NEW WORLD SPANISH

Jessica BleckmannDavid Griwotz

Luisa EllermeierDiana Gonzalez

Outline

1. History, Academies and the Association of Spanish Language Academies

2. Contact Languages3. Varieties of present-day Spanish4. Brief remarks about social variation in

Latin American Spanish5. Standard Latin American Spanish?

The language of many nations: Historical development

• 15th Century: The navigations and the geographical discovery

• Intercontinental Spanish: five centuries, three different periods:– UNITY: Both peninsular and American Spanish as a

unique dominion, as a whole. The colonial period.– DIVERGENCE: 19th Century, the independence

period. The separation from Spain and fragmentation in America.

– CONVERGENCE: 20th Century. Maintaining linguistic unity in different terms.

UNITY: Expansion and consolidation of Spanish in the Colonial America

1. Imposition of Spanish• Inconsistent Language Planning• Priority: religious expansion

2. Consolidation of Spanish• The role of education• Official laws of Carlos III• The Mestizaje

1. Imposition of Spanish• During the Spanish Conquest, both colonizers and natives had the

need to learn the language of the other.

• The first strategy was to capture a small number of natives in each town, to teach them Spanish and turn them into translators.

• Two main goals during early colonization: a. To incorporate the natives under Spanish royal authorityb. To convert them to the Catholic religionTwo opposing tendencies: Monolingualism for political and administrative purposes; preservation of the native languages for evangelization aims.

• Between 1503 and 1550, royal laws: mandatory teaching of Spanishin all towns and encomiendas, but the Crown was against the abolition of native languages and supported their maintenance.

• The missionary priests learned numerous native languages. The Jesuits constituted a special case.

• 1573: Felipe II issued a royal decree that established the maintenance of the native languages and the voluntary learning of Spanish by the Indians. All priests who were sent to the New World, had to have a good command of the native language of the indigenous population entrusted to them.

• Several political authorities who lived in the American territory supported the removal of all indigenous languages, because they considered them an obstacle to the civilization of the natives.

• Prestige: Despite the inconsistency of and frequent variation in language policy, the spread of Spanish was inevitable in the colonies because of its importance for all administrative, official and academic matters.

2. Consolidation of Spanish• Education: the most powerful tool in developing and maintaining the

role of Spanish in colonial administration.

• 1689: royal decree orders the building of more schools in all villages in order to teach Spanish to the indigenous population. It was prescribed that ‘the Indians who did not know Spanish should not be assigned any official job.’

• This demonstrates that at the end of the 17th century, Spanish was still unknown to many Indians. The cause: their lack of access to the school system, particularly in the rural areas.

• Beginning of 18th century: the mestizos constituted an important social sector, and an increasing number of indigenous people were able to speak Spanish. They were used as teachers in remote areas.

• In 1770, Carlos III issued a royal decree ordering that only Spanish could be taught and used in the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico).

• In 1782, Carlos III ordered “that the different languages become extinct and that only Spanish is spoken” and started a plan to provide Castilian teachers to the colonies.

• Despite this discriminatory policy against the native languages (the first of its kind in the colonies of the Spanish Empire), the evangelization labor of the missionaries during almost 300 years had favored the maintenance of these languages, and even their expansion in certain cases (e.g. Quechua).

Divergence• 1810-1824: Independence movement.• Colonial mentality: Colonial linguistic features were

underestimated; whatever imitated the forms of the metropolis was therefore admired.

• Spanish becomes the language of the new American countries; it is part of their cultural heritage and they defend it as such.

• The norm of Spain became the norm of just one of the Hispanic countries.

• The republics: trying to forge a national identity, their own cultural productions were not disregarded anymore but rather defended as national characteristics.

• Identity crisis: Determination to promote American brotherhood vs. creation of an authentic national identity.

• The idea of creating an American literary academy and the national academies was being discussed. Their aim would be to maintain the language without the current influence of Spain but exactly as it was approached there: seeking to preserve the “purity” of the language, which implied that every other use was a deviation.

