newford bronze age cremation pyre and burnt mound

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N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Final Report on archaeological investigations at Site E2437, a Bronze Age cremation pyre and burnt mound in the townland of Newford, Co. Galway Date: March 2008 Client: Galway County Council Project code: NGB05 By: Brendon Wilkins Ministerial Direction no.: A024/2 Excavation no.: E2437 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 14810 – 14840 & 15120 ‐ 15140 NGR: 149078/226736 (Area A) & 149255/226484 (Area B)

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CONTENTS PAGE 1 Summary 4 2 Introduction 5 3 Site description and location 5 4 Aims and methodology 5 5 Results 6 Area A 6 Area B 10 Site Natural Soil Profile 11 6 Discussion Area A 12 Area B 15 7 Archive 16 List of Tables Table 1. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Leinster showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams Table 2. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Carlow Bypass project, also excavated by Headland Archaeology Ltd. showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams Table 3. Pyre site from Newford (excluding pyre feature) showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams

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List of Figures Figure 1 Site location Figure 2 Register of Monuments and Places extract Figure 3 Area A: Overall site plan Figure 4 Area A: Plan of pyre (1004) Figure 5 Area A: Sections of pyre (1004) Figure 6 Area A: Plan & section of post‐hole (1058) Figure 7 Area A: South facing section of marker post‐hole (1103) Figure 8 Area B: Overall site plan Figure 9 Area B: Plan & section of trough (2005) Figure 10 Area A: Prehistoric pottery List of Plates Plate 1 Area A: Working shot with (1005) in foreground and (1004) behind Plate 2 Area A: Post‐excavation with (1004) to the left and (1005) on the right Plate 3 Area A: South‐facing section of post‐hole (1018) Plate 4 Area A: North‐west facing section of post‐hole (1024) Plate 5 Area A: South‐east facing section of post‐hole (1033) Plate 6 Area A: East‐facing section of post‐hole (1058) Plate 7 Area A: South‐facing section of marker post‐hole (1103) Plate 8 Area A: South‐facing section of marker post‐hole (1137) Plate 9 Area A: Post‐excavation of marker post‐hole (1103) Plate 10 Area A: Post‐excavation of marker post‐hole (1137) Plate 11 Area A: North‐facing section of pyre (1004) Plate 12 Area A: East‐facing section of pyre (1004) Plate 13 Area A: Detail of pyre (1004) showing cremated bone in (1104) Plate 14 Area A: Post‐excavation of pyre (1004) Plate 15 Area A: South‐east facing section of pit (1005) Plate 16 Area A: North‐east facing section of pit (1111) Plate 17 Area B: West‐facing section of trough (2005) Plate 18 Area B: Pre‐excavation of burnt mound (2004) Appendices Appendix 1 Context register Appendix 2 Sample register Appendix 3 Finds register Appendix 4 Photograph register Appendix 5 Drawing register Appendix 6 Lithics report by Torben Bjarke Ballin Appendix 7 Faunal remains report by Auli Tourunen Appendix 8 Soil sample assessment by Susan Lyons Appendix 9 Human remains report by Carmelita Troy Appendix 10 Pottery report by Eoin Grogan and Helen Roche Appendix 10 Site matrix

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1 Summary This report presents the results of archaeological investigations carried out on behalf of Galway County Council as part of Contract 2 archaeological investigations prior to the commencement of construction on the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme. The work was undertaken under ministerial direction number A024/2, in the townland of Newford, Co. Galway. The Minister for the Environment, Heritage & Local Government, following consultation with the National Museum of Ireland, directed that Brendon Wilkins of Headland Archaeology Ltd should proceed with Phase II full manual investigation. Contract 2 pre‐construction testing under ministerial direction number A024/2 on this site in 2005 identified two separate areas of archaeological potential on the basis of negative cut features and associated in situ burning visible in the base of test trenches. Limited investigation of these features confirmed their status as archaeological, and these separate areas were subsequently designated Area A and Area B with recommendations for full excavation of all features to ascertain the character, significance and extent of archaeological deposits. Full archaeological investigation was conducted on this site in February 2006. This revealed a Bronze Age funerary pyre with possible cremation cemetery and associated structural and marker post‐holes in Area A. In Area B a Bronze Age burnt mound and associated trough were revealed.

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2 Introduction

Works are being carried out along the route of the proposed N6 Galway to East of Ballinasloe national road scheme, between the townlands of Doughiska in County Galway and Beagh in County Roscommon. The proposed road will consist of approximately 56 km of dual carriageway, a 7 km link road from Carrowkeel to Loughrea and approximately 23 km of side roads. There will be four grade‐separated junctions, 36 bridges and a toll plaza located at Cappataggle. The area of proposed archaeological investigations was divided into four contracts, based on four sectors of approximately equal extent. The work described here was undertaken under Archaeological Investigations Contract 2. Contract 2 covered a stretch of road development of approximately 13.2 km length of dual carriageway and 7km of single carriageway, and passed to the south of Athenry and Kiltullagh in a generally east‐west direction. The project was funded by the Irish Government and the European Union under the National Development Plan 2000‐2006. Headland Archaeology Ltd. was commissioned by Galway County Council to undertake the works. RPS compiled an Environmental Impact Survey of the route in 2005, and an aerial survey was also undertaken. A Geophysical survey was conducted by Archaeophysica in 2004. On the basis of findings from this work Contract 2 Investigations commenced in September 2005. 3 Site description and location Site E2437 was located approximately 1.5 km south‐west of Athenry. It was located within the lands previously occupied by Newford House (Ref: GA‐46‐M‐494267 in the National Inventory of Architectural Heritage). Area A was situated on a relatively flat, well drained elevated area of land surrounded by gently undulating farmland under permanent pasture. To the south was the Graigabbey/Lavally river becoming the Clarin river further west. Its position would have been visible from much of the surrounding undulating landscape. This combination of flat land and prominence in the landscape may have been highly significant if some of the excavated funerary features can also be interpreted as monumental features. Area B was situated within the valley of the river and excavation was complicated by a series of small springs. Area A was located at NGR 149078/226736 and Area B at NGR 149255/226484. They were between chainage 14790 and 15150. 4 Aims and methodology The objective of the work was to preserve by record any archaeological features or deposits in advance of the proposed road’s construction. Topsoil stripping of the site was conducted using a 360° tracked machine fitted with a 1.9 m wide ditching (toothless) bucket under archaeological supervision. A total area of 400 sq m was exposed in Area A and 600 sq m in Area B. The resulting surface was cleaned and all potential features investigated by hand. Archaeological contexts were recorded by photograph and on record sheets. Plans and sections were drawn at an appropriate scale. Registers are provided as appendices. Ordnance Datum levels and feature

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locations were recorded using Penmap and an EDM. Environmental samples were taken on any deposits suitable for analysis or dating. 5 Results A complex arrangement of features was excavated in Area A, interpreted as a late Bronze Age funerary site with associated post‐holes and a pyre. A burnt mound was excavated in Area B adjacent to the fast‐flowing Graigabbey/Lavally River. An exceptionally large trough was encountered with a shallow layer of upcast burnt stone, but no other associated features were recorded. Both areas are described below in more detail. AREA A The deposit sequence was reasonably homogenous across the entire area with a slight variation recorded in the unmodified natural subsoil. The site was covered by a well humidified mid brown topsoil extending to an average depth of 0.3 m. This deposit overlay a glacially derived till consisting of fine mid yellow clay and a band of white sandy clay which extended across the site in a north‐west/south‐east direction. The total number of recorded features in Area A amounted to 73 including the pyre, five pits (four with burnt bone), 62 post‐holes/stake holes (10 of which contained burnt bone). There were also two exceptionally large post‐holes and three natural features. In addition to human bone recovered from cremation pits and post‐holes, a small piece of shell ‐tempered prehistoric pottery was found as well as six pieces of struck chert. The majority of the features on the site were discrete and few intercutting relationships could be discerned to assist in site phasing. A large number of radiocarbon dating estimates were returned from features but these all broadly fell within the same later Bronze Age date range and could not be used to phase the site at a finer resolution. As a result of this lack of stratigraphic interpretation features were grouped by similarity and proximity and are discussed as ‘clusters’ below, based on the assumption that this also reflects discrete areas of activity. Radiocarbon dating estimations indicate that all features fell broadly within the same date range, although the pyre appeared to be the latest, rather than the earliest feature on the site. This confirmed the pyre as a short‐lived feature represented by a single event, where as the post‐holes/cremation pits were a complex of features with no structural integrity in plan, but a structured nature to their construction and deposition nonetheless. The first cluster was represented by post‐holes and the second by 14 pits/post‐holes containing very small quantities of burnt bone (burnt bone was observed in one other pit but not in sufficient quantities to sample). The third cluster was represented by two extremely large marker posts, and the fourth feature cluster identified was a pyre. A final cluster of undated and probably natural features was also identified. The pyre was only used once, and cremated human bone and material from the collapsed superstructure were left in situ in a subsoil pit below, possibly constructed to aid updraft. The pyre returned second sigma date ranges of (UB‐7484) 729 ± 177 cal BC and (UB‐7406) 669 ± 129 cal BC, and second sigma date ranges from cremation pits of

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(UB‐7399) 1054 ± 133 cal BC, (UB‐7401) 1114 ± 196 cal BC and (UB‐7402) 1010 ± 102 cal BC. The pyre was a short‐lived feature and represented a single event. Post‐holes Sixty‐two post‐/ stake‐holes were located on site. These varied in size from 0.11 m to 0.75 m, although the widest of these had probably been disturbed, making the measurements misleading. The average diameter was 0.28 m, as was the average depth. Depth otherwise varied between 0.08 m to 0.5 m with one unusually deep post‐hole measuring 0.9 m (1172). The fills varied but were generally fine or silty and often had charcoal inclusions and burnt stone. Ten post‐hole features (1024), (1039), (1058), (1087), (1090), (1098) (1100), (1121), (1133) and (1161) all contained burnt bone, but not in large enough quantities to be clearly identified as definitely being human. Two post‐hole features (1039) and (1064) also contained small amounts of cereal grain, and feature (1100) contained carbonised hazelnut shell recovered during environmental processing. One piece of chert was found in post‐hole (1121), identified as a secondary indeterminate flake of black chert of which the platform edge had been trimmed (Ballin 2006). A single rim sherd of shell‐tempered ware pottery was recovered from post‐hole feature (1006). A radiocarbon date of (UB7399) 1187‐921 cal BC was also recovered from this context. Charcoal originating from oak in the fill of post‐hole (1058) was dated to (UB‐7401) 1114‐918 cal BC and a further sample recovered from post‐hole (1161) dated to (UB‐7403) 1121‐925 cal BC. A second sigma radiocarbon date of (UB‐7400) 1132‐971 cal BC for was also obtained for post‐hole feature (1009). A southwest/northeast orientation of post‐holes to the south of the site suggested a possible structure comprising post‐hole features (1021), (1018), (1021), (1030) and (1035). A second structure may have been located in the centre of the site consisting of post‐hole features (1062), (1064), (1085), (1092), (1096), (1105) and (1119). The dimensions of these post‐holes and the composition of all fills are detailed in Appendix 1. Marker posts Two exceptionally large post‐holes were prominent on the site, both in excess of 1.5 m in diameter and over 1 metre in depth. The posts seemed to have been removed in antiquity and a shallow burnt deposit containing animal bone placed in the void. Sub‐circular post‐hole feature (1103) had a gradual break of slope at the top and a flat base. It was 1.7 m wide, 1.6 m deep and contained a packing deposit (1110) with frequent small and medium sized stones and silty sand. A secondary fill (1109) had formed above this and a further deposit (1108) had formed in the space created by the removal of an exceptionally large post and comprised a mixed deposit of packing stones and silt. The final deposit was (1107) which contained a piece of animal bone. Sub‐oval post‐hole feature (1137) was 1.8 m wide and 1.33 m deep and it contained four separate fills. The primary deposit (1142) consisted of small and large stones with some mid grey‐brown sand intended to act as packing material. A brown‐black fine silt (1141) appeared to have settled into the void impression of a removed post. A further deposit (1140) was between 0.08 and 0.15 m deep and associated with the removal of this post was a grey black silt with frequent small stone inclusions. A fine grey‐black silt deposit (1139) was 0.12 m deep and appeared to be a deliberately placed deposit once the main post had been removed.

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Pits Three pits were located within Area A, including large pit feature (1050) which contained burnt bone, 1.2 m long east‐west, 0.6 m wide and between 0.08 and 0.28 m deep. It was filled by a, black charcoal rich deposit (1051) comprising loose silty sand which contained pieces of charcoal, three burnt stones, and several pieces of a red burnt material, possibly clay or daub, and a very small fragment of burnt bone that disintegrated on recovery. An oval shallow feature (1068) was no more than 0.15 m deep but 3.5 m long and 2 m wide. It was filled by a mid brown sandy silt deposit (1068) with occasional small stone inclusions and extended to a depth of 0.15 m. The secondary deposit (1069) was dark brown‐black charcoal rich sandy silt. It contained pieces of charcoal, an animal tooth and burnt bone. A radiocarbon date recovered from this context produced a two sigma range at (UB‐7402) 1089‐908 cal BC. A shallow pit feature (1177) was identified to the north of pit large pit feature (1005). It was 1 m long, 0.75 m wide and no more than 0.80 m deep. It contained a black charcoal deposit (1180) with no inclusions, and a red‐black, loose silty sand (1179) no more than 0.4 m deep containing some charcoal, occasional burnt stones and bone. Pyre A large sub‐rectangular pyre pit (1004) was located within the centre of the site, dug into the yellow sand natural (1003). The pyre had slightly irregular vertical sides and a flat but slightly irregular base sloping towards the south‐west. It was 2.6 m in length NW‐SE, 2 m in width and 0.75 m deep. An area of iron pan and spilling of the fill was located to the west and the iron pan was also incorporated throughout the fills. It is likely to have formed after the abandonment and filling of the feature although it may explain invisible changes in the contexts. The pyre truncated a post‐hole, (1131) that may have marked the location of the intended pyre. A dark grey silty sand of loose compaction with occasional stones (1155) was the uppermost deposit of the pyre. It was a maximum of 0.13m thick and extended approximately 2m by 2.1m in width. The main fill (1156) contained much iron panning and a grey to mid brown or dark grey colour depending on its position in relation to the iron panning; the grey‐brown colour was immediately related to the streaks of iron pan. It was a silty sand and varied from being of loose to moderate compactions. It contained frequent stones particularly towards the base and occasional burnt bone close to the cremation deposit (1104) but also occasional animal bone throughout. It was 0.45 m to 0.6 m thick. The faunal remains were mostly unidentifiable but did contain pig tibia, red deer antler and sheep or goat teeth, all of which are consistent with recovery from cremation deposits (Tourunen 2007). Cremated bone from deposit (1156) produced a date range at two sigma of (UB‐7406) 694‐540 cal BC. A deposit observed to contain cremated bone (1104) was a lens within deposit (1156). It was a dark black‐grey silty sand of loose compaction with frequent burnt bone concentrated within an area to the eastern edge of the pyre and was 0.04 m to 0.17 m thick. Cremated bone from this lens was radiocarbon dated to (UB‐7484) 814‐748 cal BC.

