night 2 session iii motivation and behavior and theories of motivation

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Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

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Page 1: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Night 2

Session III Motivation and Behavior andTheories of Motivation

Page 2: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Some Theories Of Motivation

Need (or Content) Theories Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory McClelland’s Manifest Needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Process Theories Learning Theory Goal Setting Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory

Next

Page 3: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Learning Theories

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience.

Three types of learning: classical conditioning operant conditioning social learning

Page 4: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Classical Conditioning

Step 1: Before Conditioning

Bell No Response

and

Food Response (Salivation)

Page 5: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Step 2: During Conditioning

Bell Followed byFood Response (Salivation)

Classical Conditioning

Page 6: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Classical Conditioning

Step 3: After Conditioning

Bell Response (Salivation)

Page 7: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Operant Conditioning

Stimulus Response Consequence

Page 8: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired Behaviors

StimulusDesired

ResponsePositive

Consequence

Positive Reinforcement

StimulusDesired

Response

Removal ofNoxious

Consequence

Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement)

DesiredResponse

Avoidance ofNoxious

Consequence

Avoidance Learning

Back

Page 9: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Functions of Goals

Goals let employees know what they are expected to do.

Goals relieve boredom. Reaching goals and getting positive feedback

leads to increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job performance.

Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors, and others.

Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased self-confidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept future challenges.

Page 10: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Important Goal Characteristics

SPECIFIC GOALS

DIFFICULT GOALS

FEEDBACK ONPROGRESS

COMPETITION

PARTICIPATIONIN GOAL SETTING

MOTIVATION

GOALACCEPTANCE

GOALCOMMITMENT

Page 11: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Management by Objectives

Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals.

MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance.

MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals.

68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains.

Page 12: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Bottom Line: Goal Setting Theory

Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals

Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals

Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them

Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them

ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals

ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals

Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement

Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement

Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals

Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals

Back

Page 13: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Why Be Fair? General Reasons

When people experience a situation they feel is not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of tension.

Some people try to be fair because they think others will reward them for being fair.

Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s self-esteem.

Most people find it comforting to believe that life is fair.

Page 14: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Why Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons

To conform to business norms. To attract superior workers to their

company and weed out inferior workers.

To motivate employees to produce. To develop trust.

Page 15: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Equity Theory Equation

Op

Ip

Oo

IO

=

Page 16: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)

Raise actual outcomes Lower inputs Perceptually distort inputs and/or

outcomes Perceptually distort comparison other’s

inputs and/or outcomes Leave the situation Act to change the comparison other’s

inputs and/or outcomes Change the comparison other

Page 17: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Bottom Line: Equity Theory

AssessEmployee

Perceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations

AssessEmployee

Perceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations

IdentifyEmployees

WhoPerceive

Inequities

IdentifyEmployees

WhoPerceive

Inequities

Identify theBasis forEmployee

Perceptionsof Inequity

Identify theBasis forEmployee

Perceptionsof Inequity

EvaluateManagement

Policies and Practicesto Determine the

Validity of EmployeePerceptions

EvaluateManagement

Policies and Practicesto Determine the

Validity of EmployeePerceptions

Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to Address

Employee EquityConcerns

Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to Address

Employee EquityConcerns

Implement Changes andCommunicate

Them toEmployees

Implement Changes andCommunicate

Them toEmployees

Back

Page 18: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Components of ExpectancyTheory

Effort to Perform at a Certain Level

Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g.,Pay) with Valence V2

Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g.,Approval of Supervisor)

with Valence V1

Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g.,Esteem of Coworkers)

with Valence V3

Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g.,Promotion Opportunities)

with Valence V4

Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n(e.g., Job Security, Better WorkHours) with Valences V5 to Vn

First-OrderOutcome

(e.g., Performance)

EX

PE

CT

AN

CY

INS

TR

UM

EN

TA

LIT

IES

Page 19: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Linkage of Effort to a First-Order Outcome

EffortFirst-OrderOutcome

RolePerceptions

Ability

SituationalConstraints

Page 20: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Determinants of Effort to Perform

Effort toPerform

Valence ofPerformance

Expectancy

Page 21: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Implications of Expectancy Theory

Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation to perform.

Assess perceptions of each of these conditions. Identify gaps between employee and management

perceptions. Make sure you are giving employees what they

want. Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy

perceptions. Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality

perceptions. If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work

backward.