• Romanticism in the 19th Century: “The only legacy that Americans can accept and accept from Spain in great degree, because it is truly precious, is that of the language, but they accept it in condition of improvement, of progressive transformation, namely, of emancipation.”(Esteban Echeverría, 1837)

• Rufino José Cuervo: Spanish had been de-Europeanized in the same moment it was established in America: the speech of conquerors and settlers was a selection of peninsular Spanish, adapted to different vital circumstances.

• End of the 19th Century: failure to establish a linguistic policy. On one hand, the foundation of academies in America with the RAE as headquarters; on the other, the project of creating new languages in Argentina and Chile.

Convergence• 20th Century: The RAE accepted the fact that the

new situation in America was irreversible and that Americans would not give up their peculiarities, which were also part of their history and culture.

• Menendez Pidal’s speech in 1944, defines “common language” as a tool for unity: a group of nations that possess a language in common (not one with an owner and many borrowers).

• In 1951, the First Congress of Academies took place in México.

First Congress of Academies• In order to promote integrity and further growth

of the language.• The topics treated were:

– The unification of the lexicon, in order to enrich the tradition of the language with the popular uses in America and with the ones that incessantly emerge without any philological explanation.

– To adjust to its true sense the Americanisms that were already listed in the Dictionary.

– To establish academies in those countries, where there was not one as yet.

NATIONAL ACADEMIES• (Spain) Real Academia Española (1713)• (Colombia) Academia Colombiana de la Lengua (1871)• (Ecuador) Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua (1874)• (Mexico) Academia Mexicana de la Lengua (1875)• (El Salvador) Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua (1876)• (Venezuela) Academia Venezolana de la Lengua (1883)• (Chile) Academia Chilena de la Lengua (1885)• (Peru) Academia Peruana de la Lengua (1887)• (Guatemala) Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua (1887)• (Costa Rica) Academia Costarricense de la Lengua (1923)• (Philippines) Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española (1924)• (Panama) Academia Panameña de la Lengua (1926)• (Cuba) Academia Cubana de la Lengua (1926)• (Paraguay) Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española (1927)• (Dominican Republic) Academia Dominicana de la Lengua (1927)• (Bolivia) Academia Boliviana de la Lengua (1927)• (Nicaragua) Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua (1928)• (Argentina) Academia Argentina de Letras (1931)• (Uruguay) Academia Nacional de Letras, del Uruguay (1943)• (Honduras) Academia Hondureña de la Lengua (1949)• (Puerto Rico) Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española (1955)• (United States) Academia Estadounidense de la Lengua Española (1973)

• Within the framework of the ideas discussed during the First Congress, the Association of National Academies was created in 1956.

• The unity of the language reached in the 20th Century is directed differently due to the fragmentation of its domain: The opposition to regionalisms are not in relation to a general language, but to the national use of it.

• The general language is therefore defined as the association of all the common characteristics of those national norms and it is best represented in formal writing.

• The pan-Hispanic projects: Co-authorship ever since The Orthography in 1999.

• The existence of more than twenty national uses of the language implies the presence of many more linguistic centers; that is the reason why Spanish is defined as pluricentric.

Actions to preserve indigenous languages• Final decades of the 20th century: several actions to preserve

indigenous languages and cultures in Latin America began to be promoted.- Quechua was declared official language in Bolivia, Peru (1975) - Guaraní was declared official language in Paraguay (1992)- Bilingual education programmes for schools in rural areas, in Paraguay in all schools (1994)

• “Official” languages with little or no official relevance for practical purposes:- The indigenous communities within the Latin American countries have always been the poorest, most underprivileged and uneducated sectors of the population. - Protection of native languages is related to the conservation of an exotic national heritage, rather than to the legitimization of the rights of indigenous communities.

Actions to preserve indigenous languages

CONTACT LANGUAGES1. Preliminary remarks • Spanish has been in contact with

hundreds of languages in the Americas.