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The lower fill of the pyre was a mid grey silty sand of loose compaction (1157) and contained frequent charcoal and occasional burnt bone. It was a maximum of 0.1m thick and may be the result of burning in situ due to the frequent charcoal. The faunal remains were unidentifiable (Tourunen 2007). This fill also contained metallic material identified during environmental processing but its origin could not be determined (Lyons 2007). Hollows within the base of the pyre were filled by mid brown silty sand (1158) of loose compaction with frequent charcoal. It was 0.05 m to 0.14 m thick and was very similar to (1157), likely to formed as a direct result of burning. It contained carbonised hazelnut shell recovered from the environmental processing (Lyons 2007). This fill was also concentrated around the area where the post‐hole (1131) was truncated by the pyre. The edge of the pyre was lined by burnt soil (1159). It was a light red to brown silt of moderate compaction with frequent charcoal. It was 0.01 m to 0.02 m thick but in some places faded out. It was clearly burning in situ but may have been ‘cleaned out’ in some areas. A further fill of light grey‐brown silty sand of loose compaction (1160) was associated with the post‐hole (1131). It was 0.09 m thick and could simply be disturbed natural affected by leaching from the pyre fills. To the west of the pyre was a white grey silty sand (1181). It was 0.04 m to 0.13 m thick and was within the iron panning to the west of pyre. It was possibly the result of chemical processes connected to the iron panning or burning within the pyre. An oval post‐hole (1172) was associated with the iron panning to the west of the pyre with near vertical sides and a concave base. It was 0.12 m by 0.11 m in width and 0.09 m deep filled by mid grey silty sand (1173) with very occasional charcoal. A post hole (1131) was truncated by the pyre to the north‐western end of the pyre and was partially preserved in its full depth at the edge of it. It was sub‐circular with near vertical sides and a concave base. It was approximately 0.45 m in diameter and 0.47 m deep with the majority of the post‐hole survived to 0.18 m in depth below the base of the pyre. The single fill of post‐hole (1131) was a dark yellow to light brown silty sand (1132) with occasional charcoal flecks. Natural features An irregularly shaped pit feature (1005) was 2 m wide and 4 m long. The sides and base were irregular due to bioturbation, probably a result of burrowing animals. This feature contained seven fills (listed sequentially from (1143) to (1149)), of which the uppermost was a mid yellow‐brown silty sand 0.2 m thick. It contained some oyster shell, anthracite and burnt animal bone. None of the fills contained any finds or charcoal. All details regarding dimensions and compaction of fills are listed in Appendix 1. A sub‐circular pit (1164) also truncated pit (1005). It had sharp breaks of slope at the surface, gradual sides and a concave base. It was 1.7 m in diameter and 0.5 m deep and contained mid yellow‐brown loose silty sand (1166) and (1165) with occasional small stones and some finds of chert. A possible tree bole (1167) also truncated pit feature (1005). The pit had a vertical side and a concave base and had two fills. The basal fill (1169) contained one chert flake and upper fill and (1168) contained many pieces of charcoal but no evidence of burning in situ. A further three pits contained nothing of archaeological significance. Pit feature (1111) contained four deposits; (1118), (1117), (1116) and (1115), a dark brown black loose, charcoal rich material but no finds. Pit feature (1150) abutted pit feature (1005) and contained four deposits, namely (1154), (1153), (1152) and (1151). Pit feature (1176) was located on the north‐west side of natural feature (1005) and it

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contained fills (1174) and (1175). The dimensions and compositions of all these features and fills are listed in Appendix 1. AREA B Area B was located close to the Graigabbey/Lavally River on the western bank of a sweeping meandering curve. The site was set within a slight depression in the natural subsoil and was likely to have been severely truncated. Alluvial sediment (2001) comprised much of the deposit profile to a depth of 0.50 m with fine silty topsoil (2000) formed above this to a depth of 0.80 m. The natural grey clay (2002) contained a series of three small springs encountered during excavation of a trough (2005). A small burnt mound extending to a maximum depth of 0.3 m was excavated in this area. It was associated with a very deep trough but no other features were found. The dimensions were approximately 12 m NE/SW by 5 m NW/SE. The mound was oval in plan and comprised black silty gritty sand of loose compaction and 80% heat‐shattered stones. The burnt mound was excavated in quadrants to leave a cruciform baulk to aid recording. This revealed a trough in the south‐west quadrant which measured 4 m x 4 m and was 1.35 m deep. A small shallow pit (2017) filled with burnt mound material was excavated in the eastern corner of the excavation. Its function is unknown; no finds were recovered from this feature or the rest of the site. Burnt mound A small burnt mound (2004) extended to a maximum depth of 0.30 m, it was concentrated within a depression of the natural and it is likely that its height had been severely truncated. It had also been extended into a series of holes due to subsequent root activity making it up to 0.60 m deep occasionally. It was an oval shape in plan, approximately 12 m NE/SW by 5 m. The material of the burnt mound was a black silty gritty sand of loose compaction with frequent charcoal. It was comprised of about 80% burnt heat‐shattered stones. A trough (2005) was revealed in the SW quadrant. Trough The trough measured approximately 4 m in width by 4 m in length and was excavated to a depth of 1.35 m. It was sub‐rectangular in plan although the south‐western corner bulged outwards and the north‐west corner was slightly irregular. At least three fast‐flowing springs fed a continual supply of water to the trough once the fill had been excavated to a depth of about 1 m. The south‐western portion had near vertical sides with a stepped north‐western corner and a boulder may have been used to aid access. The basal fill of the trough (2006) may have functioned as a form of clay lining. It was present in the base of the trough and extended up the sides. It included two pieces of burnt animal bone identified as large mammal vertebrae, one of which possibly came from a red deer (Tourunen 2007). Large fragments of charcoal up to 0.03 m in size were localised around these animal bones. In other places this deposit was disturbed and mixed with the natural subsoil, which is likely to

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have been a result of natural springs in the base of the trough. A bright orange‐red gritty sand (2012) was above this deposit. It was 0.30 m deep and did not contain charcoal, the colour of the fill most likely a result of iron pan. A shallow white gritty sand layer (2013) was recorded above this. It contained no inclusions and may represent an abandonment of the trough with sediment accumulating as a result of spring action before the burnt mound material slumped into the trough. A burnt stone deposit filled the trough and was black silty gritty sand (2004) rich in charcoal with large amounts of burnt heat‐shattered stones. This represents a collapse of the burnt mound material into the trough rather than the final use of the trough. A radiocarbon date was recovered from a carbonised hazelnut shell, Corylus Avellana, and returned a date of (UB‐7404) 3630‐3380 cal BC. Above this deposit a compacted layer of grey red sand (2011) was identified with large concentrations of metallic material recovered from environmental sampling. This was interpreted as iron panning debris and this correlates with the on‐site interpretation of the context (Lyons 2007). A thin white gritty sand layer (2012) was above and had no finds or inclusions. Directly above this was a red silty gritty sand (2009) which contained plenty of heat affected stones. A white gritty sand layer (2008) overlay this layer, and the uppermost fill (2007) was similar. It was similar to the alluvial silts covering much of the lower parts of the site and probably accumulated in the depression remaining of the trough. Other features A small pit (2017) filled by burnt mound material was an outlying feature in the eastern part of the site, indicating that activity on the site was not just localised to one area. This would seem to suggest that the burnt mound once occupied a much larger area. A grey‐black silt of moderate compaction with frequent charcoal and 10% stones (2018) filled the pit. The purpose of the pit was not clear and it is likely that the fill slumped in from the burnt mound. The environmental sampling of this fill revealed metallic material likely to be iron panning debris (Lyons 2007). Site natural soil profile The topsoil extended to a depth of 0.20 m and was grey brown silty clay (1000). The subsoil was light grey brown sandy silt (1001) and extended to 0.46 m below the surface. The unmodified natural subsoil comprised a glacially derived grey, gravel subsoil layer (1002), with an additional band of yellow, sandy natural subsoil (1003) running west‐east across Area A (the variation may not have been noticeable from above the surface unless this also affected vegetation). Natural pit feature (1005) was located on the boundary of the two variations in natural and it is likely that this had an impact on the morphology of what was probably a water‐filled feature. On the basis of radiocarbon dating estimations, both the cremation cemetery and funerary pyre at Newford have been attributed to the final stages of the late Bronze Age or the ‘Urnfield period’. 6. Discussion Area A Prior to this period, mortuary archaeology in many parts of Europe was characterised by the deposition of individual skeletal remains in pits and cists, either below mounds of earth and

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stone or in flat cemeteries. Although the evidence is far from homogenous and regional trends proliferate, the general change in burial practice is considered to reflect changes in attitudes and belief as well as wider social and political changes relating to the role of the individual (Bruck 1995, 260). The rites associated with funerary practice gradually altered in emphasis from the mode and place of burial to the event of the funeral itself. This trend began in the middle Bronze Age, where objects once deposited as grave goods with the dead began to be deposited in watery locations as an alternative strategy of demonstrating status and control of wealth (Bradley 1990, 197). The complex arrangement of features excavated at Newford represented a pyre and a series of structural post‐holes, some of which contained burnt bone that may have been deliberately deposited as part of final burial rites. Pyre sites are rarely found adjacent to prehistoric cremation burials, and very few have been identified from Bronze Age Irish contexts in general (McKinley 1994b; Waddell 1990). Of the 73 recorded features relating to the cemetery phase, there were:

• five pits (four with burnt bone) • forty‐four post‐holes/stake‐holes (seven of which contained burnt bone) • eighteen post‐holes/stake holes with multiple fills (three of which contained burnt bone).

The small quantity of cremated bone recovered from 14 of these features amounted to just 3% of the overall cremated bone recovered from the site. If these deposits of bone were deliberate, they were likely to have been token burials, placed into pits or post‐holes. Alternatively, the miniscule quantities of bone recovered from post‐holes may have been a secondary deposition of wind blown burnt material from the later pyre, although the composition of charcoal‐rich primary fills argues against this interpretation. The small samples of human remains recovered from Newford may be a general factor of contemporary burial practice. The Irish funerary sequence is well represented in the early and middle Bronze Age, but formal burial sites from the late Bronze Age are far less common and difficult to identify (Cooney and Grogan 1999, 145). When these traditions came to an end the archaeological visibility of funerary remains diminished and other less detectable means of disposal were adopted, with the possibility that only a small number of the population were afforded formal burial. The known burials in the late Bronze Age were predominantly cremations, often representing only a token deposit of cremated bone and pyre debris placed into a small pit. The lack of material remains could indicate that portions of the cremated bone were used in an extended ceremonial mortuary ritual with only a small quantity finally placed in the grave (Waddell 2000, 161). While this can account for the composition of charcoal rich fills from all bone bearing post‐holes, deposits that were potentially derived from pyre debris, the lack of burnt bone compared with similarly dated cemeteries remains to be explained. The tables below contrast amounts of burnt bone recovered from similarly dated cremation cemeteries with quantities recovered from Newford.

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Site No Burials MNI Average Burial Weight (g) Brownstown, Co. Kildare 2 2 1375 Graney West, Co. Kildare 1 1 1202 Oldtown, Co. Kildare 1 1 408 Strawhall, Co. Carlow 3 3 1088 Edmonstown, Co. Dublin 13 16 392 Keenogue, Co. Meath 5 5 438

Total 24 28 553

Table 1. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Leinster showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams

Site No Burials MNI Average Burial Weight (g)Ballyhade, Co. Kildare 5 5 360 Busherstown (4.17b), Co. Carlow 6 4 181 Busherstown (4.18), Co. Carlow 1 1 691 Moyle Big, Co. Carlow 2 2 345 Ballybannon, Co. Carlow 7 5 150 Ballybar Lower (4.56), Co. Carlow 1 1 54 Ballybar Lower (4.57), Co. Carlow 2 1 102 Ballybar Lower (4.58), Co. Carlow 7 4 459

Total 31 23 293

Table 2. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Carlow Bypass project also excavated by Headland Archaeology Ltd. showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams

Site No Burials MNI Average Burial Weight (g) Newford, Co. Galway 6 0 2

Table 3. Pyre site from Newford (excluding pyre feature) showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams

In addition to the lack of burnt bone recovered from the post‐hole features, further interpretive issues are presented by the radiocarbon date estimations of these features. The dating framework for Newford indicates that median date estimations for the pyre phase post‐dated the post‐hole phase, although date ranges for both phases approximately overlap. This could be a taphonomic issue, as bone material was dated from the pyre and charcoal from the post‐holes, undermining direct comparison. If burnt bone material in post‐holes was residual, it would still make sense of the evidence in terms of what may be expected from the separate locations of late Bronze Age funerary rites. Although failure to identify funerary pyres archaeologically may be a factor of preservation, the practice of cremation and disposal in separate locations is supported ethnographically. Cremation cemeteries are often discovered with no evidence of associated pyre, and when funerary pyres are identified they are rarely located near cemeteries.

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Archaeologists have developed models to understand the diversity of funerary remains using concepts developed in social anthropology, such as liminality, transition and transformation (Parker Pearson 1999, 21). The material remains of the dead are often all that survives archaeologically, but the funerary rites themselves extended beyond the single event when mortal remains were deposited in the ground, and these rites would have had a powerful effect in organising the society of the living (Parker Pearson 1999, 22). Arnold van Gennep (1960) was concerned with rituals relating to the transition from one social or physical state to another, including marriage, initiation, pregnancy, childbirth and death (ibid). He developed a tripartite, universalist theory of these ‘rites of passage’, in which the structure of all were characterised by preliminal rites (rites of separation), liminal rites (transitional stage), and post‐liminal rites (ceremonies of incorporation into the new state or world). Turner extended the concept of liminality, suggesting that it was not necessarily fixed to a tripartite ritual structure, and developing its use as a tool to explain diverse social phenomena from clowns to patrilineal systems (Turner 1960, 94). Hertz developed his anthropology of mortuary ritual using evidence from Borneo, Indonesia, following Durkheim’s special case methodology to comprehend societies that do not see death as instantaneous (1907; 1960). His analysis followed van Gennep’s tripartite scheme, but concentrated on death rituals and specifically the intermediary, transitional period. In Borneo the mortal individual is conceived as neither alive nor dead during this period, and the body has to undergo more than one rite before the ‘great feast’ that signifies the soul can be incorporated into the new state. During the intermediary period the dead body is left to decay, then recovered prior to the feast, ritually processed, then moved to another location. Hertz interpreted the fate of the body as reflecting what was conceived as the fate of the soul. Just as the decaying corpse cannot enter the world of the living, the soul of the dead person cannot enter the society of the dead and is condemned during the intermediary period to the edge of human habitation. As death destroys the physical being, it also ruptures the fabric of social relations, and the disembodied spirit wreaking potential vengeance on the living can be seen as a metaphor for the readjustment that needs to take place in the community of mourners (Parker Pearson 1999, 22). This framework has been broadly attributed to other ethnographic funerary practice as a universal scheme, but a critique of this work has found that while the outward form of ritual maintains similarities, specific cultural values must be comprehended to grasp the conceptual vitality of each ritual (Metcalf & Huntington 1991, 111). The lack of associated settlement evidence indicates that the purpose of the Newrath post‐holes was primarily funerary, although the relative lack of bone means that characterisation as a cemetery is problematic. Working with the anthropological model outlined above, different features may be evidence for both primary and secondary burial rites. A possible function discussed on site was that they represented structural platforms, and that excarnation may have been practised. The osteological analysis of the cremated bone has discounted this hypothesis by demonstrating characteristic dehydration such as horizontal, longitudinal and ‘U’‐shaped fissuring. This indicates that the body was burnt when there was still flesh and fat attached to the bone, as opposed to the burning of de‐fleshed, excarnated bones. In a modern crematorium,

15

when the body reaches a temperature of 800°C the fat in the body burns so fiercely that the gas jets may be switched off (Mays 1998; McKinley 1994; also see Troy 2007). The two posts (1103 & 1137) were much more substantial than the other post‐holes identified on site and were interpreted as high standing marker posts. They were 1.5 m in diameter, 1 metre in depth and positioned 4 metres apart. The stratigraphic sequence indicated that they did not decay in‐situ, but were removed in antiquity and a shallow burnt deposit containing animal bone placed in the void. One of the pieces of bone from (1107) recovered from the re‐cut associated with the marker post (1103) was identified as cattle astragalus. The marker posts at Newford could have been enlarged versions of the smaller posts at Newford. They were constructed to be visible from a great distance, which may have also been a reason why they were also deliberately removed. Fixing the dead in the landscape is a social and political act that can ensure rights to access and natural resources. In the absence of written records, people began to formulate a sense of their pasts through oral tradition and encounters with material culture. Marker posts could be ignored, destroyed or augmented, but whatever choice was made their significance would need to be interpreted (Bradley 2002, 122). This decision to remove these posts could have been a deliberate sleight, a co‐option of ancestral power by physically transplanting these imposing objects to another meaningful place (Pearson 1999,142). Area B The burnt mound at Area B was not visible as an upstanding earthwork prior to stripping, but was situated in a classic position for this type of monument in a meander curve adjacent to the Graigabbey/Lavally River. It is widely accepted that burnt mounds required a substantial amount of water and they were invariably located near springs, streams or in marshy areas. The burnt mound at Newford was no exception. A series of small springs were encountered during excavation of the trough, which would have continually filled during use. The considerable depth of the trough, extending to 1.35 m deep, 4 m wide and 4 m long, may also indicate function. While it has been established that the function of burnt mound troughs was to boil water (Waddell 1998, 177), how this water was subsequently used is difficult to ascertain. No specific artefactual evidence has been identified from this excavation to indicate definitively how the hot water was used, but the depth of the trough and presence of springs would have made cooking and washing viable alternatives. Two animal vertebrae recovered from the primary fill of the trough, one of which was identified as belonging to red dear, indicates that cooking may be the best interpretation of use. A radiocarbon date was recovered from a carbonised hazelnut shell from the burnt mound deposit and returned a date of 3639‐3501 cal BC (UB‐7404). This date fits into the Middle Bronze Age and as such is entirely consistent with dates obtained for other burnt mounds in Ireland (Brindley & Lanting 1990). The burnt mound at Area B was moderately small in comparison to the trough and there was evidence that the trough was modified during the use of the monument to reduce its carrying capacity for water. The limited extent of upcast stone may also be a factor of the limestone used. Generally at burnt mound sites the stones would have been used repeatedly but limestone has been found to be reduced to a situation whereby it can no longer be used after only six episodes of heating and quenching (Buckley 1990).

16

7 Archive The site archive is comprised of the following materials:

Item Quantity Quantity A B TotalContext sheets 202 12 214 Plans 65 2 67 Sections 79 7 86 Photographs 175 19 194 Registers 22 5 27 Notebooks 1 The archive material is contained within one box. Storage of the archive in a suitable format and location is required in order to provide for any future archaeological research. The archive is currently stored in the offices of Headland Archaeology, Unit 1, IDA Industrial Estate, Wallingstown, Little Island, Co. Cork. It is proposed that following completion of post‐excavation work the archive is deposited with Galway County Council Archives.

17

References Ballin, T. 2007. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Report on the lithic assemblage from Site A024/1, A Bronze age cemetery and pyre in the townland of Newford, Co. Galway. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway County Council. Bradley, R. 1990. The passage of arms: an archaeological analysis of prehistoric hoards and votive deposits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bradley, R. 2002. The Past In Prehistoric Societies. London: Routledge. Bruck, J. 1995. A place for the dead: the role of human remains in Late Bronze Age Britain. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 61: 245‐277. Coles, J. M. and Harding, A. F. 1979. The Bronze Age in Europe. London: Thames and Hudson. Cooney, G and Grogan, E. 1994. Irish Prehistory: a social perspective. Dublin: Wordwell. Gevjall, N. G. 1969. Cremations. In Brothwell, D and Higgs, E (eds) Science in Archaeology, 2nd Ed. London: Thames and Hudson. Harding, A. F. 1994. Reformation in Barbarian Europe, 1300‐600 BC. In Cunliffe, B. (ed.) Prehistoric Europe: An Illustrated History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hertz, R. 1907. Contribution a une etude sur la representation collective de la mort. Annee sociologique 10: 48‐137. Hertz, R. 1960. A Contribution to the Study of the Collective Representation of Death. In Death and the Right Hand. Translated by R. Needham and C. Needham. New York: Free Press. McKinley, J. I. 1993.Bone fragment size and weights of bone from modern British cremations and their implications for the interpretation of archaeological cremations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 3: 283‐287. McKinley, J.I. 1994a. Bone fragment size in British cremation burials and its implications for pyre technology and ritual. Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 339‐342. McKinley, J. I. 1994b. The Anglo‐Saxon cemetery at Spong Hill, North Eltham part VIII: the cremations. East Anglian Archaeology Report 69. Dereham: Field Archaeology Division, Norfolk Museums Service. Metcalf, P. and Huntington, R. 1991. Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ó Baoill, R. and Murphy. E. 2000. The Early Bronze Age cist burial at Newtownstewart Castle, Co. Tyrone. Palaeopathology Newsletter: Irish Section News. 3: 2‐3.

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O’Kelly, M. J. 1989. Early Ireland: An Introduction to Irish Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Parker Pearson, M. 1993. The powerful dead: archaeological relationships between the living and the dead. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 3: 203‐29. Parker Pearson, M. 1999. The Archaeology Of Death And Burial. Stroud: Sutton. Raftery, B. 1994. Iron Age Burials in Ireland. Irish Antiquity. 173‐204 Tourunen, A. 2007. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Report on the faunal remains from Site A024/1, A Bronze age cemetery and pyre in the townland of Newfordl, Co. Galway. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway County Council. Troy, C. 2007. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Report on the human remains from Site A024/1, A Bronze age cemetery and pyre in the townland of Newfordl, Co. Galway. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway County Council. Turner, V. 1969. The Ritual Process. Chicago: Aldine. Waddell, J. 1990. The Bronze Age Burials of Ireland. Galway: Galway University Press. Waddell, J. 2000. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland. (2nd Ed.) Bray: Wordwell. Walker, P L, Miller, K W P, and Richman, R 2006 ‘Time, temperature, and oxygen availability: an experimental study of the effects of environmental conditions on the colour and organic content of cremated bone’ Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2‐15.

Athenry

Galway

Figure 1 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437 Location of excavation area

E2437E2437E2437

Reproduced from 2002 Ordnance Survey of Ireland 1:50,000 Discovery Series no 46,C Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105

Contract 2Contract 2

= CPO

A

B

N

0 125 m

C Ordnance Survey of Ireland and Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105

Contract 1Contract 1

Figure 2 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437 Location of excavation area and RMP extract

N

0 250 m

A

B

= CPO

= Excavated Area

Reproduced from 1933 Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Second Edition, Six Inch to One Mile map, Galway Sheet 84 C Ordnance Survey of Ireland and Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105

1103

1111

1074

1090

1119

1105

1098

1121

11701100

1112

1092

1096

10241050

1150

1033

1010

10301035

1047

10271041

1044

1195

1199

1185

11931207

1201

1209 12131211

1215

1125

1187

1205

11901197

10061021

1018

1016

1012

1014

1183

1039

1058

1009

iron pan10851082

1094

1076 1004

1005natural pit

1131

1087

1172

10601064

1066 10621123

1137

1068

0 5 m

N

Figure 3 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437 Area A, Overall site plan

1177

1161

1135

variation in subsoil

pyrevariation in subsoil

Figure 4 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437 Area A, Plan of pyre 1004 and intercutting features

1004

1131

1087

iron mottlesand staining

iron mottlesand staining

0 1.25 m

N

Figure 5 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437Area A, Section of pyre 1004 and cutting features

1155

11561156

1004

North-facing section of 1004

East-facing section of 1004

1156

1156

1156

1155

1001

1104

1157 1004

iron mottles

iron mottles

iron mottles

iron mottles

1132

1158

1160

Stone

Charcoal

Key

Burnt bone

= Location of sections (triangles point to face of section)

iron pan

1004

2 m

N

0

0 0.5 m

E

S

W

N

1131

1131

1157

Figure 6 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437Area A, Plan and section of structural post-hole 1058, containing burnt bone and charcoal

East-facing section of 1058

1159

1058

1058

Charcoal

Key

Burnt bone

= Location of sections (triangles point to face of section)

N

0 0.5 m

S N

1107

11081114

1109

1110

1110

1103

Animalbone

Figure 7 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437Area A, South-facing section of large marker post-hole 1103

0 0.5 m

EW

Figure 8 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437 Area B, Overall site plan

2003

2017pit

trough

extent of burntmound material

naturalhollow

2005

N

0 10 m

2013

2012

2006

2005

2003

Figure 9 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437 Area B, Plan of trough 2005 and southwest-facing section of 2005

20072008

20092010 2010

2011

2004

Southwest-facing section of 2005

2003

trough

extent of burntmound material

naturalhollow

2005

0 1.5 m

N

0 1 m

SENW

= Location of section (triangles point to face of section)

0 5 cm

Late Bronze Agedomestic vessel1007:001

Figure 10 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437 Area A, Prehistoric pottery

Plate 1 - Area A: Working shot of site with natural pit 1005 in the foreground and pyre 1004 behind

Plate 2 - Area A: Post-excavation of site with pyre 1004 to the left and natural pit 1005 on the right

Plate 3 - Area A: South-facing section of post-hole 1018

Plate 4 - Area A: Northwest-facing section of post-hole 1024

Plate 5 - Area A: Southeast-facing section of post-hole 1033

Plate 6 - Area A: East-facing section of post-hole 1058

Plate 9 - Area A: Post-excavation view of post-hole 1103

Plate 10 - Area A: Post-excavation view of post-hole 1137

Plate 11 - Area A: North-facing section of pyre 1004

Plate 12 - Area A: East-facing section of pyre 1004

Plate 13 - Area A: Detail of pyre 1004 showing burnt bone

Plate 14 - Area A: Post-excavation view of pyre 1004

Plate 15 - Area A: Southeast-facing view of pit 1005

Plate 16 - Area A: Northeast-facing section of pit 1111

Plate 17 - Area B: West-facing section of trough 2005

Plate 18 - Area B: Pre-excavation view of 2004

19

Appendix 1. Context Register Context Number

Area Type Description Interpretation

1000 2.1A Deposit Topsoil, up to 0.2 m depth. Topsoil. 1001 2.1A Deposit Subsoil, up to 0.26 m depth. Subsoil. 1002 2.1A Deposit Grey silty sand with gravely limestone

rubble, moderate compaction. Natural.

1003 2.1A Deposit Yellow fine sand, soft and loose compaction. Natural. 1004 Area

A 2.1A

Cut Length (NW/SE) 2.6 m, Width (NE/SW) 2 m, Depth 0.75 m. Sub‐rectangular in plan, steep sides, irregular base sloping to the south/west. Contains cremation deposit (1104) and some in‐situ burning. Filled by (1104), (1155), (1156), (1157), (1158), (1159), (1160). Truncates post‐hole (1131). Associated with expanse of iron‐panning.

Large pit, probable pyre.

1005 2.1A Cut Diameter 2 m, Depth 1 m. Irregular‐circular in plan, irregular sides, irregular base. Affected by root disturbance and iron‐panning. Filled by (1143), (1144), (1145), (1146), (1147), (1148), (1149).

Large pit. Probably originally geological, complicated by root activity and water action. Possibly non‐archaeological.

1006 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.36 m, Depth 0.29 m. Circular in plan, steep sides, pointed concave base. Filled by (1007).

Post‐hole.

1007 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1006). Mid dark brown sandy silt, 10‐15% charcoal, 12 ‘packing stones’, 1 rim sherd shell tempered pottery, fragments of burnt bone.

Fill of post‐hole.

1008 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1009). Dark brown silty sand, 10% charcoal, 10% ‘packing stones’, moderate compaction.


1009 2.1A Cut Length 0.44 m, Width 0.40 m, Depth 0.25 m. Circular in plan, steep stepped sides, pointed concave base. Filled by (1008).

Post‐hole.

1010 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.45 m, Depth 0.22 m. Circular in plan, steep sides, slightly concave base. Filled by (1011).

Post‐hole.

1011 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1010). Mid dark brown sandy silt, <10% charcoal, <5% stones.


1012 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.11 m, Depth 0.11 m. Circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1013).

Stake‐hole.

20

1013 2.1A Fill Singular fill of stake‐hole (1012). Mid brown sandy silt, <5% grit, loose compaction.

Fill of stake‐hole.

1014 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.12 m, Depth 0.11 m. Circular in plan, steep sides, bluntly pointed base. Filled by (1015).

Stake‐hole.



1016 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.09 m, Depth 0.10 m. Circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1017).

Stake‐hole.



1018 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.26 m, Depth 0.40 m. Circular in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1019), (1020).

Post‐hole.

1019 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1018). Diameter 0.10 m, Depth 0.24 m. Yellow silty sand, no inclusions, loose compaction.

Secondary fill of post‐hole.

1020 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1018). Diameter 0.26 m, Depth 0.40 m. Mid brown sandy silt, several ‘packing stones’, loose compaction.

Primary fill of post‐hole.

1021 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.26 m. Sub‐oval in plan, vertical sides, slightly concave base. Filled by (1022), (1023).

Post‐hole.

1022 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1021). Diameter 0.15 m, D 0.15 m. Yellow‐brown silt, no inclusions, loose compaction.


1023 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1021). Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.26 m. Mid brown sandy silt, several ‘packing stones’, loose compaction.


1024 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.25 m. Circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed base. Filled by (1025), (1026).

Large stake‐hole.

1025 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of large stake‐hole (1024). Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.15 m. Dark brown‐black silty sand, lumps of charcoal <0.015 m, flake of burnt bone, specks of red burnt soil <5%, loose compaction.

Secondary fill of large stake‐hole. Charcoal rich.

21

1026 2.1A Fill Primary fill of large stake‐hole (1024). Diameter 0.10 m, Depth 0.10 m. Dark blue‐grey silty sand with clay, <5% small stones, loose to moderate compaction.

Primary fill of large stake‐hole.

1027 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.40 m. Sub‐circular in plan, very steep sides, flat base. Filled by (1028), (1029).

Post‐hole.

1028 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1027). Diameter 0.10 m, Depth 0.20 m. Light brown‐orange sandy silt, no inclusions, loose compaction.


1029 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1027). Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.40 m. Dark brown silt, few ‘packing stones’, loose compaction.


1030 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.36 m, Depth 0.37 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1031), (1032). Replaced/cut/truncated by/contemporary with post‐hole (1038).

Post‐hole. Relationship to post‐hole (1038).

1031 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1030). Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.26 m. Light orange‐brown sandy silt, no inclusions, loose compaction.


1032 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1030). Diameter 0.36 m, Depth 0.37 m. Dark grey‐brown, some ‘packing stones’, loose compaction.


1033 2.1A Cut Length (N‐S) 0.30 m, Width (W‐E) 0.27 m, Depth 0.235 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep slightly stepped sides, pointed base. Filled by (1034).

Post‐hole.

1034 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1033). Medium brown silty sand, 5% stones, 2% charcoal flecks, moderate compaction.


1035 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.55 m, Depth 0.27 m. Irregular‐circlular in plan, steep irregular sides, flat base of 0.20 m diameter. Filled by (1036), (1037).

Post‐hole.

1036 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1035). Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.13 m. Light orange‐brown sandy silt, no inclusions, soft compaction.


1037 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1035). Diameter 0.55 m, Depth 0.27 m. Dark grey‐brown silt, some ‘packing stones’, loose compaction.


22

1038 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.28 m, Depth 0.45 m. Sub‐circular in plan, very steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1128). Replaced/cut/truncated by/contemporary with post‐hole (1030). 0.08m deeper than (1030).

Post‐hole. Relationship to post‐hole (1030)

1039 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.33 m, Depth 0.20 m. Circular in plan, vertical south/west side, 45° north/east side, flat base of 0.05 m diameter. Filled by (1040).

Post‐hole. Half‐sectioned during testing.

1040 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1039). Dark black‐brown sandy silt, loose compaction. Bottom of fill includes patches of natural (1003).

Fill of post‐hole. Charcoal rich. Half‐sectioned during testing.

1041 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.30 m, Depth 0.18 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, concave base. Filled by (1042), (1043).

Post‐hole.

1042 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1041). Diameter 0.35 m, Depth 0.07 m. Dark brown silt, no inclusions, soft compaction.


1043 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1041). Diameter 0.30 m, Depth 0.11m. Dark grey‐brown sandy silt, some stones.


1044 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.23 m, Depth 0.17 m. Sub‐oval in plan, steep sides, flat base of 0.10m diameter. Filled by (1045), (1046).

Post‐hole.

1045 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1044). Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.09 m. Light orange‐brown silt, no inclusions, soft compaction.


1046 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1044). Diameter 0.23 m, Depth 0.17 m. Mid‐grey sandy silt, some ‘packing stones’, soft compaction.


1047 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.18 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1048), (1049).

Post‐hole.

1048 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1047). Diameter 0.16 m, Depth 0.05 m. Mid brown silt, no inclusions, soft compaction.


1049 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1047). Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.18 m. Light‐brown silt, some ‘packing stones’, soft compaction.


23

1050 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 1.2 m, Width 0.60m, Depth 0.28 m. Two ovals in plan, east scoop is smaller at diameter 0.50 m and depth 0.08 m. West pit is length 0.70 m, width 0.60 m, depth 0.28 m. East scoop is concave, West pit has fairly steep sides and concave base. Filled by (1051).

Pit / post‐hole. Probably a disturbed post‐hole.

1051 2.1A Fill Singular fill of pit / post‐hole (1050). Black silty sand, lumps of charcoal, heat affected/burnt stone, lumps of burnt soil, speck of burnt bone, loose to moderate compaction.

Fill of pit / post‐hole. Charcoal rich.

1052 2.1A Cancelled 1053 2.1A Cancelled 1054 2.1A Cancelled 1055 2.1A Cancelled 1056 2.1A Cancelled 1057 2.1A Cancelled 1058 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.43 m, Depth 0.44 m.

