ30, 32โ33
computation(, 14computation), 14
semilattice, 17โ18, 34as a commutative semigroup of
idempotents, 18complete, 17
Shannon, Claude Elwood, 252simple group, 58simple semigroup, 58โ60Soares, Jorge Fernando Valentim, viiSteinberg, Benjamin, 148, 174, 254structure of a semigroup, vโvisubdirect product, 28โ29, 34subgroup, 8โ9, 12, 19submonoid: see also โsubsemigroupโ; 8, 12
generating, 11subsemigroup: see also โsubmonoidโ; 8โ10,
19, 29, 32generating, 10proper, 8, 32
supremum: see โjoinโ
Index โข 259
Suschkewitsch, Anton Kazimirovich: seealso โReesโSuschkewitsch theoremโ
Suschkewitsch, Anton Kazimirovich(ะกััะบะตะฒะธั, ะะฝัะพะฝ ะะฐะทะธะผะธัะพะฒะธั),92, 254
symmetric binary relation, 14โ15, 22symmetric closure of a binary relation,
22โ24characterization of, 22
symmetric group, 12, 13, 19, 30, 32
T๐: set of transformations on๐; 12Tilson, Bret Ransom, 252topology, viitotal order: see โorderโtransformation, 12โ13
two-line notation, 13transitive binary relation, 15, 20, 22transitive closure of a binary relation,
22โ24characterization of, 22
trivial monoid: see also โtrivialsemigroupโ; 3
trivial semigroup, 3, 32Trocado, Alexandre, viituple, 4
Ullman, Jeffrey David, 202, 252universal algebra, viiupper bound, 17upper semilattice: see โsemilatticeโ
๐(๐ฅ): set of inverses of ๐ฅ; 7VagnerโPreston theorem, 99Vagner, Viktor Vladimirovich: see also
โVagnerโPreston theoremโ; 119, 254variety: see also โpseudovarietyโ; viVonnegut, Kurt, 255
Walker, Sue Ann, 253Weaver, William Fense, 251
xindy, 261
zero, 3, 6โ7, 32, 58adjoining, 4, 32left: see โleft zeroโright: see โright zeroโtwo-sided: see โzeroโuniqueness of, 3
zero-simple semigroup: see โ0-zerosemigroupโ
Zilber, Joseph Abraham, 253
โข
260 โขIndex
Colophon
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