Page 22: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory

Identify DesiredLevel of Employee

Motivation

Identify DesiredLevel of Employee

Motivation

Provide Training,Direction, and

Opportunities toSucceed to Enhance

Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can Achieve

High Job Performance

Provide Training,Direction, and

Opportunities toSucceed to Enhance

Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can Achieve

High Job Performance

Promote Employee’sBelief that Job

Performance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies and

Practices

Promote Employee’sBelief that Job

Performance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies and

Practices

Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design to

Link Positively ValuedConsequences to Employee

Job Performance in an Equitable Manner

Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design to

Link Positively ValuedConsequences to Employee

Job Performance in an Equitable Manner

Promote ManagerialSupport to Ensure

That EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance

Promote ManagerialSupport to Ensure

That EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance

Back

Page 23: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

What is Leadership?

Leadership is the Leadership is the ability to influence ability to influence others toward the others toward the

achievement of achievement of goalsgoals

Page 24: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Changing Look of Leadership

Traits

Universal

One-Way Influence

Uniform

Leading Subordinates

Transactional

“Old Look”

Behaviors

Situational

Reciprocal Influence

Dyadic

Leading Everyone

Transformational

“New Look”

Page 25: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Emerging Perspectives on Leadership

While early leadership approaches emphasized the traits of successful leaders -- who they are -- newer approaches ask how successful leaders behave -- what they do.

Early approaches to leadership tended to take a universalistic perspective, asking, “What works?” Newer approaches, recognizing that characteristics of the situation, such as followers’ needs and skills and various aspects of the task must be considered, ask, “What works when?”

Early approaches considered primarily one-way influence, how a leader influences followers. Newer approaches recognize that the influence process is reciprocal -- just as leaders are influencing followers, followers are influencing leaders.

Page 26: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Emerging Perspectives on Leadership (Cont)

While early approaches tended to assume that leaders treat their various followers in similar ways, more recent approaches recognize that leaders may -- for good or bad reasons -- treat different followers differently.

While leadership approaches initially focused on the relationship of leaders to their subordinates, modern views are more inclusive; the “others” whom leaders influence may sometimes be team members or even hierarchical superiors.

Most early approaches to leadership tended to consider how a leader might influence others through a series of transactions. Newer approaches look more broadly at how leaders take actions to transform followers and organizations.

Page 27: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Leader Traits

The earliest approach to the study of leadership was to try to identify characteristics, or traits, of successful leaders.

Literally thousands of studies have now explored leadership traits.

Of the traits, activity, intelligence, knowledge, dominance, and self-confidence are most often found to be linked to leader success.

Unfortunately, most reviews of studies relating to leadership traits have concluded that the trait approach has not been fruitful.

Very few traits show up consistently across studies. Also, since traits are relatively stable, it is unlikely that

leaders can develop them through training. So, attention has shifted from what successful leaders are to

what they do.

Page 28: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Autocratic and Democratic Styles

Autocratic Democratic

Degree of Participation

Lower Higher

Page 29: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Autocratic and Democratic Styles

Autocratic leaders make decisions themselves, without inputs from subordinates. Democratic leaders let subordinates participate in decision making.

Democratic style is consistently linked to higher levels of subordinate satisfaction.

Democratic style is usually positively, but weakly, related to productivity.

This weak link of democratic style to performance may be because many factors determine whether a democratic style is appropriate, including the nature of the tasks and the characteristics of subordinates.

Page 30: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Autocratic and Democratic Styles(Continued) When tasks are simple and repetitive, participation has

little effect, because “there is little to participate about.” When subordinates are intelligent and desire

independence, participation is especially important. Participation is empowering and satisfying, and it

generates enthusiasm for the decisions that are reached. Participation takes time, and people sometimes don’t

like to participate, especially if they care little about the decision.

Since leaders may give more productive followers more responsibility, the relationship between democratic style and performance could be due to the impact of performance on style rather than vice versa.

Page 31: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Consideration and Initiating Structure

Effective leaders show concern for both the task and the people they leader. Without concern for task, the job won’t get done. Without concern for people, satisfaction, motivation, and team spirit will suffer and performance will ultimately suffer.

Two sets of leader behaviors -- consideration and initiating structure -- address these concerns.

Consideration and initiating structure are not conflicting sets of behaviors. Skillful leaders should be able to exhibit both sets of behaviors, and they should use those behaviors as needed.

Page 32: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Consideration and Initiating Structure(Continued) Consideration is behavior that shows friendship,

mutual trust, respect, and warmth. Considerate leaders are friendly and approachable, look out for the personal welfare of team members, back up the members in their actions, and find time to listen to them.

Initiating structure is behavior that helps clarify the task and get the job done. Initiating leaders provide definite standards of performance, set goals, organize work, emphasize meeting deadlines, and coordinate the work of team members.

Page 33: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Sample Items To Measure Considerationand Initiating Structure

Consideration

Treats all work unit members as his or her equal

Is friendly and approachable Does little things to make

work pleasant Puts suggestions made by

the work unit into operation Looks out for personal

welfare of work unit members

Initiating Structure

Lets work unit members know what is expected of them

Schedules the work to be done

Encourages the use of uniform procedures

Assigns work unit members to particular tasks

Makes his or her attitudes clear to the group

Page 34: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Path-Goal Theory

The theory is called path-goal because its major concern is how the leader influences the followers’ perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to goal attainment.

The theory suggests that a leader’s behavior is motivating or satisfying to the degree that the behavior increases follower goal attainment and clarifies the paths to these goals.

Page 35: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Some Contingency Factors in the Path-Goal Theory

Some task contingency variables: degree of structure degree to which the task is intrinsically

satisfying degree to which the task provides feedback

concerning accomplishment Some follower contingency variables:

need for independence ability, experience, training “professional” orientation

Page 36: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Elements of Path-Goal Theory

Leader Behaviors:• Directive• Supportive• Participative• Achievement- Oriented

• Clarification of Paths to Goals• Increased Goal Attainment

SubordinateResponses:• Motivation• Performance• Satisfaction

SubordinateCharacteristics

TaskCharacteristics

Page 37: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Bottom Line:Applying Path-Goal Theory

Assess theSituation

Assess theSituation

Identify Taskand Employee

Needs

Identify Taskand Employee

Needs

MatchAppropriate

LeaderBehavior to the

Situation

MatchAppropriate

LeaderBehavior to the

Situation

If This Does NotWork, Train the

Leader to ChangeHis/HerBehavior

If This Does NotWork, Train the

Leader to ChangeHis/HerBehavior

ChangeLeader

Behavior If ItDoes Not Match

the Situation

ChangeLeader

Behavior If ItDoes Not Match

the Situation

If This Does NotWork, Replace

the Leader

If This Does NotWork, Replace

the Leader

Page 38: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

According to leader-member exchange theory, leaders establish a one-on-one relationship with each follower. These relationships vary in terms of the quality of the exchange.

Some followers -- members of the in-group -- have a high-quality relationship with the leader, characterized by mutual trust, liking, and respect. They enjoy the confidence of the leader, are given interesting and challenging assignments, and in turn they work hard, are loyal, and support the leader.

Other followers -- the out-group -- have a lower quality relationship with the leader. The leader tends to see them as lacking motivation or competence or loyalty, interacts with them less, and offers them fewer chances to demonstrate their capabilities.

Out-group members may “live down” to the leader’s expectations, carrying out the tasks defined in their formal job descriptions and facing no real expectations of loyalty, creativity, or high performance.

Page 39: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Cont.)

Followers may sometimes find themselves as members of out-groups due less to their abilities and potential than to favoritism, stereotypes, and personal conflicts.

In an ideal world there would be no in-groups and out-groups. In the real world, in-groups and out-groups are common and perhaps cannot be avoided.

Leaders must do all they can to ensure that in-group membership is based on ability and motivation rather than favoritism and prejudice.

They must also ensure that followers can move between the groups, having access to in-group membership when it is earned and falling from such status when it is no longer justified.

The most recent focus of leader-member exchange theory is on the process of leadership making, which develops over time in three phases.

Page 40: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

SS Subordinate

Leader-Member Exchange Model

Out-Group

SSSS

SS

SS

SSSS

SS

SS SSIn-Group

Leader

LeaderSA

SA

SBSB

SCSC

SESE

SDSD

Page 41: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Bottom Line: Applying theLeader-Member Exchange Model

List theEmployees in

Your WorkUnit

List theEmployees in

Your WorkUnit

Identify EmployeesWho You Feel

Are Part ofthe “In-Group”

Identify EmployeesWho You Feel

Are Part ofthe “In-Group”

Identify LeadersWho You Feel

Are Part ofthe “Out-Group”

Identify LeadersWho You Feel

Are Part ofthe “Out-Group”

Develop LeadershipStrategies for Moving

Employees fromthe “Out-Group”

to the “In-Group”

Develop LeadershipStrategies for Moving

Employees fromthe “Out-Group”

to the “In-Group”

ImplementLeadershipStrategies

ImplementLeadershipStrategies

Page 42: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Types of Leadership

Transactional Leadership: Leadership based on transactions or exchanges -- the promise, and provision, of rewards for good performance and threats or discipline for poor performance.

Transformational Leadership: Leadership which transforms followers and organizations by: broadening and elevating the interests of

employees generating awareness and acceptance of the

purposes and missions of the group stirring employees to look beyond their own self

interest for the good of the group

Page 43: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Elements of Transformational Leadership

TRANSFORMATIONALLEADERSHIP

ATTRIBUTEDCHARISMA

INDIVIDUALIZEDCONSIDERATION

IDEALIZEDINFLUENCE

INSPIRATIONALLEADERSHIP

INTELLECTUALSTIMULATION

Page 44: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Transformational Leader Behaviors Attributed charisma. Charisma is a Greek word meaning

“Divinely inspired gift.” Leaders are seen as charismatic when they display a sense of power and confidence, remain calm during crisis situations, and provide reassurance that obstacles can be overcome.

Idealized influence. Leaders display idealized influence when they talk about their important values and beliefs; consider the moral and ethical consequences of their decisions; display conviction in their ideals, beliefs, and values; and model values in their actions.

Intellectual stimulation. Intellectually stimulating leaders help followers recognize problems and find ways to solve them. They encourage followers to challenge the status quo. They champion change and foster creative deviance.

Page 45: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Transformational Leader Behaviors(Continued)

Inspirational leadership. Inspirational leaders give followers hope, energizing them to pursue a vision. They envision exciting new possibilities, talk optimistically about the future, express confidence that goals can be met, and articulate a compelling vision of the future.

Individualized consideration. Transformational leaders show personal interest and concern in their individual followers, and they promote their followers’ self-development. They coach their followers, serve as their mentors, and focus them on developing their strengths.

Page 46: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Skills Associated with Transformational Leadership

TRANSFORMATIONALLEADERSHIP

ANTICIPATORYSKILLS

VISIONINGSKILLS

SELF-UNDERSTANDING

SKILLS

EMPOWERMENTSKILLS

VALUE-CONGRUENCE

SKILLS

Page 47: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

The Language of Leadership

Transformational leaders must be able to inspire; communicate their vision, ideals and beliefs; provide compelling reassurance; and challenge followers to think in new ways.

To do all this, transformational leaders must be masters of communication; they must “speak the language of leadership.”

Two aspects of the language of leadership -- framing and rhetorical crafting -- are crucial.

Page 48: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Reflections on Leadership Pay careful attention to your formal or informal

leadership roles. Successful leaders draw on a variety of power bases.

Referent power has the broadest range, and heavy reliance on coercive power can be dangerous. Control over resources, information, and the problem-solving process all serve to increase power.

A leader must show concern for both task accomplishment and fulfillment of subordinate needs.

The same style or behavior may not work in every situation. In deciding how to behave, consider the maturity and needs of your subordinates, the structure and other characteristics of the task, and the nature of the organization.

Page 49: Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation

Reflections on Leadership (Cont.)

Leadership can be frustrating. Structured tasks, separation of superiors and subordinates, bureaucratic constraints, and other factors can sometimes handcuff the leader. Try to be aware of, and deal with, leadership substitutes and neutralizers.

As a leader you should not accept situations as fixed. You may be able to change task structure, your power, relations with subordinates, and other dimensions.

The models reviewed in this chapter show that leader sensitivity, critical thinking, and flexibility are crucial.

Remember that vision and inspiration are important. Don’t ignore transformational aspects of the leadership role.