Circular in plan, steep sides, concave base of 0.22 m diameter. Filled by (1059).

Post‐hole

1059 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1058). Mid dark brown sandy silt, few stones, fragments of burnt bone, pieces of burnt clay or daub material, loose compaction.


1060 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.18 m, Depth 0.30 m. Sub‐circular in plan, vertical stepped sides, narrow concave base. Filled by (1061).

Post‐hole.

1061 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1060). Mid dark brown silty sand, 5‐10% charcoal, occasional stones (not ‘packing’), loose compaction.


1062 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.21 m, Depth 0.08 m. Circular in plan, shallow sides, flat to concave base. Filled by (1063).

Post‐hole. A little dubious.

1063 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1062). Pale orange‐brown silty sand, occasional charcoal, loose compaction.

Fill of dubious post‐hole.

1064 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.19 m, Depth 0.12 m. Circular in plan, fairly steep sides, flat to concave base. Filled by (1065).

Post‐hole. A little dubious.

1065 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1064). Mid dark brown silty sand, 5‐10% charcoal, moderate compaction.


24

1066 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.22 m. Circular in plan, vertical stepped sides, fairly flat base sloping to south/west of 0.19 m diameter. Filled by (1067).

Post‐hole.

1067 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1066). Mid dark brown silty sand, 5‐10% charcoal, occasional stones, loose compaction.


1068 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 3.5 m, Width (north‐south) 2 m, Depth 0.15 m. Oval in plan, irregular shallow sides, irregular concave base. Includes two small depressions to north within cut. Filled by (1069), (1070).

Shallow pit. Next to enormous post‐hole (1137).

1069 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of shallow pit (1068). Dark brown‐black sandy silt, charcoal rich, burnt bone, animal tooth, moderate compaction.

Secondary fill of shallow pit. Charcoal rich.

1070 2.1A Fill Primary fill of shallow pit (1068). Mid‐brown sandy silt, few stones, sterile fill, loose compaction.

Primary fill of shallow pit. Seems sterile.

1071 2.1A Deposit Grey, stony, gravel, moderate compaction. Probably the same as (1002).

Natural.

1072 2.1A Cancelled 1073 2.1A Cancelled 1074 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.14 m, Depth 0.27 m.

Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1075).

Post‐hole. Probably driven so more likely a stake‐hole. Next to (1076).

1075 2.1A Fill Singular fill of driven post‐hole (1074). Mid grey‐brown silt, soft compaction.

Fill of driven post‐hole.

1076 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.21 m, Depth 0.20 m. Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1077).

Post‐hole. Next to (1074).

1077 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1076). Dark grey‐brown silt, soft compaction.


1078 2.1A Cancelled 1079 2.1A Cancelled 1080 2.1A Cancelled 1081 2.1A Cancelled 1082 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.48 m, Width (north‐

south) 0.33 m, Depth 0.35 m. Oval in plan, steep stepped sides, concave base. Filled by (1083), (1084).

Post‐hole. Next to (1085).

1083 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1082). Dark brown (orange flecked) silty sand, 5% charcoal, 1% stones, moderately compacted.


25

1084 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1082). Medium brown (orange flecked) silty sand, 5% charcoal, some stones, moderately compacted.


1085 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.21 m, Depth 0.05 m. Sub‐circular in plan, shallow sides, concave base. Filled by (1086).

Shallow post‐hole. Next to (1082).

1086 2.1A Fill Singular fill of shallow post‐hole (1085). Medium brown silty sand, 20% charcoal, some stones, lightly compacted.

Shallow post‐hole.

1087 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.39 m, Width (north‐south) 0.36 m, Depth 0.34 m. Oval in plan, steep sides, concave base. Filled by (1088), (1089).

Post‐hole. Associated with pit (1004).

1088 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1087). Diameter 0.33 m, Depth 0.37 m. Mid brown silty sand, occasional pebbles, charcoal flakes, one burnt bone, loose compaction. Interface of iron pan to (1089).


1089 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1087). Diameter 0.35 m, Depth 0.31 m. Mid grey silty sand, charcoal flakes, burnt bone, loose compaction. Interface of iron pan to (1088), this matches the iron panning within pit (1004).


1090 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.24 m, Width (north‐south) 0.18 m, Depth 0.32 m. Sub‐oval in plan, vertical sides, flat base. Filled by (1091).

Post‐hole.

1091 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1090). Dark brown sandy silt, 20‐25% charcoal, some stones, one burnt bone within fill, two burnt bones next to feature, lightly compacted.


1092 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.27 m, Depth 0.17 m. Circular in plan, fairly steep sides, concave base. Filled by (1093).

Post‐hole.

1093 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1092). Mid brown silty sand, no inclusions, loose compaction.


1094 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.43 m, Depth 0.41 m. Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, flat base of 0.21 m diameter. Filled by (1095), (1102).

Post‐hole.

1095 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1094). Diameter 0.43 m, Depth 0.14 m. Mid dark brown silty sand, few stones, loose compaction.


26

1096 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.40 m, Depth 0.14 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep west side, shallow east side, concave base. Filled by (1097).

Post‐hole. Possible stone socket.

1097 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole or possible stone socket (1096). Mid dark brown silty sand, charcoal flecks, loose compaction.

Fill of post‐hole or possible stone socket.

1098 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.23 m, Depth 0.15 m. Circular in plan, gradually sloping sides, concave base. Stake‐hole driven or possible burrowing in the base at the south/west of this feature, 0.25 m depth. Filled by (1099).

Post‐hole. Or depression supporting stake‐hole.

1099 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1098). Dark grey‐black silty sand, occasional stones, friable compaction.

Fill of post‐hole. Also fill of stake‐hole within feature.

1100 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.75 m, Depth 0.40 m. Circular in plan, irregular sloping sides, flat base. Affected by burrowing or root activity on east side. Filled by (1101).

Post‐hole. Affected by burrowing or root activity.

1101 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1100). Dark grey‐brown sandy silt, cremated bone, loose compaction. West side is mixed with (1003).

Fill of post‐hole. Disturbed by burrowing or root activity.

1102 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1094). Grey‐brown silty sand, one large stone (0.30 m), several small stones, moderate compaction.


1103 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.7 m, Depth 1.6 m. Circular in plan, steep sides, flat base. Filled with (1107), (1108), (1109), (1110). Cut into unstable, loose (1002) natural explaining the need for such a large hole. Possible re‐cut (1114) has since been cancelled.

Enormous post‐hole. Post at least 0.40m diameter and 0.80m in the ground. Similar to (1137).

1104 2.1A Deposit Cremation deposit on east edge of pit (1004). Length (west‐east) 0.68 m, Width (north‐south) 0.59 m, Thickness 0.04 m‐0.17 m. Dark black‐grey silty sand, frequent burnt bone, few charcoal flakes, loose compaction.

Cremation deposit.

1105 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.15 m, Depth 0.15 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1106).

Post‐hole.

1106 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1105). Mid brown‐black silty sand, occasional charcoal, loose compaction.


27

1107 2.1A Fill Final fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.18 m. Grey‐black silt, inclusion one animal bone, soft compaction. Suggested that (1107) and (1108) are much later than (1103) and are actually in a separate cut (1114) which has since been cancelled.

Fourth and final fill of enormous post‐hole.

1108 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Diameter 0.38 m, Thickness of 0.06 m. Grey silt, very stony, very loosely compacted. Suggested that (1107) and (1108) are much later than (1103) and are actually in a separate cut (1114) which has since been cancelled.

Tertiary fill of enormous post‐hole.

1109 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Diameter 0.45 m, Depth 0.80 m. Dark brown‐black silt, few stones, loose compaction.

Secondary fill of enormous post‐hole.

1110 2.1A Fill Primary fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Diameter 1.7 m, Depth 1.06 m. Stony silty sand, many ‘packing stones’, very loose compaction.

Primary fill of enormous post‐hole.

1111 2.1A Cut Length (north‐south) 1.7 m, Width (west‐east) 1.29 m, Depth 0.57 m. Sub‐oval in plan, irregular shallow sides, pointed base. Filled by (1115), (1116), (1117), (1118).

Pit.

1112 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.20 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1113).

Post‐hole.

1113 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1112). Mid brown‐black sandy silt, chert flake, occasional stones, moderate compaction.


1114 2.1A Cut Cancelled, was the cut of a pit within the enormous post‐hole (1103). Filled by (1107), (1108).

Cancelled re‐cut.

1115 2.1A Fill Upper fill of pit (1111). Length (north‐south) 1.46 m, Width (west‐east) 1.29 m, Depth 0.22 m. Dark brown‐black, charcoal rich, some stones, iron panning, lightly compacted.

Fourth and final fill of pit. Charcoal rich.

1116 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of pit (1111). Length (north‐south) 1.9 m, Width (west‐east) 1.29 m, Depth 0.15 m. Dark grey silty sand, occasional stones, iron panning, lightly compacted. Possibly ash.

Tertiary fill of pit.

28

1117 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of pit (1111). Length (north‐south) 0.70m, Width (west‐east) 1.29 m, Depth 0.17 m. Light grey silty sand, occasional stones, iron panning, lightly compacted. Possibly ash.

Secondary fill of pit.

1118 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit (1111). Length (north‐south) 0.60m, Width (west‐east) 1.29 m, Depth 0.20 m. Dark grey silty sand, iron panning, lightly compacted. Possibly ash.

Primary fill of pit.

1119 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.10 m. Circular in plan, vertical east side, shallow west side, flat base. Filled by (1120).

Post‐hole.

1120 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1119). Mid yellow‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, charcoal at the base, moderate compaction.


1121 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.33 m. Sub‐oval and Length 0.44 m in plan as a double post‐hole, sub‐circular otherwise, vertical sides, pointed base. Filled by (1122).

Double post‐hole with (1133).

1122 2.1A Fill Singular fill of (1121) of a double post‐hole. Dark brown silty sand, charcoal, burnt bone, loose compaction.

Fill of one of a double post‐hole.

1123 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.17 m, Depth 0.19 m. Circular in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1124).


1124 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1123). Very dark brown silty sand, charcoal rich, loose compaction.

Fill of one of a double post‐hole. Charcoal rich.

1125 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.34 m, Width (north‐south) 0.33 m, Depth 0.18 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, flat base. Filled by (1126), (1127).

Post‐hole.

1126 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1125). Length (west‐east) 0.34 m, Width (north‐south) 0.33 m, Depth 0.06 m. Dark brown silty sand, occasional charcoal, occasional stones, iron panning, moderate compaction.


1127 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1125). Length (west‐east) 0.34 m, Width (north‐south) 0.33 m, Depth 0.15 m. Medium grey silty sand, occasional small stones, iron panning, moderate compaction.


29

1128 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1038). Post‐hole has relationship to (1030) and was originally considered part of (1030). Brown sandy silt, loose compaction.


1129 2.1A Cancelled 1130 2.1A Cancelled 1131 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.45 m, Depth 0.18 m‐0.47 m.

Undetermined shape in plan due to truncation by (1004), vertical to gradually sloping sides, irregular base sloping to south Filled by (1132). Not neatly truncated across the top but in half.

Post‐hole truncated by pit (1004).

1132 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1131). Dark yellow and light brown silty sand, occasional charcoal flecks, moderate compaction. Very different from fill of (1004).

Fill of post‐hole truncated by pit (1004).

1133 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.44m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, narrow concave base. Filled with (1134).


1134 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1133). Very dark brown silty sand, occasional ‘packing stones’, charcoal, burnt bone, loose compaction.




1136 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1135). Very dark brown silty sand, charcoal, loose compaction.


1137 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.8 m, Depth 1.33 m. Sub‐oval in plan, steep sides, flat base. Filled by (1139), (1140), (1141), (1142). Slightly smaller than (1103) 4m away. Possible re‐cut (1138) has since been cancelled.

Pit or enormous post‐hole. Similar to (1103).

1138 2.1A Cut Cancelled, was the cut of a pit within the pit or enormous post‐hole (1137). Filled by (1139), (1140).

Cancelled re‐cut.

1139 2.1A Fill Final fill of pit or enormous post‐hole (1137), or secondary fill of re‐cut (1138). Diameter 0.50 m, Depth 0.12 m. Grey‐black silt, soft compaction.

Fourth and final fill of pit or enormous post‐hole.

1140 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of pit or enormous post‐hole (1137), or primary fill of re‐cut (1138). Diameter 0.70 m, Thickness of 0.08‐0.15 m. Grey silt, very stony, loose compaction.

Tertiary fill of pit or enormous post‐hole.

30

1141 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of pit or enormous post‐hole (1137). Diameter 1.2 m, Depth 0.60 m. Brown‐black silt, 10% stones, soft compaction.

Secondary fill of pit or enormous post‐hole.

1142 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit or enormous post‐hole (1137). Diameter 1.8 m, Depth 1.33 m. Stony mid grey‐brown sandy silt, 60‐70% ‘packing stones’, loose compaction.

Primary fill of pit or enormous post‐hole.

1143 2.1A Fill Upper‐most fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.20 m. Mid yellow‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, oyster shell, anthracite, bone, burnt bone, chert flakes, loose compaction. Similar to subsoil.

Seventh and final fill of pit.

1144 2.1A Fill Sixth fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.15 m. Mid black‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, one large stone, loose compaction. (1144) is often much more similar to (1143).

Sixth fill of pit.

1145 2.1A Lens Fifth fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.10 m. Light grey‐white silty sand, charcoal, occasional stones, loose compaction. (1145) is very similar to (1147) and could be the same where not separated by (1146).

Fifth fill of pit.

1146 2.1A Fill Fourth fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.10 m. Light black‐brown silty sand, one large stone, loose compaction. (1146) is probably a lens because (1145) & (1147) are the same.

Fourth of pit.

1147 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.15 m. Light white‐grey silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction. (1147) may be water washed (1003).


1148 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.20 m. Mid brown‐yellow silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction. (1148) may be root disturbed natural with decayed limestone.


1149 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.20 m. Mid green‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction. (1149) may be root disturbed natural with decayed limestone.


31

1150 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.8 m, Depth 0.40 m. Irregular in plan, irregular sides, irregular base. Filled by (1151), (1152), (1153), (1154).

Pit. Next to (1005).

1151 2.1A Fill Upper‐most fill of pit (1150). Thickness 0.10 m. Light black‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction. Similar to (1144) within (1005).

Fourth and final fill of pit.

1152 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of pit (1150). Thickness 0.40 m. Light yellow‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction.


1153 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of pit (1150). Thickness 0.20 m. Mid brown‐yellow silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction. Similar to (1148) of (1005).


1154 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit (1150). Thickness 0.30 m. Mid green‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction. Similar to (1149) of (1005).


1155 2.1A Fill Upper‐most fill of pit (1004). Thickness 0.02 m‐0.13 m. Dark grey silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction.

Upper‐most fill of pit (1004)

1156 2.1A Fill Fill of pit (1004). Thickness 0.45 m‐0.60 m. Mid brown to dark grey silty sand with vertical iron panning dividing these colours, frequent limestone, occasional sandstone, bone, burnt bone, moderate compaction.

Fill of pit.

1157 2.1A Fill Fill of pit (1004). Thickness 0.04 m‐0.10 m. Mid grey silty sand, frequent charcoal, occasional burnt bone, loose compaction.

Fill pf pit.

1158 2.1A Fill Fill of pit (1004). Thickness 0.05 m‐0.14 m. Mid‐brown silty sand, frequent charcoal, loose compaction.

Fill of pit.

1159 2.1A Fill Fill of pit (1004). Thickness 0.01 m‐0.02 m. Light red‐brown silt, frequent charcoal, moderate compaction.

Fill of pit.

32

1160 2.1A Fill Fill of pit (1004). Thickness 0.09 m. Light grey‐brown silty sand, loose compaction.

Fill of pit.

1161 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.30 m, Depth 0.3 m. Circular in plan, vertical sides, narrow concave base. Filled by (1163), (1163). Truncated by tree‐bole (1164).

Post‐hole.

1162 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1162). Diameter 0.3 m, Depth 0.15 m. Dark brown‐black silty sand, charcoal, burnt bone, loose compaction.


1163 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1162). Diameter 0.3 m, Depth 0.20 m. Orange‐brown sand, burnt bone, rare stones, loose compaction.


1164 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.7 m, Depth 0.5 m. Irregular sub‐circular in plan, gradual sloping sides, flat base. Filled by (1166), (1165). Truncates post‐hole (1161).

Pit. Probable tree‐bole. Re‐cut / above (1005).