• Contact Languages:a. Amerindian / Indigenous languagesb. African Languagesc. Other European colonial languages

• Consequences:- Important changes in the Spanish

language: new words, phonemes, tones.- Loss of numerous aboriginal languages,

others acquired loanwords from Spanish.- Bilingualism- Emergence of creole dialects

CONTACT LANGUAGES• Contact with African languages: mainly in the Caribbean areas. The

"bozal" dialect was the most important influence.

• Contact with European languages, some examples:a. Influence of Italian (Argentina and Uruguay)

esbornia – from sbornia (drunkenness)pibe – from pivello (young guy)

b. Influence of English (at first in Puerto Rico, Cuba, nowadays in most Spanish speaking countries)

lonchera – from lunch (lunch-box) guachiman – from watchman (security guard) mítin – from meeting (rally, political meeting)

c. Influence of French (in various countries)liceo – from lycée (high school)buró – from bureau (a type of desk, in México: bedside table)

Bilingualism and Mutual Influence

• Two cases:

1. Nahuatl or Aztecan - Loanwords taken from Nahuatl- Influence of Nahuatl in Mexican Spanish

2. Quechua- Loanwords taken from Quechua- Andean Spanish

1. Nahuatl• A group of related languages and dialects of the Nahuan branch

(also called "Aztecan"). Nahuatl means “good, clear sound”.• Today they are spoken by an estimated 1.5 million people, mostly

in rural areas of Central Mexico.• There are considerable differences between the Nahuan

languages, and some are mutually unintelligible. They have all been subject to varying degrees of influence from Spanish.

1. Nahuatl• The RAE (the Royal Academy for the Spanish Language)

accepts at least 200 Spanish loanwords which have been taken from Nahuatl. Some have come in second-hand from Spanish to other languages. The most known example: chocolate

• The Nahuatl terms suffered the loss or change of some syllables when transferred to Spanish.

Two examples of the most common modifications:1. The “-tl” ending is replaced with the vowel “e”.

xocolatl - chocolate2. The “-lli” ending is replaced with “le” or “l”.

cilli - chile

Nahuatl loanwordsNAHUATL SPANISH ENGLISH ahuakatl

("testicle" -so called for its shape)

aguacate avocado

tomatl (literally,"the swelling fruit") tomate tomato

xocolatl (from xococ "bitter" + atl

"water" ) chocolate chocolate

ocelotl ("jaguar") ocelote ocelot

coyotl (a type of wolf) coyote coyote

calpúlli (big house) galpón storehouse

tamalli (steam-cooked corn

dough with or without a filling)

tamal tamale

cilli native name for the

peppers. chile chili

camotli camote (batata) sweet potato Tizatl tiza chalk

Influence of Nahuatl in Mexican Spanish• The influence is recognizable basically in 2 levels:

a. VOCABULARYa.1. Geographical names:

Coyoacán, PopocatépetlTulancingo (Tollantzinco), Cuernavaca (Quauhnahuac)

a.2. Names of tools, foods and other things of daily life: jacal (from xa-calli, “house of adobe”, a hut or a shack)mole, enchilada (foods)

b. TONE- Mexican Spanish has a special final cadence and some peculiar phonemes.

2. Quechua• It is a family of related languages,

with approximately 46 dialects, grouped in at least seven languages.

• Quechua is the most extended native language in the continent (spoken by 9 to 14 million people).

• It was the lingua franca inside the Inca State, a situation that facilitated colonization.

• Two main consequences of the language contact:a. Loanwords from Quechua to Spanishb. Emergence of the "Andean Spanish" dialect

Quechua loanwords• The RAE includes at least 50 loanwords taken from

Quechua:cancha – from kancha (court, ground)coca – from kukapuma – from puma

• Several terms of Quechua are used with certain modifications in the contemporary jargon of young people in Perú, Bolivia and Ecuador. An example from Peru:jato – from qata (roof, something that covers or protects)Widely used replacing the words casa (house) or hogar(home)

Están pintando mi jato (They are painting my house).Voy a mi jato (I go home).

Andean Spanish• The term ‘Andean Spanish’ is commonly applied to the spectrum of

speech types, from interlanguage to indigenously-influenced monolingual Spanish, spoken in the Central Andes.

• Influence of Quechua1. Phonetics and Phonology - The phonemic distinction that corresponds approximately to written y ~ llexists in Quechua.

valla "fence" vs. vaya "go"- Strongly assibilated variants of [R] and [r] correspond to the Quechua pronunciation.

roto, "broken“- The vowels /e/ and /u/ don’t exist in Quechua. Therefore, they are pronounced as /i/ and /o/ respectively.

Me gusta, "I like it“2. Syntax- The use of ‘double possessives’ is a calque of the Quechua construction.

Su falda de María, lit.: "her skirt of Maria”3. Lexiconchacra ‘small farm’, guagua ‘baby’, opa ‘dumb, clumsy’

Varieties of present-day Spanish in Latin America

Comparison to Spanish of the Iberian Peninsula

• Spanish in Spain is not homogenous• Main regional differences on the Iberian peninsula:

- Castilian (castellano) official national standard language

- Catalan (catalán)- Galician (gallego)- Basque (vasco) [not related to Spanish]

• Another dialect: Andalusian (andaluz)- Strong relationship to American Spanish- Lack of distinction between /s/ and /θ/ as in casa (house) vs. caza (hunt)

European Spanish

Andalusian

Castilian

Catalan

BasqueGalician

Relation of LA Spanish to European Spanish

• American Spanish today is closer in pronunciation to Andalusian than to other dialects of Spanish

• 2 theories:

- most of the Spanish conquistadores and settlers were from southern Spain

- both the Spanish of Spain and that of America underwent certain similar sound changes at about the same time in history; consequently, they are quite close today

Some striking differences between the various linguistic regions in the Spanish-speaking world

use of ustedes for the 2nd pers. pl. regardless of whether formal or familiar

use of vosotros and corresponding verb endings for the 2nd pers. pl. (familiar)use of ustedes in same case in formal occasions

grammar

papacompetencia (deportiva)cremahora picocalificado (profesional, etc.)

patatacompetición (deportiva)natahora puntacualificado (profesional, etc.)

vocabu-lary

Use of /s/ throughoutuse of the interdental fricative /θ/ in zapato, zócolo, gracias, cena, cigarro, etc.

pronunci-ation

Latin AmericaSpainType

Main dialectal areas of Latin American Spanish

(1) Mexican

(2) Central American(Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica)

(3) Caribbean(Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Panama, coast of Venezuela and Colombia)

(4) Andean(highlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia)

(5) Paraguayan(Paraguay and lowlands of eastern Bolivia)

(6) Chilean(7) River Plate(Argentina and

Uruguay)

Main geographical varieties of present-day Latin American

Spanish

Spanish in the Caribbean region

• Includes Spanish spoken in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Panama and the coasts of Venezuela and Colombia.

• Generally considered to be the most 'innovative' or 'radical' variety in Latin America

• "consonant-weakening phenomena" (present in Southern peninsular Spanish and on the Canary Islands) found in the Caribbean area with greater intensity than anywhere else in Latin America.

• In addition, there are also a couple of specifically Caribbean developments

The consonant-weakening phenomena“consonant-weakening phenomena“ of

Caribbean Spanish are subject to sociolinguistic variation.

Higher degrees of weakening associated with more colloquial styles

Thus, practically all Caribbean speakers aspirate preconsonantal and word-final /s/ to

a certain extent highly variable process

• highest indices of aspiration and deletion of /s/are found in the most colloquial styles

• Example: “los animales” pronounced in three different ways:

• [lohanimále]

• [losanimáleh]

• [losanimáles]

• The more [s]' s are pronounced, the greater is the level of formality.

The neutralization of /ɾ/ and /l/

• The neutralization of /ɾ/ and /l/ before a consonant and word finally is widespread throughout this dialectal area.

• A feature that many speakers find difficult to avoid.

• Example of Puerto Rican Spanish: puerta = [puélta] - resulting sound is generally [l]

• The deletion of intervocalic [-d-]

• found in colloquial styles – Example: peskado [pehkáo] 'fish'

• Phoneme /x/ realised as [h] example:

“Mexico” which is realised as if it were written "Mehico"

DORSAL pronunciation of /ř/• Some Puerto Rican Speakers (few) have a DORSAL

pronunciation of /ř/, which recalls the /r/ of Parisian French (similar pronunciations found in parts of the Dom. Rep. and Cuba). Example: (ex. "rojo" or "ratón"), similar to French “réponse”

• Feature that is not uniform in Puerto Rico and which is regarded critically by many Puerto Ricans who are of the opinion that the feature is 'rural' and should be avoided in educated speech.

• Other Puerto Ricans see it as a marker of local origin which makes their speech distinctively Puerto Rican – a sign of Puerto Ricanness which they are proud of.

Spanish in the Andean region

• Spoken in highlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia: areas of intense contact with Quechua and Aymara.

• Characterized by two conservative features:• Pronunciation of /s/ - like in Mexican Spanish• Maintenance of the contrast between / ʎ/ and /ʝ/.

For example: vaya /báʝa/ ‘that s/he/I go’ /ʎ/vs. valla /báʎa/ ‘fence’

• The second feature is in the process of vanishing.

• Aside from sharing the two features mentioned, there is considerable diversity and significance differences in intonation and rhythm within the Andean region.

• Certain degree of aspiration of /s/ can also be found in the coastal area of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru but no distinction between /ʎ/ and /ʝ/.

• In the interior lowlands of Bolivia, the phenomenon of/s/ aspiration is reappearing again.

• Also assibilated pronunciation of /ř/ -stigmatized as a sign of rural origin.

• In conclusion – distinction between four major dialectal subareas:

• The coastal regions• The interior region of Colombia• The Ecuadorian, Peruvian and Bolivian

highlands• The lowlands of eastern Bolivia (these

have more in common with Paraguay)

Spanish in Chile• Spanish in Chile has several distinctive traits• Syllable- and word-final /s/ is often aspirated• /tɾ/ is given a similar assibilated pronunciation to hat

found in Costa Rica (also in some other areas, for example: La Rioja in Spain)

• Before the vowels /e/ and /i/, the consonants /k x g/ have an advanced PALATAL pronunciation.

• Example: Chilean pronunciation of the word 'gente' (Eng. "people") sounds at if it was written giente to speakers of other Spanish dialects.

• The phoneme /tʃ/ is variably realized as [ʃ] in some areas of Chile.

• Whereas in other areas of Chile it advances its point of articulation to [ts]

Mexican Spanish• Characterized by the consistent pronunciation of word-

and syllable-final /s/ and other final consonants: estos[éstos] ‘these‘

• Reduction of unstressed vowels in colloquial Mexican Spanish before /s/:p‘s no (pues no ‘well, no‘)

buenas noch‘s (buenas noches ‘good night‘)• Vowel sequences of the type /ea/, /oe/, etc. are

commonly pronounced as diphthongs:golpear or poeta

• Mexican Spanish sticks more to orthography than other variants e.g. texto vs.

Mexican Spanish• Regional feature within Mexico:

in parts of northern Mexico is pronounced as e.g. in mucho

• the Spanish spoken in the US is largely the result of immigration from LA

• Therefore, it has the features of LA Spanish: e.g. Mexico in the southwest, Cuba in Miami, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic in N.Y.

• The American Southwest was once part of Mexico

Mexican Spanish

Vocabulary:• Influenced by the indigenous language

Nahuatl, loanwords• Acquisition of word-initial consonant group

/tl/ from Nahuatle.g. tlapalería ‘paint shop‘

Central American Spanish

• Not linguistically uniform• But there is a group of varieties that differ

from both Mexican and Caribbean Spanish• Weak [h] in mujer, ajo, etc.• /s/ tends to be aspirated in most parts but

not in some highland areas of Central Am.• Typical of Costa Rican Spanish: similar

to the English /r/ e.g. tres

Paraguayan Spanish• Characterized by strong Guaraní influence• Majority of population is bilingual (unique in

LA)• Maintenance of the phonemic contrast

between andis pronounced as an affricative

(like in Engl. John)• Syllable and word-final /s/ is weakened• Frequent occurrence of a glottal stop word

initially and between some vowels e.g. María

Spanish from the River Plate

• River Plate Spanish or Porteño Spanish• The orthographic y and ll are pronounced

with a sound similar to that of French jamais or llame ya!

• In Buenos Aires /s/ is regularly aspirated before another consonant:este [éhte], mismo [míhmo]

Spanish from the River Plate

• Argentinian Spanish: use of vos instead of tú for ‘you‘ (sg.)vos cantás ‘you sing‘ instead of tú cantás= voseo

• vos is replaced by tú in formal situations• In Argentina, the use of tú has completely

disappeared in everyday usage

Latin American social variation

Latin American social variation• “Social variation in American Spanish has been very

much less well studied than geographical variation”(Penny 2000: 161)

• “In Spanish, there are fewer pronunciation differences among educated speakers from various parts of the Hispanic world than there are among educated English-speakers from different parts of the United States.“(Dalbor 1980: 16)

• e.g. a doctor from Mexico City sounds more like a doctor from Bogotá than he does like a factory worker from Mexico City. However, in the US a doctor from Boston often sounds more like a dockworker from Boston, at least as far as pronunciation goes, than he does a doctor from Minneapolis (ibid.)

• Possible reason: Education among high classes is relatively uniform

Example: social variation in Mexico

• Differences between rural areas and cities/capitals are disappearinge.g. (non-standard) and (standard)

like in tren, otro, etc. is pronounced both by people from traditional rural areas in New Mexico and upper- and middle-class women in Mexico City

Standard Latin American Spanish

Is there a standard LA Spanish?

• Standard languages are different kinds of entities from spoken languages

• Spoken language = infinitely varied, no geographical boundaries

• “Each standard has been developed from some set of spoken varieties, and a standard language will influence the spoken varieties use in the same territory.”(Penny 2000: 217)

• "There is a kind of neutral, standard Spanish which is used and understood by all educated Spanish speakers and ensures that people throughout the Spanish-speaking world can communicate with each other as easily as people from Britain and the United States can." (Oxford Language Dictionaries online)

Aspects about limitations of dialectal classification

• Classification of Spanish varieties into major dialectal areas hides substantial diversity within each of the areas, both of sociolectal and geographical nature.

• Speakers within most of the areas mentioned before are acutely aware of internal regional differences.

• These differences are especially salient to natives of the area in question.

• In some areas natives may in fact be able to distinguish the speech of one village from that of the next village.

• This is sometimes reflected in local sayings (occurring in the case of locally unusual developments).

• In formal interactions and when speaking to outsiders it is important to mention that many speakers will shift towards variants more in accordance with the "standard language" of the country.

• Speakers also use local pronunciations and other local linguistic variants to show solidarity within a group.

• But they also recognize the existence of a national or regional standard.

• In large cities there is much more internal diversity than in rural areas.

• Bigger cities often attract immigrants from other parts of the country and elsewhere.

• For example in Mexico City or Lima you may find speakers from geographical varieties of Spanish from all over the respective country.

Sources• Dalbor, J.B. (1980): Spanish Pronunciation. Theory and Practice. (2nd ed.)

New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston• Frago, J. A. y Franco, M. (2003): El Español de América. