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Almost all periods of Egyptian history have left their mark at Gebelein and

it is representative of almost every kind of archaeological site found in the

Nile valley. The area was a significant centre in the history of ancient

Egypt, but its exact role and the reasons for its importance still awaits

explanation. Recently, new research has been initiated here by a team from

the University of Warsaw. The aim of the project is to understand the site’s

history, functions, and to protect the antiquities in the area. The first three

seasons of the Gebelein Archaeological Project observed that the

microregion presents potential for further research and can greatly

contribute to our understanding of ancient Egypt. The aim of this

publication is to briefly present previous research, history, and topography

of Gebelein and the current project.

Gebelein is located

approximately 28 km south-west

of Luxor on the west bank of the

Nile. The modern Arabic name

el-Gebelein (‘the two rocks’) has

the same meaning as its ancient

name – Inerty . The

two hills (east and west) dominate

the area, running from north to

south. This raised massif is

furrowed by numerous peaks and

valleys. Location and panorama of Gebelein.

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RESEARCH HISTORY

Research history of the area is long and complicated. Most of the results

from previous excavations have not yet been published. Gebelein was

visited by travellers and scholars since the eighteenth century, such as

Ludwig Norden (1735), Richard Pocock (1738), and Dominque Vivant

Denon (1800). However, the first official research was initiated by Gaston

Maspero in 1885 on behalf of Service des

antiquités égyptiennes. It is unknown

where at Gebelein he was working. Objects from this research went to the

Cairo Museum after March 1885, and in the following years some objects

were acquired by the British Museum as well as Louvre Museum (though

it is uncertain whether they came from his excavations). Most of them are

dated to the Predynastic Period. Some years later, Eugène Grébau and

George Daressy (1891-1892) copied inscriptions at Gebelein, and their

research was followed by excavations of Willoughby Fraser in 1893. In this

same year, the director of the Service des antiqités, Jacques de Morgan,

sent the inspector of the Upper Egyptian antiquities, Georges Foucart, to

conduct short excavations there. In 1896, under unknown circumstances, a

First Intermediate Period tomb with five sarcophagi was discovered, and

the objects went to the Royal Museum in Berlin.

At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth century, Gebelein was

well-known to antiquities dealers, who looted the site complex. According

to practices of the time, the Antiquities Service could licence local people

– such as someone attached to excavations or native dealers of antiquities

– to conduct excavations. This system was intended to cope with the

Eastern mount in 1800.

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discoveries of archaeological remains at provincial sites, which were often

thought to be of minor value. Sheikh Omar from Gourna was allowed to

work at Gebelein under this system. Officially, such individuals were

working on behalf of the government, and half of their finds should be send

to the Cairo Museum. However, due to a lack of proper supervision, many

may have pocketed more than the half allocated to them.

Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge was informed that Gebelein is ideal for

finding remains of what he referred to as ‘Neolithic Egyptians’, i.e. well

preserved human bodies dated to the Naqada culture. He discovered six of

such specimens there. It is known that Robert de Rustafjaell also possessed

a natural mummy from Gebelein in his collection, but unfortunately

nothing else is known about this specimen. In 1900, James Quibell

acquired a set of artefacts dated to the late Predynastic Period for the Cairo

Museum in Qena, which reportedly originated from Gebelein. In 1907,

Henri de Morgan visited Gebelein during his survey of southern Egypt,

despite it being not in his concession. Most of the artefacts from the

research went to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. In season

1908-9, two scholars from Lyon excavated at Gebelein – Louis Lortet and

Italian excavations at the temple area on the eastern mount.

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Cécil Gaillard—who found numerous objects which are now in the

collection of Musée des Confluences in their home city.

The Italian mission from the Turin Museum of Egyptian

Antiquities, directed by Ernesto Schiaparelli, began its works at Gebelein

in 1910. The following seasons were either conducted by Ernesto

Schiaparelli or by his field director Virginio Rosa in 1911, 1914 and 1920.

After the death of E. Schiaparelli in 1922, works were directed by Giulio

Farina (seasons: 1930, 1934-1935, 1937). The Museum of Egyptian

Antiquities in Turin conducted the most complex research at Gebelein. The

majority of the artefacts from the area went to the Cairo Museum and the

Turin Museum. After a long break, the Italians returned to Gebelein for

three short seasons (in 1995, 1996 and 1999), which were conducted by

Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri, Giovanni Bergamini, and Alessandro

Roccati. In the meantime, Egyptian archaeologists conducted one season

of salvage excavation in 1998.

