news in the world - computer science at rpixial/teaching/2014f/slides/8-hard-to... ·...
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• Scottish independence referendum – 45% yes vs 55% no
• The YouGov survey predicts Scots have rejected independence by a margin of 54% to 46% – based on the responses of 1,828 people after they voted,
as well as 800 people who had already cast their ballots – Peter Kellner of YouGov said: "At risk of looking utterly
ridiculous in a few hours time, I would say it's a 99% chance of a No victory.”
• Where does this 99% come from? – we will learn in the hypothesis testing class
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News in the world
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Last class: combinatorial voting
Computational efficiency Expressiveness
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Manipulation under plurality rule (ties are broken in favor of )
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Plurality rule Alice
Bob
Carol
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Strategic behavior (of the agents) • Manipulation: an agent (manipulator) casts a
vote that does not represent her true preferences, to make herself better off
• A voting rule is strategy-proof if there is never a (beneficial) manipulation under this rule – truthful direct revelation mechanism
• Is strategy-proofness compatible with other axioms?
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Any strategy-proof voting rule?
• No reasonable voting rule is strategyproof • Gibbard-Satterthwaite Theorem [Gibbard Econometrica-73, Satterthwaite
JET-75]: When there are at least three alternatives, no voting rules except dictatorships satisfy – non-imposition: every alternative wins for some profile – unrestricted domain: voters can use any linear order as their
votes – strategy-proofness
• Axiomatic characterization for dictatorships! • Revelation principle: among all voting rules that satisfy non-
imposition and unrestricted domain, only dictatorships can be implemented w.r.t. dominant strategy
• Randomized version [Gibbard Econometrica-77]
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• Relax non-dictatorship: use a dictatorship
• Restrict the number of alternatives to 2
• Relax unrestricted domain: mainly pursued by economists – Single-peaked preferences:
– Range voting: A voter submit any natural number between 0 and 10 for each alternative
– Approval voting: A voter submit 0 or 1 for each alternative 6
A few ways out
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• Use a voting rule that is too complicated so that nobody can easily predict the winner – Dodgson – Kemeny – The randomized voting rule used in Venice Republic for
more than 500 years [Walsh&Xia AAMAS-12]
• We want a voting rule where – Winner determination is easy – Manipulation is hard
• The hard-to-manipulate axiom: manipulation under the given voting rule is NP-hard
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Computational thinking
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Overview Manipulation is inevitable (Gibbard-Satterthwaite Theorem)
Yes
No
Limited information Limited communication
Can we use computational complexity as a barrier?
Is it a strong barrier?
Other barriers?
May lead to very undesirable outcomes
Seems not very often
Why prevent manipulation?
How often?
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If it is computationally too hard for a manipulator to compute a manipulation, she is best off voting truthfully
– Similar as in cryptography
For which common voting rules manipulation is computationally hard?
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Manipulation: A computational complexity perspective
NP- Hard
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Unweighted coalitional manipulation (UCM) problem
• Given – The voting rule r – The non-manipulators’ profile PNM
– The number of manipulators n’
– The alternative c preferred by the manipulators
• We are asked whether or not there exists a profile PM (of the manipulators) such that c is the winner of PNM∪PM under r
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The stunningly big table for UCM
#manipulators One manipulator At least two
Copeland P [BTT SCW-89b] NPC [FHS AAMAS-08,10]
STV NPC [BO SCW-91] NPC [BO SCW-91]
Veto P [ZPR AIJ-09] P [ZPR AIJ-09]
Plurality with runoff P [ZPR AIJ-09] P [ZPR AIJ-09]
Cup P [CSL JACM-07] P [CSL JACM-07]
Borda P [BTT SCW-89b] NPC [DKN+ AAAI-11] [BNW IJCAI-11]
Maximin P [BTT SCW-89b] NPC [XZP+ IJCAI-09]
Ranked pairs NPC [XZP+ IJCAI-09] NPC [XZP+ IJCAI-09]
Bucklin P [XZP+ IJCAI-09] P [XZP+ IJCAI-09]
Nanson’s rule NPC [NWX AAA-11] NPC [NWX AAA-11]
Baldwin’s rule NPC [NWX AAA-11] NPC [NWX AAA-11]
Nanson & Baldwin in the news
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• For some common voting rules, computational complexity provides some protection against manipulation
• Is computational complexity a strong barrier? – NP-hardness is a worst-case concept
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What can we conclude?