1165 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of pit or probable tree‐bole (1164) above (1005). Thickness 0.25 m. Mid yellow‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction.

Secondary fill of pit or probable tree‐bole.

1166 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit or probable tree‐bole (1164) above (1005). Thickness 0.3 m. Light grey‐yellow silty sand, occasional stones, loose compaction.

Primary fill of pit or probable tree‐bole.

1167 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.8 m, Depth 0.5 m. Irregular sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1168), (1169).

Pit. Truncated by (1005).

1168 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of pit (1167). Thickness 0.25 m. Dark brown‐black sandy silt, frequent charcoal, occasional stones, loose compaction.

Secondary fill of pit. Charcoal rich.

1169 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit (1167). Thickness 0.4 m. Dark green‐brown silty sand, occasional stones, chert flake, loose compaction.


1170 2.1A Cut Length 0.17 m, Width 0.15 m, Depth 0.15 m. Circular in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled with (1171).

Post‐hole.

33

1171 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1170). Light brown sandy silt, little charcoal, few stones, loose compaction.


1172 2.1A Cut Length 0.12 m, Width 0.11 m, Depth 0.09 m. Oval in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1173).

Stake‐hole.

1173 2.1A Fill Singular fill of stake‐hole. Mid grey silty sand, single charcoal flake, loose compaction.


1174 2.1A Deposit Re‐deposited but disturbed natural (1003) within (1005). Thickness 0.15 m. Mid yellow sand, occasional charcoal, loose compaction. Natural influenced by bio‐turbation.

Re‐deposited natural.

1175 2.1A Fill Singular fill of pit (1176). Thickness 0.15 m. Mid black‐brown sandy silt, frequent charcoal, few stones, loose compaction.

Fill of pit.

1176 2.1A Cut Length 0.75 m, Width 0.50 m, Depth 0.15 m. Sub‐rectangular in plan, steep sides, slightly concave base. Filled by (1175). Probably not a discrete pit at all but part of (1005).

Pit. Truncates (1005).

1177 2.1A Cut Length 1 m, Width 0.75 m, Depth 0.07 m‐0.08 m. Sub‐oval in plan, very shallow sides, concave base. Filled by (1179), (1180). Above (1182). Suggested oven.

Depression, caused by burning.

1178 2.1A Lens Fill of pit (1005). Thickness 0.2 m. Grey‐white silty sand, frequent charcoal, occasional stones, loose compaction. Fills an animal burrow within (1005), otherwise the same as (1147).

Fill of pit.

1179 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of depression (1177). Thickness 0.04 m. Red‐black silty sand, charcoal, very little burnt bone, occasional burnt stones, loose compaction.

Secondary fill of depression.

1180 2.1A Fill Primary fill of depression (1177). Thickness 0.02 m‐0.03 m. Black charcoal, maybe a little sand, loose compaction.

Primary fill of depression. Pure charcoal.

1181 2.1A Deposit Re‐deposited natural associated with (1004). Thickness 0.04 ‐0.13 m. Light white‐grey silty sand, frequent pebbles, loose compaction.

Re‐deposited natural.

34

1182 2.1A Deposit Heat affected natural below burnt depression (1177). Thickness 0.05 m. Red‐pink silty sand, very occasional stones, moderate compaction.

Heat affected natural below burnt depression.

1183 2.1A Cut Length 0.20 m, Width 0.19 m, Depth 0.25 m. Circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed base. Filled by (1184).

Post‐hole.

1184 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1183). Light brown silty clay, occasional stones, loose compaction.


1185 2.1A Cut Length 0.12 m, Width 0.10 m, Depth 0.25 m. Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, very pointed base. Filled by (1186). Could be considered a stake‐hole.

Post‐hole.

1186 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1185). Light brown silty clay, rare stones, loose compaction.


1187 2.1A Cut Length 0.30 m, Width 0.28 m, Depth 0.30 m. Oval to circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed base. Filled by (1188), (1189).

Post‐hole.

1188 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1187). Thickness 0.20 m. Mid brown‐orange silty sand, no inclusions, loose compaction.


1189 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1187). Thickness 0.35 m. Light brown silty clay, occasional stones, loose compaction.


1190 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.35 m. Circular in plan, very steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1191), (1192).

Post‐hole.

1191 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1190). Thickness 0.25 m. Mid brown‐orange silty sand, loose compaction.


1192 2.1A Fill. Primary fill of post‐hole (1190). Thickness 0.35 m. Light brown silty clay, occasional stones, loose compaction.


1193 2.1A Cut Length 0.28 m, Width 0.189 m, Depth 0.40 m. Irregular oval in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1194). Possibly a double post‐hole.

Post‐hole.

1194 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1193). Light brown‐orange silty sand with some clay, occasional stones, loose compaction.


35

1195 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.30 m, Depth 0.33 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base. Filled by (1196), (1204). Suggested this post‐hole is later and slightly truncates (1199).


1196 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1195). Thickness 0.18 m. Mid brown‐orange silty sand, loose compaction.

Secondary fill of one of a double post‐hole.

1197 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.15 m, Depth 0.30 m. Sub‐oval in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1198).

Post‐hole.



1199 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.50 m. Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, concave base. Filled by (1200). Suggested this post‐hole is the original that was replaced by (1195).


1200 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1199). Light brown silty clay, occasional stones, loose compaction. Similar to (1204).


1201 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.23 m, Depth 0.26 m. Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed base. Filled by (1202), (1203).

Post‐hole.

1202 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1201). Thickness 0.17 m. Light brown‐orange silty sand, loose compaction.


1203 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1201). Thickness 0.26 m. Light brown silty clay, occasional stones, loose compaction.


1204 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1195). Thickness 0.33 m. Light brown silty clay, occasional stones, loose compaction. Similar to (1200).

Primary fill of one of a double post‐hole.

1205 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.15 m, Depth 0.20 m. Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed base. Filled by (1206).

Post‐hole.


Fill of a post‐hole.


Post‐hole.

36



1209 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.15 m, Depth 0.19 m. Irregular oval in plan, vertical sides, concave base. Filled by (1210).

Post‐hole.



1211 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.25 m, Depth0.23 m. Oval in plan, steep sides, concave base. Filled by (1212).

Post‐hole. A bit dubious.


Fill of a dubious post‐hole.

1213 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.22 m, Depth 0.35 m. Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, flat base. Filled by (1214).

Post‐hole.



1215 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.26 m, Depth 0.22 m. Irregular oval in plan, steep sides, concave base. Filled by (1216).

Post‐hole. A bit dubious.



Area B Context Number

Area Type Description Interpretation

2000 2.1B Deposit Topsoil. Topsoil. 2001 2.1B Deposit Subsoil. Subsoil. 2002 2.1B Deposit Natural. Natural. 2003 2.1B “Cut” “Cut” of the burnt spread deposit (1004).

Cancelled. “Cut” of burnt spread (1004).

2004 2.1B Deposit Within the trough (2005) this is the fourth fill and is 0.4 m thick. 80% white or red heat affected shattered stones with some black, charcoal rich, silty, gritty sand making up the remainder. Loose, rubble like compaction. Animal teeth and bone inclusions. (2004) is similar outside of the trough (2005) except it has mixed with subsoil a little more.

Burnt spread deposit.

37

2005 2.1B Cut Length (NW/SE) 3 m, Depth 1.4 m at least. Sub‐rectangular in plan, vertical sides, base was not determinable due to springs. Possible step or ledge to north. Filled by (2004), (2006), (2007), (2008), (2009), (2010), (2011), (2012), (2013).

Cut of trough.

2006 2.1B Fill Primary fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.20 m at least. Grey fine sand, chunks of charcoal & two burnt bones concentrated to south/west, loose compaction. Possible lining material.

Fill of trough.

2007 2.1B Fill Upper‐most and ninth fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.02 m‐0.13 m. Grey fine silt, iron streaks, light compaction.

Fill of trough.

2008 2.1B Fill Eighth fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.01m‐0.06 m. White gritty sand, no inclusions, light compaction.

Fill of trough.

2009 2.1B Fill Seventh fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.02 m‐0.13 m. Orange‐red silty gritty sand, 80% heat affected shattered stones, moderate compaction.

Fill of trough.

2010 2.1B Fill Sixth fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.01 m‐0.07 m. White gritty sand, no inclusions, light compaction.

Fill of trough.

2011 2.1B Fill Fifth fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.01 m ‐0.30 m. Grey‐red silty gritty sand, 80% heat affected shattered stones adhered together by iron and manganese, moderate compaction.

Fill of trough.

2012 2.1B Fill Second fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.01 m‐0.30 m. Orange‐red gritty sand, 60‐70% heat affected shattered stones, loose compaction.

Fill of trough.

2013 2.1B Fill Third fill of trough (2005). Thickness 0.05 m. White gritty sand, no inclusions, loose compaction.

Fill of trough.

2014 2.1B Cancelled 2015 2.1B Cancelled 2016 2.1B Cancelled 2017 2.1B Cut Width 1.46 m, Depth 0.21 m.

Irregular sub‐circular in plan, shallow sides, flat base. Filled by (2018).

Pit.

38

2018 2.1B Fill Fill of pit (2017). Grey‐black silt, charcoal flecks, 10% small stones, soft compaction.

Fill of pit.

2019 2.1B Cancelled 2020 2.1B Cancelled 2021 2.1B Cancelled 2022 2.1B Cancelled

39

Appendix 2. Sample Register Area A Sample Number

Context Number

Amount Description Type/Initial results

1 1088 Burnt bone from post‐hole 2 1091 Burnt bone from post‐hole 3 1107 Animal bone 4 1007 20L Charcoal rich, mid dark brown

sandy silt, fill of post‐hole

5 1025 5L Black of very dark brown fill of stake‐hole

6 1091 5L Charcoal rich, dark brown sandy silt, fill of post‐hole

7 1020 5L Mid brown sandy silt, primary fill of post‐hole

8 1059 10L Mid dark brown sandy silt, fill of post‐hole

9 1011 10L Charcoal rich, mid dark brown sandy silt, fill of post‐hole

10 1132 2L Yellow‐brown silty sand fill of pit / post‐hole

11 1032 5L Dark grey‐brown post‐hole fill 12 1037 5L Grey‐brown silt post‐hole fill 13 1136 4L Bone & charcoal fill of post‐hole 14 1134 15L Dark brown silty sand post‐hole

fill

15 1099 20L Dark grey‐black silty sand post‐hole fill

16 1097 5L Mid dark brown sandy silt post‐hole fill

17 1139 2L Grey‐black silt post‐hole fill 18 1140 3L Grey post‐hole fill 19 1008 5L Fill of post‐hole 20 1104 1L Cremation deposit and bones,

north/east spit A

21 1104 Loose bone from cremation north/east quadrant

22 1104 2L Cremation deposit and bones, north/east spit B

23 1104 >0.5L Charcoal from cremation north/east quadrant spit B

24 1104 1L Cremation deposit and bones, north/east spit C 1

25 1104 1L Cremation deposit and bones, north/east spit C 2

40

26 1040 5L Fill of post‐hole 27 1109 10L Dark brown‐black silt post‐hole

fill 28 1141 10L Dark brown‐black silt post‐hole

fill 29 1107 0.5L Grey‐black silt post‐hole fill 30 1108 0.5L Primary fill of post‐hole 31 1110 4L Fill of post‐hole 32 1142 3L Fill of post‐hole 33 1115 5L Charcoal rich, dark brown, fill of

pit 34 1156 Animal bone from (1004) 35 1157 Burnt bone from (1004) 36 1156 Burnt bone from (1004) 37 1159 0.5L Soil from cremation pit (1004) 38 1162 20L Dark brown‐black sand post‐hole

fill

39 1067 5L Charcoal rich, mid dark brown silty sand, post‐hole fill

40 1065 5L Charcoal rich post‐hole fill 41 1101 30L Cremated deposit within

suspected post‐hole

42 1088 20L Mid‐brown silty sand with cremated material, post‐hole fill

43 1069 4L Charcoal fill of pit 44 1171 5L Post‐hole fill 45 1165 5L Fill of pit (1164) 46 1166 5L Fill of pit (1164) 47 1148 5L Fill of pit (1005) 48 1149 5L Fill of pit (1005) 49 1143 5L Fill of pit (1164) 50 1144 5L Fill of pit (1164) 51 1145 5L Charcoal rich fill of pit (1164) 52 1146 5L Fill of pit (1164) 53 1147 5L Fill of pit (1164) 54 1143 Mixed burnt and unburned bone

from (1005) 55 1069 1 piece of burnt bone from (1068) 56 1168 2L Charcoal rich, black sandy silt,

upper fill of (1167) 57 1169 2L Primary fill of (1167) 58 CANCELLED 59 1104 0.5L Cremation deposit and bones,

south/west spit A 60 1104 0.5L Cremation deposit and bones,

south/west spit B

41

61 1156 0.5L Close to cremation deposit, contains burnt bones also, south/west spit A

62 1174 2L Orange sand and charcoal fill of pit (1005)

63 1175 2L Charcoal rich, dark brown‐black sandy silt, fill of pit (1005)

64 1178 1L Light grey silty sand, fill of pit (1005)

65 1155 2L Dark grey silty sand, upper fill of cremation pit (1004)

66 1156 2L Mid brown silty sand, basal fill of cremation pit (1004)

67 1157 1L Mid grey silty sand, basal fill of cremation pit (1004)

68 1158 0.5L Mid brown silty sand, basal fill of cremation pit (1004)

69 1179 0.5L Heat affected upper fill of (1177) 70 1180 0.5L Charcoal basal fill of (1177) 71 1104 1L Cremation deposit and bones,

south/east spit A

72 1104 1L Cremation deposit and bones, south/east spit B

73 1104 2L Cremation deposit and bones, north/west pre‐excavation

74 1104 6L Cremation deposit and bones, north/west spit A

75 1104 6L Cremation deposit and bones, north/west spit B

76 1156 1L Cremation deposit and bones, north/west spit B

Area B Sample Number

Context Number

Amount Description Type/Initial results

1 2006 Burnt bone from trough (2005) 2 2006 Burnt bone from trough (2005) 3 2018 5L Dark grey‐brown silt, fill of pit

(2017)

42

4 2020 3L Fill of (2019), cut containing animal skeleton

5 2020 Animal skeleton from (2019) 6 2004 10L Burnt mound material from

within the trough

7 2011 4L Stony reddish‐grey fill of trough (2005)

8 2012 4L Stony orangey‐red fill of trough (2005)

43

Appendix 3. Finds Register Area A Pottery Excavation No.

Context No.

Find No.

Material Type Id Description Quantity

NGB 05 2.1A

1007 1 Pot Sherd

Inverted rim, large piece, shell tempered

1

Chert Excavation No.

Context No.

Find No.


NGB 05 2.1A

1113 1 Chert Flake Struck 5.5cm x 2.5cm sub‐rectangular flake

1

NGB 05 2.1A

1143 1 Chert Flake Struck 5cm x 4cm triangular flake, lovely bulb

1

NGB 05 2.1A

1143 2 Chert Flakes Struck 3 small pieces of chert debitage

3 in 1 bag

NGB 05 2.1A

1165 1 Chert Flake Struck 2.5cm x 1cm sub‐rectangular flake

1

Burnt clay Excavation No.

Context No.

Find No.


NGB 05 2.1A

1143 3 Burnt clay

One piece of burnt clay (now in many crumbs)

1 bag

No finds Area B

44

Appendix 4. Photography Register Photo no

Direction facing

Description Initials/date

113 Pre‐excavation shot of burnt spread (2004) S.C. 03.02.06 114 Pre‐excavation shot of burnt spread (2004) S.C. 03.02.06 115 Pre‐excavation shot of burnt spread (2004) S.C. 03.02.06 116 Pre‐excavation shot of burnt spread (2004) S.C. 03.02.06 117 Pre‐excavation shot of burnt spread (2004) S.C. 03.02.06 118 Pre‐excavation shot of burnt spread (2004) S.C. 03.02.06 New card 26 North West of burnt spread (2004) South‐facing scetion S.C. 15.02.06 27 South West of burnt spread (2004) North‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06 28 East South of burnt spread (2004) West‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06 29 West South of burnt spread (2004) East‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06 30 East North of burnt spread (2004) West‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06 31 West North of burnt spread (2004) East‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06 32 South East of burnt spread (2004) North‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06 33 Working shots of 2.1B S.C. 15.02.06 34 Working shots of 2.1B S.C. 15.02.06 35 2.1A 36 2.1A 37 Cancelled S.C. 15.02.06 38 Cancelled S.C. 15.02.06 39 North East of burnt spread (2004) south‐facing section S.C. 16.02.06 40 2.1A 41 2.1A 42 2.1A 43 East West‐facing section of trough (2005) S.C. 16.02.06 44 West Eastern cut of trough (2005) working shot S.C. 16.02.06 45 South Northern cut of trough (2005) working shot S.C. 16.02.06

45

Appendix 5. Drawing Register Drawing no

Drawing type

Description Scale Initials/date

1 Section South/west quadrant (2004) 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06 2 Section North/west quadrant (2004) 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06 3 Section North/east quadrant (2004) North‐

facing section 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06

4 Section North/east quadrant (2004) East‐facing section

1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06

5 Section South/east quadrant (2004) 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06 6 Section South/west‐facing of pit (2017) 1:10 N.K. 15.02.06 7 Plan Post‐excavation plan of pit (2017) 1:20 N.K. 15.02.06 8 Section South/west‐facing of trough (2005) 1:10 L.C. 16.03.06 9 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (2004) &

(2005) 1:50 N.K. 16.02.06

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Appendix 6. Lithics Report

Site A024/E2437, Newford, Co. Galway The lithic assemblage Torben Bjarke Ballin INTRODUCTION In 2005, Headland Archaeology Ltd. carried out pre‐construction testing on Site A024/E2437, in the Townland of Newford, Co. Galway (Wilkins 2006). During this work, two separate areas of archaeological potential were identified (Areas A and B). A full archaeological excavation was subsequently carried out on the site in February 2006. This work revealed a possible Bronze Age funerary pyre, cremation cemetery, and associated postholes in Area A, and the presence of a Bronze Age fulachta fiadh with associated trough in Area B. Below, the site is generally referred to as Newford. During the investigation of the site, six pieces of worked chert were recovered, all within Area A. One piece was found in a posthole (C. 1112), four pieces were found in a pit (C. 1005) with, inter alia, burnt bone and oyster shell, and one piece was found in a probable tree‐throw hole (C. 1164). The purpose of the present report is to characterise and, to the degree this is possible, date and interpret the lithic finds. The evaluation of the lithic assemblage is based upon a detailed catalogue of all the lithic finds from Newford, and the artefacts in this report are referred to by their number (CAT no.) in the catalogue. Basic Terminology The definitions of the main lithic categories are as follows: Chips: All flakes and indeterminate pieces the greatest dimension (GD) of which is ≤ 10 mm.

Flakes: All lithic artefacts with one identifiable ventral (positive or convex) surface, GD > 10 mm and L < 2W (L = length; W = width).

Indeterminate pieces: Lithic artefacts which cannot be unequivocally identified as either flakes or cores. Generally the problem of identification is due to irregular breaks, frost‐shattering or fire‐crazing. Chunks are larger indeterminate pieces, and in, for example, the case of quartz, the problem of identification usually originates from a piece flaking along natural planes of weakness rather than flaking in the usual conchoidal way.

Blades and microblades: Flakes where L ≥ 2W. In the case of blades W > 8 mm, in the case of microblades W ≤ 8 mm.

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Cores: Artefacts with only dorsal (negative or concave) surfaces – if three or more flakes have been detached, the piece is a core, if fewer than three flakes have been detached, the piece is a split or flaked pebble.

Tools: Artefacts with secondary retouch (modification). Catalogue The assemblage includes the following six lithic objects Context 1113 (singular fill of posthole C. 1112) CAT 7. Secondary indeterminate flake (characterised by platform collapse), black chert (42 x 22 x 7 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake has been trimmed. SF 001. Context 1143 (uppermost fill of pit C. 1005) CAT 8. Secondary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (37 x 32 x 8 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake is untrimmed. SF 001. CAT 9. Proximal section of secondary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (27 x 22 x 5 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake is untrimmed. SF 002. CAT 10. Tertiary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (25 x 21 x 6 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake is untrimmed. SF 002. CAT 11. Proximal section of tertiary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (22 x 16 x 8 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake is untrimmed. SF 002. Context 1165 (secondary fill of probable tree‐throw hole C. 1164) CAT 12. Right lateral fragment of primary hard‐hammer flake with edge‐retouch, black chert (27 x 14 x 7). The fracture is a so‐called ‘split‐bulb fracture’ (Accident Siret). The platform‐edge of the flake is untrimmed. The piece has regular blunting along the entire right lateral side. SF 001. Discussion In total, the assemblage from Newford includes six lithic artefacts, all of which are in black chert. This small assemblage embraces: five flakes (CAT 1‐6), and one piece with edge‐retouch (CAT 6). The edge‐retouched piece is based on a plain primary flake.

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Table 1. General artefact list.

Debitage Flakes 5 Total debitage 5 Tools Pieces w edge‐retouch 1 Total tools 1 TOTAL 6

In general, Irish black chert occurs in a number of qualities, with some being relatively fine‐grained and some more coarse‐grained. Some cherts are homogeneous, whereas others are riddled with intersecting planes of weakness, with the latter causing the raw material to flake in an uncontrollable manner. The chert from the present site is generally of good quality: it is fine‐grained, with relatively few planes of weakness, and, in the main, it has excellent flaking properties. The Irish chert is associated with the island’s Carboniferous Limestone, explaining its total dominance at Newford. The western part of Co. Galway has a relatively mixed geology, consisting of a sequence of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock forms, whereas the geology east of Lough Corrib is almost exclusively Carboniferous Limestone, with the occasional occurrence of chert (Sevastopulo & Jackson 2001). As mentioned in the introduction, the chert artefacts derive from three different contexts, all within Area A. CAT 1 derives from a posthole of unknown function (C. 1112), and CAT 6 from a pit, which is thought to be a tree throw hole (C. 1164). Both of these contexts add little to the understanding of the site. CAT 2.5, on the other hand, are from a pit (C. 1005), which may be a geological feature, but the fact that it contains not only most of the site’s chert objects, but also burnt bone and oyster shell, makes it slightly more interesting. Whether the cut was formed by human hand, or by natural agents, is uncertain, but its content links it to the funereal activities which took place at the Newford site. The assemblage does not include any diagnostic pieces, but the lack of blade blanks indicates that it may be of a later prehistoric date. In Britain and Ireland blades were produced up to, and including, the beginning of the Late Neolithic period (Pitts & Jacobi 1979; Ballin forthcoming). After this watershed, all industries focused on the manufacture of flakes. The technological indications are, in other words, consistent with the Bronze Age date suggested by the excavator for the entire Newford site (Wilkins 2006). Bibliography Ballin, T.B. forthcoming: The British Late Neolithic ‘Levalloisian’, and other operational schemas

from the later prehistoric period. A discussion based on finds from the Stoneyhill Project, Aberdeenshire. Proceedings of Conference held by the British Neolithic Studies Group, at the British Museum 2005.

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Pitts, M.W., & Jacobi, R.M. 1979: Some Aspects of Change in Flaked Stone Industries of the Mesolithic and Neolithic in Southern Britain. Journal of Archaeological Science 6, 163‐177.

Sevastopulo, G.D., & Wyse Jackson, P.N. 2001: Carboniferous (Dinantian). In C.H. Holland (ed.): The Geology of Ireland, 241‐288. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.

Wilkins, B. 2006: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Preliminary report on archaeological investigations at Site A024/002, a Bronze Age cremation cemetery and burnt mound in the Townland of Ballygaraun, South Newford, Co. Galway. Headland Archaeology Ltd., unpublished report.

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Appendix 7. Faunal remains report By Auli Tourunen A total of 107 specimens of animal bones were recovered from site E2437, Newford, Co. Galway. Excavation revealed a Bronze Age funerary pyre and associated post‐holes in Area A, and a Bronze Age burnt mound with an associated trough in Area B. The bones derive from both areas. From Area A, both burnt and unburnt bones were recovered. Bones recovered from context (1005), interpreted as a possibly non‐archaeological large pit, included sheep or goat teeth fragments. Both burnt and unburnt unidentifiable bone were present. Some animal bones were recovered from other contexts, including cremated bones identified as human (report by Carmelita Troy, Headland Archaeology Ltd). Three contexts yielded unidentified burnt animal bone fragments (1069, 1088, 1091). Badly preserved unburnt cattle astragalus was recovered from context 1107. A fragment of pig tibia, a piece of red deer antler and sheep or goat teeth were identified among unburnt animal bones from pit 1004, along with some burnt animal bones (1056, 1057). Bones from Area B included two unburnt large mammal vertebra fragments. One is likely to be red deer. The other is only identifiable as a large mammal (red deer, cattle or horse). These were recovered from the fill of the trough (2006). Due to the small size of the material, no detailed analysis was possible. However, the recovered species from Area A have been previously identified from cremation burials dating to this period (McCormick 1985, 40). Red deer bones have been earlier identified from burnt mount deposits (O’Drisceoil 1988, 675).

Area context cattle lm pig red deer red deer? sh/g unidentified Total A 1005 1 14 15 A 1069 1 1 A 1088 14 14 A 1091 3 3 A 1107 1 3 4 A 1156 1 1 1 34 37 A 1157 31 31 B 2006 1 1 2 Total 1 1 1 1 1 2 100 107

Table 1. Species and anatomical representation of sample (NISP). Lm = large mammal (cattle, red deer, horse).

References McCormick, F 1985 ‘Faunal remains from prehistoric Irish burials’ J Irish Archaeol III, 6, 37‐48. O’Drisceoil, D.A. 1988 ‘Burnt mounds: cooking or bathing?’ Antiquity 62: 671‐80.

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Appendix 8. Soil Sample Assessment By Susan Lyons Background Excavations at Newford (E2437) were carried out in advance of the N6 Galway – Ballinasloe Road Scheme, on behalf of Galway County Council. The site was located Site approximately 1.5 km south west of Athenry in the townland of Ballygarraun, South Newford, Co. Galway. Two separate areas were identified [Areas A & B]. The excavations revealed a Bronze Age funerary pyre, cremation cemetery and associated structural post‐holes in Area A, and a Bronze Age fulachta fiadh with associated trough in Area B. A comprehensive sampling strategy was employed, where a total of 76 bulk soil samples were taken representing all significant fills and deposits. Methodology Fifty‐two soil samples were selected for the recovery of palaeobotanical remains and small finds.Each sample was subjected to a system of flotation in a Siraf style flotation tank. The floating debris (flot) was collected in a 250 μm sieve and, once dry, scanned using a binocular microscope. Any remaining material in the flotation tank (retent) was wet‐sieved through a 1mm mesh and air‐dried. This was then sorted by eye and any material of archaeological significance removed. An assessment of each sample was made to determine whether it would benefit from any more detailed analysis. The results from this are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Results The botanical remains were preserved by charring in all cases. Wood charcoal –All samples contained wood charcoal in low to high concentrations. A higher concentration of wood charcoal (+++ and ++++) was recorded from many pit features, postholes and cremation deposits. Samples identified with an asterisk (*) in Table 1 contain sufficient quantities of charcoal for obtaining a radiocarbon date. Carbonised hazelnut shell – Just four features contained very small fragments of carbonised hazelnut shell; C1069 [fill of pit 1068], C1101 [fill of post‐hole 1100], C1158[fill of cremation pit 1004] and 1175 [fills of pit 1005]. Carbonised cereal grain – Six features contained evidence for cereal remains; C1040 [fill of pit], C1065 [fill of post‐hole], C1067 [fill of post‐hole], C1134 [fill of post‐hole], C1171 [fill of post‐hole] and C1175 [fill of pit 1005]. The cereal remains recorded, albeit low were represented primarily by their grain. The grains of barley (Hordeum sp.) and wheat (Triticum sp.) were identified, however the preservation quality of the grain hindered any further species identification. Vesicular and eroded grains were identified from C1040, C1067 and C1175 and these appear in the tables as indeterminate grain. The vesicular character could be indicative of the grain having been charred at high temperatures, that the grain was damp when burnt or that this material had degraded due to redeposition and exposure.

52

Burnt bone –Thirteen samples contained burnt bone (see Osteoarchaeological Report). Unburnt bone – Unburnt bone was recovered from five features; low concentrations were identified from C1007 (fills of post‐hole ), C1050 (fill of post‐hole ), C1069 (fill of pit ), C1107 (fill of post‐hole ) and C1162 (fill of post‐hole ). Metallic debris – Many of the features contained metallic material in low to high concentrations. The highest concentrations (++++) of metallic debris were recorded from C1088, C1140, C1147 and C1157. While this material contains a metallic component, it is difficult to ascertain whether this is a result of metal working or naturally occurring deposits. No more can be said about the material at this time. Mollusca – A very low concentration of molluscs was recorded from C1110 however, it is difficult to make any assumptions based on this minute assemblage and so no more can be ascertain at this assessment stage. Flint – Evidence for flint debitage was identified from seven features – C1037, C1088, C1091, C1099, C1107, C1146 and C1169. Based on the size of the assemblage however, it is difficult to establish whether it represents cultural or natural material. Chert – Fragments of chert were also recovered from the majority of the features, with larger concentrations recorded from C1037, C1099 and C1169 and 1014. It is difficult to ascertain however, whether the fragments were culturally or naturally formed. DISCUSSION For the purpose of this report Area A and Area B will be discussed separately. Area A The presence of carbonised cereal grain in some of the samples from Area A indicates that a degree of domestic activity may have been carried out in or around the site. Much of the grain was abraded and proved difficult to identify further. While barley and wheat were recorded, they are both cereal types which were cultivated from the prehistoric period to modern times. The grain, which was altogether recorded in small numbers, was randomly scattered across the site in ones and twos and was not associated with any conflagration deposits. This suggests that the material is the result of secondary or even tertiary deposition of crop processing debris, which would have entered structural deposits or features via local water channels, through wind and human activity, or during infilling of open features. Charcoal is a common occurrence on archaeological sites and is likely to reflect a) the use of hearths in and around the site and b) the cleaning out and dumping of this burnt debris into nearby open features. Carbonised hazelnut shell is a frequently recorded on prehistoric sites (Moffett et al. 1989; Greig. 1991) and its presence is usually interpreted as a) the waste debris of gathered foodstuffs or b) a fuel source. In this instance, the hazelnut shell recovered from many of the features is in such small quantities, that its origin is uncertain.

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The botanical evidence from Area A, with the exception of the wood charcoal, was generally quite low. While the cereal assemblage does indicate that crop processing was carried out in the vicinity, this area of the site may not have been the focus for domestic activity. Area B The soil samples from Area B contained primarily wood charcoal fragments. This is a pattern that has been recorded from other burnt mound sites, such as Carton Demesne, Maynooth (O’Sullivan, 2001) and similar features recorded from the N25 archaeological excavations (Sites 7, 11, 40, 41 and 44) (Lyons, 2004a, 2004b, 2005c, 2005d, 2005e). The high charcoal content recorded from Contexts 2004, 2011 and 2012 [fulacht deposits] is not surprising since these deposits are directly related to the burning activities carried out within these fulachta fiadh and associated features. The charcoal recorded from the other features (C2018 and C2020) is likely to be material transported from the fulacht and burnt mound sources, which has become re‐distributed across a wider area. Evidence for what was tentatively identified as metallic material was recorded from C2011 (fill of trough C2005), C2018 (fill of pit C2017) and C2020 (fill of cut C201)]. It is very possible that this material is a result of naturally occurring iron‐panning, however without a proper detailed study of the material, it is difficult to fully ascertain. The animal bone identified from C2020 (fill of cut C2019) it likely to be associated with the animal skeleton excavated from this feature and should be discussed with the animal bone assemblage. References Greig, J, 1991 ‘The British Isles’ in van Zeist, Wasylikowa & Behre (eds) Progess in Old World Palaeoethnobotany, 299 – 334. Rotterdam. Lyons, 2004a ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Hegarty L and Long, P 2004 N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 7 in the townland of Ballymountain, Co. Kilkenny. Excavation Licence No.: 04E0331. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report. ‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2004b ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Hegarty L. and Long, P. 2004 N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Preliminary report on the archaeological investigations at Sites 9‐11 in the Townland of Killaspy, Co. Kilkenny. Excavation Licence No.: 04E0257. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report. ‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2005c ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Gleeson, C and Breen, G. 2005 N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 40 in the townland of Rathpatrick, Co. Kilkenny Excavation Licence No.: 04E0318. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report. ‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2005d ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Gleeson, C and Breen, G. 2005 N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 41 in the townland of Killaspy, Co.

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Kilkenny Excavation Licence No.: 04E0770. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report. ‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2005e ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Gleeson, C and Breen, G. 2005 N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 44 in the townland of Killaspy, Co. Kilkenny. Excavation Licence No.: 04E0318. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report. O’Neill, J 2000 ‘Just another fulacht fiadh story’, Archaeology Ireland Vol. 14 No.2 O’Sullivan, E 2001 ‘No. 666 Site 5, Carson Demesne, Maynooth, Co. Kildare’, in I. Bennett (ed) Excavations Bulletin, Excavations 2001, p198. Wordwell Ltd, Dublin. Moffett, L et al 1989 Cereals, fruits and nuts: charred plant remains from Neolithic sites in England and Wales and the Neolithic economy. In A Milles, D Williams & N Gardner (eds), The beginnings of agriculture. British Archaeological Repots International Series 496: 234‐261.

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Appendix 9. Human Remains Report By Carmelita Troy

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Weight distribution of identified fragments from pyre fill (1104) Figure 2 Percentage of colour of cremated bone in each deposit of pyre (1004) LIST OF PLATES Plate 1 Pre‐excavation shot of Spit 1 of pyre fill (1104) in NE quadrant of pyre (1004) Plate 2 Pre‐excavation shot of Spit 2 of pyre fill (1104) in NE quadrant of pyre (1004) Plate 3 North facing post‐excavation shot of cremation pyre (1004) Plate 4 Skull fragments Plate 5 Two distal hand phalanges Plate 6 Nutrient foramen on right tibia Plate 7 Premolar crown (left); third molar root and partial crown (right) Plate 8 Range of colours of cremated bone – black, blue, grey and white Plate 9 Experimental pyre of a cremating pig (Marshall 2005) Plate 10 Worked chert (E2437:1104:1) Plate 11 Quartz pebbles LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Radiocarbon results obtained from E2437 Newford Table 2 Size of samples processed for cremation analysis Table 3 Summary of the quantification analysis Table 4 Summary of cremated bone present by sieve fraction weight and percentage of

total weight Table 5 Range of colours in burnt bone related to the temperature

APPENDIX Table 1 Cremated material by spit and colour Table 2 Cremated material by spit and sieve fraction Table 3 Recognisable skeletal elements by context (g) Figure 1 Representation of recognisable elements from cremation burial (1104) E2437

Newford

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SUMMARY This document is submitted as a report for the post‐excavation treatment and analysis of cremated human remains retrieved from Site E2437, in the townland of Newford, Co. Galway. This document details the methodologies and analytical procedures that were undertaken to complete the report. The excavation was undertaken on behalf of Galway County Council in compliance with Ministerial Directions issued for the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe PPP Scheme (Contract 2 Newford to Knocknadaula) under the National Monuments Amendment Act 2004. Test excavations on this site in 2005 identified two separate areas of archaeological potential on the basis of negative cut features and associated in situ burning visible in the base of test trenches. Limited investigation of these features confirmed their status as archaeological, and these separate areas were subsequently designated Area A and Area B with recommendations for full excavation of all features to ascertain the character, significance and extent of archaeological deposits. Full excavation revealed a possible Bronze Age funerary pyre, cremated token deposits and associated post‐holes in Area A, and a Bronze Age burnt mound with associated trough in Area B. 1. Introduction This document is submitted as a report on the osteological analysis of cremated human remains recovered during archaeological excavations at Newford, Co. Galway under the direction of Brendon Wilkins of Headland Archaeology Ltd. The human remains from E2437 Newford consist of burnt bone from within pits (1068, 1161 & 1177); post‐holes (1135, 1006, 1058, 1100, 1087, 1090, 1098, 1133, 1039, 1066 & 1024) and a pyre feature (1004). The majority of the osteological analysis was carried out on the pyre pit, which contained a moderate quantity of cremated bone. 2. Methodology

2.1. Processing

All contexts containing a considerable amount of human bone were carefully wet‐sieved through a sieve bank of 10 mm, 5 mm and 2 mm mesh sizes, under the supervision of a qualified osteologist. However, there were some samples that were processed through a flotation tank because of the small amount of cremated bone that was believed to be in them. Any grave goods, pyre debris and charcoal recovered during this process were retained for examination by the appropriate specialist. The cleaned bone was dried and bagged according to mesh size, and packed in museum standard boxes prior to analysis.

57

2.2. Analysis Following procedures laid down by McKinley (1994b; 2004), and Gejvall (1969), the remains from each burial were assessed for:

• weight • degree of fragmentation • skeletal elements • demographic data ‐ sex, age, minimum number of individuals • pathology data • efficiency of cremation.

2.3. Dating Bone samples from two contexts were provided to Queen’s University, Belfast, for radiocarbon dating. The results indicate that the funerary activity at Newford dates to the latter stages of the Later Bronze Age. Table 1 also shows the radiocarbon dates of charcoal from deposits that also contained burnt bone.

Context Description Lab Number Radiocarbon Date BP

Calibrated range (2 sigma) calendar yrs BC /

AD

1104 Cremated human bone from pyre feature (1004)

UB‐7406 2535 +/‐ 35 799‐540 BC

1156 Cremated human bone from pyre feature (1004)

UB‐7484 2580 +/‐ 34 814‐559 BC

1007 Charcoal Corylus avellana (hazel) from post‐hole (1006)

UB‐7399 2863 +/‐ 33 1187‐921 BC

1059 Charcaol Quercus sp. (oak) from post‐hole (1058)

UB‐7401 2843 +/‐ 33 1114‐918 BC

1069 Charcoal Pomoidaceae spp. (apple/hawthorn/rowan type) from pit (1068)

UB‐7402 2834 +/‐ 33 1113‐908 BC

1162 Charcoal Pomoidaceae spp. (apple/hawthorn/rowan type) from post‐hole (1161)

UB‐7403 2854 +/‐ 32 1121‐925 BC

Table 1. Radiocarbon results from E2437 Newford 3. Results In all, 18 possible cremations were fully excavated, resulting in 213 litres of material processed, see Table 2 below. Context Fill Of Sample No Feature Type Sample Size (lt.)1104 (1004) 20, 21,22, 24, 25, 59, 60, 71, 72, 74,

75 Fill of pyre 43.5

1156 (1004) 61, 76, 66 Fill of pyre 5 1136 (1135) 13 Fill of post‐hole 4

58

1007 (1006) 4 Fill of post‐hole 20 1059 (1058) 8 Fill of post‐hole 10 1069 (1068) 43 Fill of pit 4 1162 & 1163

(1161) 38 Fills of post‐hole 20

1101 (1100) 41 Fill of post‐hole 30 1157 (1004) 67 Fill of pyre 1 1088 (1087) 42 Fill of post‐hole 20 1025 (1024) 5 Fill of post‐hole 5 1091 (1090) 6 Fill of post‐hole 5 1099 (1098) 15 Fill of post‐hole 20 1134 (1133) 14 Fill of post‐hole 15 1179 (1177) 69 Fill of pit 0.5 1040 (1039) 26 Fill of post‐hole 5 1067 (1066) 39 Fill of post‐hole 5

Table 2. Size of samples processed for cremation analysis 3.1. Type of Deposit Recording of the type of deposit of cremated bone is necessary to make fair comparisons between different deposits from across a site, between one site and another and between cremated bone deposits from different historical contexts. Recording the type of deposit allows inferences to be made about the state of preservation of the material interred and how this may have affected bone content and fragmentation. This information is essential for accurate analysis of cremation processes due to diagnostic analytical techniques being based upon the weight and size of bone fragments present. In Area A, 18 features with burnt human bone were excavated and 100% sampled. These features were a similar dimension, profile and fill, and were all interpreted as a pyre, cremation pits and post‐holes. There was no evidence for in situ burning or capping stones associated with these features that could otherwise have indicated the visible presence of a cremation from the surface. Pyre feature (1004) (Plate 3) was sub‐rectangular in shape and 3.7 m long and 2 m wide, with a NW/SE orientation. Three fills (1157, 1156 & 1104) of the pyre feature contained varying quantities of cremated bone. Pyre fill (1157), was charcoal rich but only contained occasional burnt bone. The secondary deposit (1156) contained both burnt human and animal bone. It is also important to note that this feature was excavated in spits between 0.04‐0.05 m in an attempt to ascertain, whether the bone was distributed in a deliberate order, or whether it had been placed into the pit with no regard for skeletal element. These spits were identified with a number; Spit 1 of context (1156) was displayed as 1156:1 (Plate 1) and Spit 2 as 1156:2 (Plate 2). A deposit of cremated material (1104) contained frequent burnt bone throughout and it was also excavated in spits between 70‐80 mm, 1104:1 (Plate 1), 1104:2 (Plate 2) and 1104:3. This pit was very trough‐like in appearance, the deposit of cremated material (1104) appears to have been placed on the eastern side much later than the pit was dug.

59

The post‐holes containing burnt bone material ranged in dimensions from 0.15 m in diameter and 0.17 m deep to 0.43 m by 0.41 m. Post‐hole fills (1136, 1007, 1059, 1162/3, 1101, 1088, 1025, 1091, 1099, 1134, 1040, 1067) also contained varying amounts of charcoal and burnt material. Only post‐hole fill (1007) contained a single rim sherd of shell tempered pottery and (1069) contained an animal tooth. The secondary fill (1069) of a shallow pit (3.5 m wide, 2 m long and 0.15 m deep) was charcoal rich, and contained burnt bone. Additionally a burnt depression (1179) contained some charcoal, occasional burnt stones and bone. 3.2. Identification and quantification of cremated bone Cremated bone deposits have been found on frequent occasions to contain both human and animal bone remains. Often, particularly if the bone fragments are very small, it is not possible to identify whether bone is categorically human or animal. However, it is clear from the analysis of cremated bone deposits that the deposition of both types of bone together is intentional and, therefore, it is imperative to approach the assessment of the cremated bone present in an integrated way to attempt to identify human and animal elements. The table below summarises the results of the quantification analysis:

Context Total Weight ofCremated Bone (g)

Total Weight of Identifiable Human Fragments (g) MNI

1104 684.9 72.3 1 1156 7.2 0 0 1136 1.1 0 0 1007 0.3 0 0 1059 1.2 0 0 1069 0.7 0 0 1162/3 0.2 0 0 1101 1.0 0 0 1157 0.1 0 0 1088 2.8 0 0 1025 0.3 0 0 1091 0.6 0 0 1099 0.3 0 0 1134 4.0 0 0 1179 3.8 0 0 1040 0.5 0 0 1067 0.8 0 0 Total 709.8 72.3 1

Table 3. Summary of the quantification analysis An assessment of the quantity of bone recovered may give an indication of the state of preservation of the associated feature in which the bone was interred or, if recovered from a relatively undisturbed context, may provide valuable information regarding cremation processes. This may relate not only to the actual pyre technology itself but also to the collection and ritual

60

deposition of bone after the process was complete. McKinley (1993) found that modern cremation processes resulted in the production of between 1227.4 g and 3001.3 g of bone. From this she inferred that the cremation of a whole body and deposition of the remains in an archaeological context would realistically produce between 1001.5 g and 2422 g of cremated human bone. Identification of particular elements of the human body serves to confirm the presence of human material and also may give an insight into any particular areas of the body which may have been purposefully collected following cremation. The absence of elements, especially those that are smaller, may be due to the lack of their survival as a result of fragmentation during the cremation, post‐depositional preservation conditions or may be due to their loss during cremation itself. The content of the bone from each context varied but was consistently well below (an approximation of 10%) the amount that would be expected by osteologists to be representative of a cremated, whole body in an archaeological deposition. Even though Table 3 shows that the MNI for the site in Newford is one.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Skull AxialSkeleton

UpperLimb

LowerLimb

Total Weight (g)

Total Weight (g)

Figure 1. Weight distribution of identified fragments from pyre fill (1104)

Only the main pyre fill (1104) produced bone fragments that could be identified as definitely being human. It contained skull fragments (Plate 4), teeth, humerus, radii, ulna, hand phalanges (Plate 5), ribs, cervical vertebrae, tibiae (Plate 6) and fibula. Figure 1 below shows the weight distribution of identified fragments from this context: 3.3. Demographic Data Demographic data recorded from human cremated bone gives an indication as to the age and sex of the individual. This information is derived from the macroscopic examination and metric assessment of sexually dimorphic elements (Gejvall 1981) as well as analysis of dental and bone

63

Table 5. Range of colours in burnt bone related to the temperature The colour may vary from bone to bone as different elements of the body may be exposed to different temperatures for different lengths of time. It is, therefore, essential to record any differences in colouration according to skeletal elements affected and to the aspect of the element (i.e. interior, exterior) affected. The extent of the burning or oxidation of the bone represents the relative success of the cremation processed applied and contemporary knowledge of pyre technology. Dehydration of the bone was recorded in Newford. Horizontal and longitudinal cracking were evident in the majority of the identifiable long bones. There was also evidence of ‘U’‐shaped cracking of the femoral shaft. Shrinkage of bone due to dehydration can amount to a 25‐30% decrease in cross‐section width and accordingly approximately a 5% decrease in length (Lange et al. 1987).

05

101520253035404550

% o

f Mat

eria

l

1157 1156 1104Cremation Deposits

UnburntBlackBlueGreyWhite

Figure 2. Percentage of colour of cremated bone in each deposit of pyre (1004)

Colour Temperature

Brown/Orange Unburnt

Black Charred (c.400°C)

Blue/Grey Incompletely Oxidised (c.500‐700°C)

White Completely Oxidised (>800°C)

61

development recommended by Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994). A large sample of well‐preserved cremated bone deposits can provide a valuable insight into the demographic structure of the archaeological population and also into any ethnocentric funerary practices associated with age and sex of the individual cremation. Observations of material present and any indicators of age and sex were noted on the recording sheets. No fragments present were large enough to allow for metric or observable morphological assessments to be undertaken. Age The pyre fill (1104) contained two elements that could be analysed macroscopically to ascertain the age of this individual. These were a permanent root of a third molar and two crowns of a premolar. This would indicate that the individual was at least 21 years old at death. The remaining contexts contained no elements that could be analysed macroscopically to ascertain the age of these individuals. Sex No elements were present in any of the contexts from Newford that could be assessed for indications of the sex of this individual. 3.4. Bone Fragmentation The observation and quantification of bone fragmentation is essential in assessing its impact on the quality of the overall data retrieved from the analysis of cremated bone. It may also be an indicator of practices carried out during the cremation process and give an insight into pyre technology. Usually fragmentation of bone can be assessed by sorting all bone fragments into three sieve fractions (10 mm, 5 mm, 2 mm) and comparing the proportion of bone in each fraction (McKinley 2004); but due to the nature of the samples it was thought best for them to be wet‐sieved through a flotation tank. Measurement of the maximum bone fragment is also recorded. The fragmentation of bone can occur for several reasons, i.e. from the raking of the remains during the cremation process, the collection and the subsequent interment of the remains, making it difficult to assess whether bone was deliberately fragmented as part of the cremation ritual (McKinley 1994b). It is, however, generally believed that both the excavation and post‐excavation processes can lead to the largest amount of damage caused to the remains (Lange et al. 1987; McKinley 1994b). Table 4 below summarises the results of the quantification of cremated bone present by sieve fraction weight and percentage of total weight:

62

Context 10mm weight (g)

10mm% of Total

5mm weight (g)

5mm % of Total

2mm weight (g)

2mm % of Total

1104:1 83.7 17.9% 246.8 52.9% 136.3 29.2% 1104:2 21.9 10.5% 101.1 48.6% 85.2 40.9% 1104:3 1.4 14.1% 5.6 56.6% 2.9 29.3% 1156:1 0 0 0.7 31.8% 1.5 68.2% 1156:2 0 0 2.2 45.8% 2.6 54.2% 1136 0 0 0.7 63.6% 0.4 36.4% 1007 0 0 0 0 0.3 100 1059 0 0 0 0 1.2 100 1069 0 0 0 0 0.7 100 1162/3 0 0 0 0 0.2 100% 1101 0.1 10% 0.3 30% 0.6 60% 1157 0 0 0 0 0.1 100% 1088 2.4 85.7% 0.3 10.7% 0.1 3.6% 1025 0.3 100% 0 0 0 0 1091 0.2 33.3% 0.3 50% 0.1 16.7% 1099 0 0 0.1 33.3% 0.2 66.7% 1134 3.4 85% 0.5 12.5% 0.1 2% 1179 2.6 68.4% 0.8 21.1% 0.4 10.5% 1040 0.3 60% 0.2 40% 0 0 1067 0.6 75% 0.2 25% 0 0

Table 4. Summary of cremated bone present by sieve fraction weight and percentage of total weight

These results indicate that 83.5% of the cremated bone recovered from all of the deposits was less than 10 mm in size. Although the average maximum fragment size was 16.79 mm (36.6 mm being the maximum), only a small percentage of the bone present was of this size. The vast majority of the bone, however, was rounded and indicated that the degree of bone fragmentation observed may have been present at the time of deposition. This may, therefore, have been the result of the cremation processed employed. 3.5. Efficiency of the Cremation Effective cremation of a human body requires basically two elements: burning at high temperatures and a sufficient length of time of the application of this heat. Differences in temperature and length of time of exposure will result in variation in how the bone is burned. Complete burning will result in complete oxidation of the organic element of bone, leaving the mineral portion remaining (McKinley 1994a; Lange et al. 1987). Walker et al. (2006) reports that generally, the range of colours (black, blue, grey and white – Plate 8) seen in burnt bone relates to the temperature to which the bone was exposed as seen in Table 5 below:

64

Figure 2 displays the percentage of colour of cremated bone in each deposit of pyre pit (1004). The results of the analysis of colour variation in the fragments of bone indicate that all of the deposits contained bone that had been exposed to heat at a sufficient temperature (i.e. above 800°C) for a sustained amount of time in order to completely oxidise the bone. However, there was quite an amount of bone (67%) that was not completely oxidised (>800°C). The presence of blue/grey bone amongst completely oxidised bone was common in Newford. This was generally present along the internal surface, or in the cancellous bone of long bones. This may indicate that this bone was exposed to high enough temperatures to oxidise the outside of the bone (or cortical bone) but not for long enough for the internal surface of the bone to oxidise (Murray and Rose 1993). This implies that only some regions of the skeleton were completely burnt while others did not quite reach the optimum temperature. The presences of unburnt bone in pit fill (1069), pyre fill (1157) and post‐hole fill (1134) were noted during analysis and may well represent an event separate to the main cremation process. 3.6. Presence and Type of Pyre Debris Recent experimental reconstructions of pyre sites have determined that distinct features and types of debris can be left by former pyre sites and in particular that the use of different materials alters the type and form of deposit (Marshall 2005). Preliminary species identification of the charcoal from the pyre deposit (1104) and post‐hole (1136) reveals that a range of trees were gathered as firewood, including oak, hazel, ash and willow. Oak produce hot fires, which burn for long periods of time, making it ideal for use in a cremation pyre. The presence of hazel, which generally prefers to grow in more ‘dryland’ conditions, and willow, which would be considered as a typical ‘wetland’ species, indicates that firewood was collected from dry areas like the nearby riverbanks, or that the site was located on the boundary of a dry and wetland environment. Ash makes excellent firewood, burns fragrantly and prefers moist but well drained fertile soils. Lime‐rich soils are conductive to the growth of ash. There is some suggestion in the literature that fragrant woods were preferred for cremation pyres (McKinley 1994b). This evidence corresponds with the site as it was described as being good quality pastureland and with decayed limestone contained in the natural and subsoils. 4. Discussion At Newford, 14 features contained burnt bone (excluding pyre feature 1004). It is unlikely that all of these are token burials. Any feature containing less than 1.0 g of burnt bone is discounted as being a token deposit as it is possible that wind or other natural processes could have easily carried this material. Therefore only six possible token burials were considered in Newford but it is very unlikely that this constitutes a Late Bronze Age cemetery, as even the amount of burnt bone in these features are considerably minute. The sub‐rectangular feature (1004) probably represents a pyre structure that would have supported the cremation of an individual. It was 3.2 m long, 1.6 m wide and no more than 0.15 m deep. It contained charcoal‐rich contexts and a moderate amount of burnt bone. If this was a

65

pyre then it would have adequately held a human body on top of the pyre material, as an experimental pyre of a cremating pig (Plate 7) measures 2 m long by 1.25 m wide (Marshall 2005). Radiocarbon dating estimations divide the site into two separate phases of activity. The pits and post‐holes containing minute fragments of burnt bone and dated charcoal suggest that they were in use several generations (approximately 300 years) before the use of the pyre. This would suggest that the inclusion of burnt bone into these pits and post‐hole were completed long before the area was used as a pyre site and therefore primary and secondary burial rites were not being practiced contemporarily. This would support the notion that when funerary pyres are identified they are rarely located near cemeteries (Waddell 1990, 20). It is unclear how carefully the remains were gathered following firing. However, the presence of some hand phalanges and teeth suggests that they had been carefully collected. It is possible that subsequent erosion has reduced what were originally much fuller remains. Many fragments had clearly broken along fracture lines during the burning process. Unfortunately, it cannot be stated with certainty how many individuals were represented in pyre fill (1104). The most convincing evidence points to most of the remains belonging to an adult. However, the presence of a third molar and premolar indicates that either these were stray teeth, which somehow became incorporated with the remains of another individual, or that the entire remains were those of an adult, aged at least 21 years.

The sex of this individual (or individuals) is unknown. There was no evidence of disease and the cause of death could not be ascertained. The excavation report considered whether primary processes, such as excarnation may have been carried out on platforms at this site, but osteological analysis of the cremated bone would suggest otherwise. Characteristic dehydration such as horizontal, longitudinal and U‐shaped fissuring was demonstrated on the bone. This indicates a number of factors. Firstly it seems likely that when the body was burnt there was still flesh and particularly fat attached to the bone, as opposed to the burning of defleshed (excarnated) bones. In a modern crematorium, when the body reaches a temperature of 800°C the fat in the body ignites and essentially, the body then burns so fiercely that the gas jets may be switched off (Mays 1998; McKinley 1994a). The splitting on the bones from Newford indicate intense burning such as this but only one third of the sample was fully oxidised (white‐colouration) and the majority of bone (64%) was blue‐grey indicating temperatures between 500‐700°C. This implies that temperatures must have differed throughout the pyre with only a small percentage of bones were becoming charred. Pyre deposit (1104) contained 96.6% of the cremated bone from Newford and was located in the centre of the eastern edge of the pit, constituting one of the upper fills. Further pyre fills (1156 & 1157) also had a small amount of cremated bone but because of the nature and location of these fills it is thought that the cremated bone may have been a result of previous use of the pyre site. However, it is impossible to say how many times the actual pyre feature itself was used. The evidence for the inclusion of goods was a piece of struck chert (Plate 10) and quartz pebbles (Plate 11) located in possible pyre deposit (1104). Chert was often used during the prehistoric period as a source material for stone tools and is considered less attractive and more common than flint. There were three quartz pebbles, one from Spit 1 and two from Spit 2 in the pyre

66

deposits (1104). The inclusion of quartz points to a ritual use. Quartz was a known indicator of copper and gold, and may have been thought to have magical properties (INHP 2006). Also, a single rim sherd from a Late Bronze Age domestic vessel (Grogan & Roche 2007) came from the fill of post‐hole (1007). Although a very minute amount of burnt bone (0.3 g) was found in this context it is unlikely that this was a token burial or that the pottery was linked to the burnt bone. It is quite feasible that the pottery was interred without the burnt bone being associated with it. 5. Conclusion The cremated bone from Newford was mostly found in a pyre feature and only 3.5% of the bone came from various pits and post‐holes. The volume of cremated bone was moderate amounting to 709.8 g for the entire site. Consequently, only a small percentage (10.2%) of the total could be identified. Although no pathological features were noted on the remains, it was ascertained that the individual was an adult, of at least 21 years at death and of indeterminate sex. Pyre sites are not commonly found; therefore Newford helps us investigate prehistoric primary ritual technology. Cremation technology appears to have been imperfectly understood, whereby they used the appropriate firewood for the pyre but did not achieve even temperatures to fully cremate the majority of the bones. The pyre was made up of woods such as oak, hazel, ash and willow, which would have created a very hot and long‐lasting fire.

Plate 1 - Pre-excavation shot of Spit 1 of pyre fill (1104) in northeast quadrant of pyre pit (1004)

Plate 2 - Pre-excavation shot of Spit 2 of pyre fill (1104) in northeast quadrant of pyre pit (1004). Note the concentration of cremated bone

Plate 3 - North-facing post-excavation shot of cremation pyre (1004)

Plate 4 - Skull fragments

Plate 5 - Two distal hand phalanges

Plate 6 - Nutrient foramen on right tibia

Plate 7 - Premolar crown (left); third molar root and partial crown (right)

Plate 8 - Range of colours of cremated bone – black, blue, grey and white

Plate 9 - Experimental pyre of a cremating pig (Marshall 2005)

Plate 10 - Worked chert (E2437:1104:1)

Plate 11 - Quartz pebbles

67

7. Bibliography Buikstra, J E and Ubelaker, D H (eds) 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains, Research Series NO 44, Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological Survey. Gejvall, N G 1969 ‘Cremations’ In Brothwell, D and Higgs, E (eds) Science in Archaeology, 2nd Ed., London: Thames and Hudson. Gejvall, N G 1981‘Determination of burned bone from prehistoric graves: observations on the cremated bones from the graves at Horn’ Ossa Letters NO 2. Grogan, E and Roche, H 2007 ‘Ballygarraun, South Newford, Co. Galway (A024/002, Site 2.1A)’ Report on the prehistoric pottery assemblages from the N6 Galway – Ballinasloe Scheme. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway County Council. Irish National Heritage Park, 2006 ‘Ferrycarrig, Co. Wexford’. http://www.inhp.com/history_bronze.htm Lange, M, Schutkowski, H, Hummel, S and Herrmann, B 1987 A Bibliography on Cremation, PACT 19. Strasbourg: Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. Marshall, A J 2005 ‘Experimental Cremation of Prehistoric Type’. http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/field_proj/amarsh/cremexp.htm Mays, S 1998 The Archaeology of Human Bones, London: Routledge. McKinley, J I 1993 ‘Bone fragment size and weights of bone from modern British cremations and their implications for the interpretation of archaeological cremations’.International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 3, 283‐287. McKinley, J.I. 1994a. ‘ Bone fragment size in British cremation burials and its implications for pyre technology and ritual’. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 339‐342. McKinley, J I 1994b ‘The Anglo‐Saxon cemetery at Spong Hill, North Eltham part VIII: the cremations’ East Anglian Archaeology Report NO 69, Dereham: Field Archaeology Division, Norfolk Museums Service. McKinley, J I 2004 ‘Compiling a skeletal inventory: cremated human bone’ In Brickley, M and McKinley, J I (eds) Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains, Institute of Field Archaeologists Paper NO 7, 9‐13, in association with BABAO. Murray, K A and Rose, J C 1993 ‘The analysis of cremains: a case study involving the inappropriate disposal of mortuary remains’ Journal of Forensic Sciences, 3, 98‐103. Waddell, J 1990 The Bronze Age Burials of Ireland, Galway: Galway University Press.

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Walker, P L, Miller, K W P, and Richman, R 2006 ‘Time, temperature, and oxygen availability: an experimental study of the effects of environmental conditions on the colour and organic content of cremated bone’ Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2‐15. 8. Appendix 8.1. Tables of Raw Data

Cut Fill Spit Total Weight

(g) Black (%)

Blue‐Grey (%)

White (%)

Max. Frag Size (mm)

1004 1104 1 466.8 3.40% 55.70% 40.90% 36.6 1004 1104 2 208.2 10.40% 74.9% 14.60% 33 1004 1104 3 9.9 1% 58.60% 40.40% 27.46 1004 1156 1 2.2 22.70% 45.50% 31.80% 14.8 1004 1156 2 5.0 14% 40% 46% 14.37 1135 1136 ‐ 1.1 9.10% 54.50% 36.40% 14 1006 1007 ‐ 0.3 ‐ ‐ 100% 8.77 1058 1059 ‐ 1.2 8.30% 41.70% 50% 10.8 1068 1069 ‐ 0.9* ‐ 33.30% 44.40% 14.05 1161 1162/1163 ‐ 0.2 ‐ ‐ 100% 9.38 1100 1101 ‐ 1.0 50% 10% 40% 10.60 1004 1157 ‐ 0.2** ‐ ‐ 50% 4.47 1087 1088 ‐ 2.8 46.4% 3.6% 50% 24.79 1024 1025 ‐ 0.3 ‐ 100% ‐ 11.98 1090 1091 ‐ 0.6 ‐ ‐ 100% 10.55 1098 1099 ‐ 0.3 ‐ ‐ 100% 9.28 1133 1134 ‐ 4.1*** ‐ ‐ 97.6% 26.49 1177 1179 ‐ 3.8 26.3% ‐ 73.7% 26.53 1039 1040 ‐ 0.5 ‐ ‐ 100% 11.49 1066 1067 ‐ 0.8 12.5% ‐ 87.5% 16.42 (* 0.2g (22.2%) of unburnt bone) (**0.1g (50%) of unburnt bone) (***0.1g (2.4%) of unburnt bone)

Table 1. Cremated material by spit and colour

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Cut Fill Spit 10mm Fraction 5mm Fraction 2mm Fraction Total Weight1004 1104 1 83.7 246.8 136.3 466.8 1004 1104 2 21.9 101.1 85.2 208.2 1004 1104 3 1.4 5.6 2.9 9.9 1004 1156 1 ‐ 0.7 1.5 2.2 1004 1156 2 ‐ 2.3 2.7 5.0 1135 1136 ‐ ‐ 0.7 0.4 1.1 1006 1007 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 0.3 1058 1059 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 1.2 1068 1069 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 0.7 1161 1162/1163 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 0.2 1100 1101 ‐ 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.0 1004 1157 ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.2 0.1 1087 1088 ‐ 2.4 0.3 0.1 2.8 1024 1025 ‐ 0.3 ‐ - 0.3 1090 1091 ‐ 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.6 1098 1099 ‐ ‐ 0.1 0.2 0.3 1133 1134 ‐ 3.4 0.5 0.1 4.0 1177 1179 ‐ 2.6 0.8 0.4 3.8 1039 1040 ‐ 0.3 0.2 - 0.5 1066 1067 ‐ 0.6 0.2 - 0.8

Table 2. Cremated material by spit and sieve fraction (g) Cut Fill Skull

(g) Axial Skeleton

(g) Upper Limb

(g) Lower Limb

(g) Unidentifiable

(g) 1004 1104 48.4 2.3 10 11.6 612.4 1004 1156 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 7.2 1135 1136 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1.1 1006 1007 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3 1058 1059 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1.2 1068 1069 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.7 1161 1162/1163 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.2 1100 1101 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1.0 1004 1157 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.1 1087 1088 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 2.8 1024 1025 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3 1090 1091 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.6 1098 1099 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3 1133 1134 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 4.0 1177 1179 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 3.8 1039 1040 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.5 1066 1067 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.8

Table 3. Recognisable skeletal elements by context (g)

70

Figure 1. Representation of recognisable elements from cremation burial (1104)

E2437 Newford

1103 1137

1111

1167102410391098 1131

1005 / 1176

10681087112110581100

10741066106010381215121312111209 1076 1112 1170 1207

11991195

1201

1082 1094 1190 1044

1027 1125 1047 1041

11851183113310161014101210101009 1193 1197 120511351123

1018 1030

1021 1035

1062 1085 1096 1119

1064 1092 1105

1172

1004

1150

1131

Legend:1183 = Cut

= 2 large postholes

= Pits with burnt bone

= Postholes with burnt bone

= Postholes cluster A

= Postholes cluster B

= Pit

= Pyre and Postholes

1000

1001

10751067106111281216121412121210

1143

1144

1145

1146

1147

1148

1149

1168

1169

1025

102610401099 1132

1077 1113 1171 1208

12001196

1204

1202

1203

1083

1084

1095

1102

1191

1192

1045

1046

1028

1029

1126

1127

1048

1049

1042

1043

1019

1020

1031

10321063 1086 1097 1120

1154

1153

1152

11511065 1093 11061022

1023

1036

1037

11861184113410171015101310111008 1194 1198 120611361124

1002 1003

1069

1070

1089

1088112210591101

1107

1108

1109

1110

1139

1140

1141

1142

1089

10881173

1155

1087

1156

11321181

1157 1158 1159 1160

1104

Appendix 10: Site matrix

newford bronze age cremation pyre and burnt mound

Documents

overallsiteplan areaa

postexcavationofpyre1004

prehistoricpottery areaa

plansectionoftrough2005

planofpyre1004 areaa

sectionsofpyre1004 areaa

discussion areaa

overallsiteplan areab