The previous excavations enriched museums’ collection but

contributed little to our understanding of the topography and history of the

area. In 2013, a one-day reconnaissance was conducted by Wojciech

Ejsmond, Julia Chyla, and Cezary Baka from the University of Warsaw. It

appeared that the situation was critical and urgent works were necessary to

document and protect the local antiquities. Without this, important

information would be completely lost. In the next year, the first season of

survey was conducted, which initiated a new program of field research at

Gebelein.

GEBELEIN THROUGH THE CENTURIES

What we know about the area come from the analysis of objects, although

in most cases their archaeological contexts are unknown. Therefore,

information that they could provide are reduced.

Gebelein played an important role in the history of ancient Egypt.

The most famous finds from the area are several well preserved natural

mummies dated to the late 4th millennium BC. The dry conditions at

Gebelein enabled excellent preservation of human bodies. The most well-

known is the ‘Gebelein man’, now in the British Museum. Alfred Wallis

Budge brought to London six of these ‘Neolithic Egyptians’ and the

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seventh specimen came to the British Museum from the collection of

Robert de Rustafjaell. Another important find is the ‘Gebelein linen’, which

dates to Naqada IIa-b based on its artistic style. It was discovered by the

Italian Mission working at Gebelein in 1930 and was found lying next to a

human body in a tomb located in the northern part of the area. This artefact

raised the question whether it was related with some person of royal status,

like the similar depictions from the decorated tomb no. 100 at

The ‘Gebelein man’ (Naqada II). Artefacts surrounding the body are not from the

original furnishing of the deceased’s grave, but rather, they demonstrate how a typi-

cal Nagadian grave may have looked.

Fragments of the ‘Gebelein linen’ (arranged hypothetically).

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Hierakonpolis, which

is thought to be burial

place of a local ruler. It

is hard to answer this

question without

knowing the Gebelein

tomb itself and the

accompanying

artefacts, which could

provide additional

information on its

dating and furnishing.

The provenance of a

set of objects acquired

by James Quibell at an

antiquity market in

Qena is also

problematic, since the

archaeologist was only told by a dealer that the entire set was found at

Gebelein. Only a portion of it was published, and the objects date to late

Naqada II or early Naqada III. They constitute one of the most opulent sets

of objects from a predynastic tomb, which is comparable with the

furnishings of royal sepulchres at Abydos and Hierakonpolis. These

artefacts, along with other finds, suggest that some local predynastic rulers

may have been buried in the area. Therefore, the exact role of Gebelein is

This dagger with a golden handle is part of the rich set

of artefacts dated to the late Naqada II or early Naqada

III purchased by J. Quibell.

Another

interesting pre- or

early dynastic

object is the lion

statue (now in

Berlin). Some of

these are quite big

and could have

once been part of

the architectural

decoration of a

temple.

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the subject of some

controversy. Despite this, it

is ostensibly one of the key

sites that can further our

understanding of the origin

of ancient Egypt.

Many important

artefacts shed light on the

history of this area during

the Old Kingdom. The most

famous find of this period is

a 4th Dynasty set of papyri

related to a local estate and

temple. They were

discovered in a tomb located

in the northern part of

Gebelein in 1935. The documents possibly date to the reign of Menkaure.

They list some 300 people from two villages that comprised an estate in the

Gebelein area. Their titles show several of the same occupations we see in

scenes on the walls of Old Kingdom tombs belonging to large estate

Two (potentially)

predynastic stone

knifes with

depictions of

crocodiles. Their

unusual form is

of particular

interest here.

This early dynastic limestone

block was found in the walls

of the Hathor temple on the

eastern mount. It is one of

rear examples of early relief

work.

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holders. Titles such as

baker, brewer, craftsman,

boat maker, sailor and

rower, mason, metal

worker, stockman, grain

measurer, a ‘sealer of the

granary’, as well as the

hunter and ‘nomad’ were

attested. These are the

basic specialists we

would find in any large

farm, ranch, or plantation

in an Old Kingdom

estate. Some scribes are

also included, as well as

employees of the archive

and their spouses,

children, and parents

who generally go unnamed.

Much of our knowledge on Old Kingdom crafts and economy

comes from the chapel walls of tombs, which depicts an idealised world.

In the Gebelein Papyri, one can glimpse a more realistic image of life

during the pyramid age – a centralised state, a bureaucratic mind, and the

controlling of the pan-regional economy of the country.

Several Old Kingdom high dignitaries were buried at Gebelein,

such as Ini, who was a

priest of Sobek, royal

treasurer, and nomarch.

His sepulchre was

discovered intact at the

Fragment of the ‘Gebelein Papyri’.

Furnishing of Ini’s burial

(Egyptian Museum in Turin).

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northern necropolis. The furnishing includes wooden models and a statuette

of the tomb owner. Other individuals, those buried in the so called ‘Tomb

of the Unknowns’, are dated to the 5th Dynasty. None of the people buried

in this rock-cut sepulchre were named. Regardless, one can see from the

opulent tomb furnishing that they must have been important.

Another well-known sepulchre is that of Iti and his wife Neferu,

which dates to the First Intermediate Period. This saff-tomb (discovered in

1911) was partially hewn into the rock. Iti’s titles were priest of Sobek, the

royal treasurer, and army commander. Despite the tomb being robbed

before excavations, it still yielded many artefacts. Due to the well-

preserved decorations on the pillars, corridor, and chapel, the tomb contains

one of the most

important examples

of First Intermediate

Period art.

Part of the furnishing from the ‘Tomb of the Unknowns’ (Egyptian Museum in

Turin).

Funerary stela of

Iti and Neferu

(Egyptian

Museum in

Turin).

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Portico of Iti’s and Neferu’s tomb during the excavation in 1911 and the painted

decoration (Egyptian Museum in Turin).

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Unfortunately, nothing remains of

the tomb today, but luckily, the

painted decorations were removed

and transported to the Egyptian

Museum in Turin.

Nubian mercenaries also

lived in the Gebelein region at this

time. Attestations to their presence,

as well as contacts with local

Egyptians, are found on numerous

stelae which combine Egyptian and

Nubian elements. The tombstones

found at Gebelein and er-Rizeiqat

lead to the conclusion that they were living in Sumenu which was once

situated between Gebelein and el-Rizeiqat.

At the turn of the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom,

Mentuhotep Nebhepetre constructed a chapel dedicated to Hathor ‘Lady of

Dendera’. Blocks from this building have been re-used in architectural

structures of the following periods at the northern part of the eastern mount.

Stela in the so-called ‘Gebelein style’.

Fragments from Mentuhotep II Nebhepetre chapel at Gebelein (Turin Museum).

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Dated to the Second Intermediate Period are two limestone blocks

which bear the names of two Hyksos kings: Apophis and Khyan. Alongside

the evidence from other sites in the region (e.g. el-Kab, Sumenu, and

Medamud), these artefacts suggest that Gebelein was controlled by the

Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. Additionally, the names of

some local Upper Egyptian kings dating to the Second Intermediate Period

are also attested at Gebelein.

The local temple of Hathor was modified during the New Kingdom

and there is some evidence of prosperity at Gebelein, which is possibly

related to stone quarrying in Dibabiyah on the opposite bank of the Nile.

Some New Kingdom stelae dedicated to Hathor are found in the temenos.

This suggests that it was a popular sanctuary. Unfortunately, none of the

previous missions working in this area produced any published plan or

documentation of the architectural structures.

A Block with the cartouche of the Hyksos king Apepi (Apophis).

This New Kingdom

votive basin was

found in pieces in

the Hathor temple.

It was placed in the

temple as a votive

offering to Hathor

by a woman named

Tamit (Egyptian

Museum in Turin).

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Below the temple, a rock-cut chapel was built, probably during the

time of Hatshepsut. Sunken relief decorations show Hathor ‘Lady of

Gebelein’ and another male god whose depiction is badly preserved.

A fortress operated at the top of the eastern mound during the Third

Intermediate Period and the Late Period, but little is known about the area

due to the lack of sufficient reports from archaeological works conducted

there, as well as remains of necropoleis that could reveal more about the

local population.

The situation changed during the

Ptolemaic Period, when Pathyris (Greek

pronunciation for the town Per-Hathor)

became an important administrative

centre (capital of the Pathyrite nome

until c. 88 BC), and was inhabited by

both Egyptians and Greeks. Numerous

family archives in Demotic and Greek

have come from Pathyris, which has

shed light on daily life in a provincial

centre during the Ptolemaic Period. In

Another New Kingdom find from the temple precinct is the foundation deposit of

Thutmose III (Egyptian Museum in Turin).

So far two concentrations of graffiti have

been discovered at Gebelein. The eastern

mount includes the Ramesses IV inscription

here.

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the mid-2nd century BC, Ptolemaic

kings founded a military base in

Crocodilopolis (Greek name for

Sumenu), and later Pathyris received

a subsidiary camp.

Regarding the papyrological

material, Horos’ and Dryton/

Apollonia’s archives should be

mentioned. The archive of Horos,

son of Nechouthes, is the only

‘closed find’ known from Pathyris. It

appeared on the antique market as a result of illegal excavations, where it

was sold intact in a jar to Lord Adler in 1924. The jar was filled with 21

Greek and 49 demotic papyri, dating from 134 to 89 BC, of which the most

exciting finds being two Demotic marriage contracts pertaining to his

daughters. Dryton and Apolonia’s archive consists of 53 papyri texts and 8

ostraca, which are located in several museums around the world and date

largely to the 2nd century BC. Apollonia, in particular, was an interesting

figure, who is one of the few examples of a female entrepreneur in Egyptian

history. She made a substantial fortune, and used her mixed Graeco-

Egyptian origin to her

advantage. Therefore, the

papyri and ostraca from

Pathyris have significantly

contributed to our perception

of Graeco-Egyptian

Part of a Greek papyrus

from the archive of Horos

(Carlsberg Papyrus

Collection, Copenhagen).

Brick with the name of a high priest of

Amun Menkheperre from the Hathor

temple area.

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relations during Ptolemaic Egypt.

Some construction work was also done on the Hathor temple during

late Ptolemaic times. Yet, the nome capital was moved to Armant and the

city seems to be abandoned for an extended period from c. 88 BC due to

the likely destruction of the settlement as a result of a rebellion.

The historical Gebelein became a political centre for the last time

in 6th century AD, when Blemmyes tribal rulers took residence. We know

this from several parchments from Gebelein, which are connected with a

local royal residence.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE REGION

As demonstrated, Gebelein is well-known from numerous important

artefacts, but their context and the topography of the site complex is poorly

recorded, making them less informative. Despite years of devastation and

looting, there are still several archaeological sites in the area.

Starting from the north, destroyed remnants of a settlement

(possibly Sumenu), which have been recorded on a map drawn in late 18th

The map made during Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt is highly accurate and

depicts now destroyed archaeological sites as well as a preindustrial landscape.

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century as a kom, should be mentioned. It bordered with a necropolis, which

was used from the Predynastic Period to the Middle Kingdom (with some

Ptolemaic burials in one Middle Kingdom tomb). Little survived from this

settlement and necropolis today. Further south, in the central part of

Gebelein, a largely destroyed cemetery is located. The oldest finds from

this area are dated to Naqada I. Its pivotal point is a natural spur, which has

the shape of a pyramid from an east/south-east angle. There are two large,

mudbrick saff-tomb at the foot of this natural pyramid. One of them was

partially excavated in 1996 and yielded pottery dating to the 11th/12th

Dynasty. A similar natural pyramid is located north from the

aforementioned example, but due to the level of destruction, the type of the

tomb located at its foot cannot be determined. Recently, a 300-metre-long

section made by a bulldozer revealed some other tombs in the necropolis.

Distribution of archaeological sites at Gebelein and location of Dibabiyah (satellite

image by Google).

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A large part of the cemetery is also recently destroyed by agricultural fields

and the development of settlements. In the northern part of that necropolis,

on the slopes and top of the rock, rock-cut tombs can be found.

Several rock-cut tombs have been discovered in the south-eastern

part of the eastern mount, and are comprised of three major elements: an

outer rectangular courtyard, an inner square chapel (supported by one or

The eastern part of the northern necropolis, the arrow indicates the location of the

tomb of Iti and Neferu.

Central necropolis with shafts in the foreground and two natural pyramids at the

back (the indicated by the arrows).

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more pillars), and a descending

passage linking the latter to a

burial chamber.

A few hundred metres

north of these tombs is a small

rock-cut chapel (speos). The

entrance to the structure is located

c. 3 m above the ground level. The

speos consists of a broad vestibule

and a narrow cell. In the western

part of the cell, some sunken

reliefs have survived. Of particular

interest is the representation of the

Hathor ‘Lady of Gebelein’.

Directly above the rock-cut

temple, there is a shelf leading to a small grotto. Around the entrance to the

cave are numerous graffiti mentioning Hathor ‘Lady of Gebelein’, as well

as some private names.

The temple of Hathor once stood above the shelf. The oldest

attestation of her worship at Gebelein (with the cultic epithet ‘Lady of

Dendera’) are the aforementioned decorated blocks dated to reign of

Mentuhotep Nebhepetre. On the slopes of the hill was the town of Per-

Hathor (Greek Pathyris), of which only modest remnants survive. The

northern part of

the eastern mount

was inhabited

from Predynastic

Photogrammetric 3D model of the

Hathor speos.

Epigraphical

works at the

rock-shelf above

the Hathor’s

speos.

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to late Ptolemaic Period, possibly even later.

Opposite the temple on the western mount a large concentration of

graffiti is located. These are dated from the prehistoric to Coptic Period.

From those dated to the pharaonic times, a large inscription with the name

of Ramses IV is especially important.

SUMMARY

Gebelein was a significant centre during different stages of Egyptian

history. It is also greatly threatened by human activity and requires urgent

attention.

The site complex has been frequently mentioned in Egyptological

literature. Although many important objects have been discovered here, the

area is still poorly understood in terms of its topography and archaeological

sites. Most of the objects discovered lack their archaeological context,

which makes it difficult to discern any formal patterns or interpretations of

their functionality in ancient Egypt. The aim of the current research of the

Gebelein Archaeological Project is to provide a better understanding of this

area and its importance, as well as protecting the local archaeological

heritage.

Top and slopes of the northern part of the eastern mount was once occupied by the

flourishing city of Pathyris, its temple, and fortress. Only some loose bricks, as

well as a few walls, survived into present day. The area requires urgent protection

and research in order to save the archaeological heritage of Gebelein.

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Archaeological sites at Gebelein have great potential to shed light

on different aspects of ancient Egyptian history. To mention just some of

the most significant elements of the current research: studies on the

predynastic material from the area can provide clues to the role of Gebelein

during the earliest stages of ancient Egyptian civilisation; the large tombs

in the southern necropolis, which are preliminary dated to the First

Intermediate Period, can help to better understand the significance of the

region during this time and the reasons for the Nubian mercenaries to settle

here. The diverse papyrological material from the city of Pathyris will

require additional topographical contextualisation in order to further our

understanding of provincial Egypt during the Ptolemaic Period. Recent

examinations of previously unpublished objects and archaeological

features, e.g. the southern necropolis and the speos, also make this area

more exciting and necessary for further research.

The northern

necropolis at

the beginning of

the 20th century

and now.

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The author would like to thank the Polish

Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology of

the University of Warsaw under whom the

research has been done, as well as the

University of Warsaw Foundation, along

with the Consultative Council for Students’

Scientific Movement of the University of

Warsaw, who finances the project. Last but

not least are the members of the Gebelein

Archaeological Project who made the

research possible: Julia M. Chyla (GIS, archaeologist), Adam Grylak

(archaeologist), Mina Ilić (Egyptologist), Taichi Kuronuma

(archaeologist), Michał Madej (geologist), Vincent Oeters (archaeologist),

Marcin Jakub Ordutowski (geophysicist), Arkadiusz Ostarz (conservator),

Marzena Ożarek-Szilke (anthropologist), Aneta Skalec (papyrologist),

Daniel Takács (Egyptologist), Dawid F. Wieczorek (Egyptologist and

archaeologist), Piotr Witkowski (photographer), Lawrence Xu-Nan

(Egyptologist). Participants of the project would like to thank Prof. Karol

Myśliwec and Dr Zbigniew Szafrański for their kind help. The author could

not have carried out the research at Gebelein without help of the of

Antiquity of Southeastern Europe Research Centre, University of Warsaw.

The author would also like to acknowledge Inspector of the

Antiquities of Armant and Esna Mr Abd el-Hady Mahmoud and inspectors:

Mr Ali Mohamed Ahmed, Mr Mamduh Saad Mostafa, Mr Mohammed el-

Amir Mohammed and Ministry of State Antiquities of Egypt.

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DONADONI ROVERI, A.M. D’AMICONE, E. and LEOSPO, E. (ed.) 1994.

Gebelein: Il villaggio e la necropoli, Quaderni del Museo Egizio. Torino,

Artema.

DONADONI ROVERI, A.M. 1990. Gebelein. In: G. ROBINS (ed.), Beyond

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EJSMOND, W. 2013. Some Remarks on Topography of Gebelein

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E. FROOD and J. BAINES (eds.), UCAL Encyclopedia of Egyptology,

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Leiden, Brill.

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POLTZ, D. 2006. Die Hyksos-Blöcke aus Gebelein: Zur Präsenz der Hyksos

in Oberägypten. In E. CZERNY, I. HEIN, H. HUNGER, D. MELMAN, and A.

SCHWAB (eds.), Studies in honour of Manfred Bietak, vol. 1 (Orientalia

Loveniensia Analecta 149). Leuven, Peters.

POSENER-KRIÉGER, P. 2004. I papiri di Gebelein: Scavi G. Farina 1935.

Studi del Museo Egizio di Torino, (Gebelein I), Turin, Museo Egizio.

TAKÁCS, D. EJSMOND, W. CHYLA, J. M. and WITKOWSKI, P. 2015.

Hatshepsut’s Speos at Gebelein – Preliminary Conclusions on the

Unpublished Temple. Göttinger Miszellen 247: 117-120.

VANDORPE, K. and WAEBENS, S. 2010. Reconstructing Pathyris' archives.

A multicultural community in Hellenistic Egypt (Collectanea Hellenistica

3). Brussels, l'Union Académique Internationale & Koninklijke Vlaamse

Academie van België.

WIECZOREK, D.F. 2015. A Rock Inscription of Ramesses IV at Gebelein.

A Previously Unknown New Kingdom Expedition. Etudes et Travaux 28:

217-229.

WITKOWSKI, P. CHYLA, J. and EJSMOND, W. 2016. Combination of RTI

and Decorrelation - an Approach to the Examination of Badly Preserved

Rock Inscriptions and Rock Art at Gebelein (Egypt). In: S. CAMPANA, R.

SCOPIGNO, G. CARPENTIERO and M. CIRILLO (eds.), 2016. CAA 2015

Keep the Revolution Going. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference

on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology:

939-944. Oxford, Archaeopress.

Credits to the figures if not by the author:

Page 2 – V. DENON, Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte, Paris 1802.

Page 3 - DONADONI ROVERI, A.M. D’AMICONE, E. and LEOSPO, E. (ed.)

1994. (op. cit.): p 12, fig. 2.

Page 5 – Gebelein man:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebelein_predynastic_mummies#/media/File:Bm-

ginger.jpg; Gebelein linen:

http://xoomer.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/Gebelein-linen.htm.

Page 6 – knife with golden handle:

http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/picture12022002.htm; lion: WENIG, S.

1961. Führer durch das Berliner Ägyptische Museum, Berlin, Staatliche Museen

zu Berlin: 42 Abb. 8.

Page 7 – Early dynastic block:

http://www.nefershapiland.de/Biografie%20Djoser.htm; two knives: LORTET, L.

24

and GAILLARD, C. 1909. La faune momifiée de l’ancienne Égypte, Lyon: 167 –

168.

Page 8 – papyrus: POSENER-KRIEGER 2004 (op. cit.): Tav. 3.

Page 9 – stela: https://s-media-cache-

ak0.pinimg.com/originals/31/76/9e/31769e214b2bb35a5c8b457b49ea015d.jpg.

Page 10 – Iti and Neferu tomb: DONADONI ROVERI, A.M. D’AMICONE, E. and

LEOSPO, E. (ed.) 1994. (op. cit.): p. 46, fig. 48.

Page 11 – stela: http://www.wikiwand.com/ca/Gebelein (RMO Leiden).

Page 12 – block: POLZ (op. cit.): Abb. 2.

Page 13 – graffito: WIECZOREK (op. cit.): Fig. 3.

Page 14 – papyrus: http://www.schoyencollection.com/palaeography-collection-

introduction/greek-other-documentary-scripts/greek-cursive/ms-140.

Page 15 – map: JACOTIN, P. 1826. Carte Topographique de l'Egypte et de

plusieurs parties des pays limitrophes levée pendant l'Expédition de l'Armée

Française. Paris, C.L.F. Panckoucke: pl. 5.

Page 18 – model by Piotr Witkowski.

Page 20 – archival photo: DONADONI ROVERI, A.M. D’AMICONE, E. and

LEOSPO, E. (ed.) 1994. (op. cit.): p. 19.

Page 21 – logo of the project by Magdalena Bryk.

Page 24 – Naqada I bowl from Gebelein: BARTA, M. and FROUZ, M. 2010.

Swimmers in the Sand. On the Neolithic Origins of Ancient Egyptian Mythology

and Symbolism. Dryada Publishing: p. 31 fig. 7.

The logo of the Gebelein Archaeological Project is inspired by the decoration on this

predynastic bowl from Gebelein, which depicts the two eponymic mounts.

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