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Probably NOT a strong barrier
1. Frequency of manipulability
2. Easiness of Approximation
3. Quantitative G-S
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• Non-manipulators’ votes are drawn i.i.d. – E.g. i.i.d. uniformly over all linear orders (the
impartial culture assumption)
• How often can the manipulators make c win? – Specific voting rules [Peleg T&D-79, Baharad&Neeman
RED-02, Slinko T&D-02, Slinko MSS-04, Procaccia and Rosenschein AAMAS-07]
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A first angle: frequency of manipulability
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• Theorem. For any generalized scoring rule – Including many common voting rules
• Computational complexity is not a strong barrier against manipulation – UCM as a decision problem is easy to compute in most
cases – The case of Θ(√n) has been studied experimentally in
[Walsh IJCAI-09] 15
A general result [Xia&Conitzer EC-08a]
# manipulators All-powerful
No power Θ(√n)
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• Unweighted coalitional optimization (UCO): compute the smallest number of manipulators that can make c win – A greedy algorithm has additive error no more
than 1 for Borda [Zuckerman, Procaccia, &Rosenschein AIJ-09]
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A second angle: approximation
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• A polynomial-time approximation algorithm that works for all positional scoring rules – Additive error is no more than m-2 – Based on a new connection between UCO for
positional scoring rules and a class of scheduling problems
• Computational complexity is not a strong barrier against manipulation – The cost of successful manipulation can be
easily approximated (for positional scoring rules) 17
An approximation algorithm for positional scoring rules[Xia,Conitzer,& Procaccia EC-10]
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The scheduling problems Q|pmtn|Cmax
• m* parallel uniform machines M1,…,Mm*
– Machine i’s speed is si (the amount of work done in unit time)
• n* jobs J1,…,Jn*
• preemption: jobs are allowed to be interrupted (and resume later maybe on another machine)
• We are asked to compute the minimum makespan – the minimum time to complete all jobs
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s2=s1-s3
s3=s1-s4
p1 p
p2
p3
Thinking about UCOpos
• Let p,p1,…,pm-1 be the total points that c,c1,…,cm-1 obtain in the non-manipulators’ profile
p c
c1
c3
c2
∨
∨
∨
PNM V1 = c
c1
c2
c3
p1 -p p1 –p-(s1-s2)
p p2 -p p2 –p-(s1-s4)
p p3 -p p3 –p-(s1-s3)
s1-s3
s1-s4
s1-s2
∪{V1=[c>c1>c2>c3]}
s1=s1-s2 (J1)
(J2)
(J3)
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The approximation algorithm
Original UCO Scheduling
problem
Solution to the scheduling problem
Solution to the UCO
[Gonzalez&Sahni JACM 78]
Rounding
No more than OPT+m-2
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• Manipulation of positional scoring rules = scheduling (preemptions at integer time points) – Borda manipulation corresponds to scheduling
where the machines speeds are m-1, m-2, …, 0 • NP-hard [Yu, Hoogeveen, & Lenstra J.Scheduling 2004]
– UCM for Borda is NP-C for two manipulators • [Davies et al. AAAI-11 best paper]
• [Betzler, Niedermeier, & Woeginger IJCAI-11 best paper]
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Complexity of UCM for Borda
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• G-S theorem: for any reasonable voting rule there exists a manipulation
• Quantitative G-S: for any voting rule that is “far away” from dictatorships, the number of manipulable situations is non-negligible – First work: 3 alternatives, neutral rule [Friedgut,
Kalai, &Nisan FOCS-08] – Extensions: [Dobzinski&Procaccia WINE-08, Xia&Conitzer
EC-08b, Isaksson,Kindler,&Mossel FOCS-10]
– Finally proved: [Mossel&Racz STOC-12] 22
A third angle: quantitative G-S
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• The first attempt seems to fail
• Can we obtain positive results for a restricted setting? – The manipulators has complete information
about the non-manipulators’ votes
– The manipulators can perfectly discuss their strategies
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Next steps
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• Limiting the manipulator’s information can make dominating manipulation computationally harder, or even impossible [Conitzer,Walsh,&Xia AAAI-11]
• Bayesian information [Lu et al. UAI-12] 24
Limited information
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• The leader-follower model – The leader broadcast a vote W, and the potential
followers decide whether to cast W or not • The leader and followers have the same preferences
– Safe manipulation [Slinko&White COMSOC-08]: a vote W that
• No matter how many followers there are, the leader/potential followers are not worse off
• Sometimes they are better off
– Complexity: [Hazon&Elkind SAGT-10, Ianovski et al. IJCAI-11] 25
Limited communication among manipulators
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Overview Manipulation is inevitable
(Gibbard-Satterthwaite Theorem)
Yes
No
Limited information Limited communication
Can we use computational complexity as a barrier?
Is it a strong barrier?
Other barriers?
May lead to very undesirable outcomes
Seems not very often
Why prevent manipulation?
How often?
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• How to predict the outcome? – Game theory
• How to evaluate the outcome? • Price of anarchy [Koutsoupias&Papadimitriou STACS-99]
–
– Not very applicable in the social choice setting • Equilibrium selection problem • Social welfare is not well defined • Use best-response game to select an equilibrium and use
scores as social welfare [Brânzei et al. AAAI-13] 27
Research questions
Worst welfare when agents are fully strategic Optimal welfare when agents are truthful
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Simultaneous-move voting games
• Players: Voters 1,…,n
• Strategies / reports: Linear orders over alternatives
• Preferences: Linear orders over alternatives
• Rule: r(P’), where P’ is the reported profile
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Equilibrium selection problem
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Plurality rule
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Alice
Bob
Carol
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Stackelberg voting games [Xia&Conitzer AAAI-10]
• Voters vote sequentially and strategically – voter 1 → voter 2 → voter 3 → … → voter n – any terminal state is associated with the winner under rule r
• Called a Stackelberg voting game – Unique winner in SPNE (not unique SPNE)
– Similar setting in [Desmedt&Elkind EC-10]
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• Procedure control by – {adding, deleting} × {voters, alternatives} – partitioning voters/alternatives – introducing clones of alternatives – changing the agenda of voting – [Bartholdi, Tovey, &Trick MCM-92, Tideman SCW-07, Conitzer,Lang,&Xia
IJCAI-09]
• Bribery [Faliszewski, Hemaspaandra, &Hemaspaandra JAIR-09] • See [Faliszewski, Hemaspaandra, &Hemaspaandra CACM-10] for a
survey on their computational complexity • See [Xia Axriv-12] for a framework for studying many of
these for generalized scoring rules 31
Other types of strategic behavior (of the chairperson)
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Next class: statistical approaches
GOAL1: democracy GOAL2: truth
Axiomatic approaches Statistical approaches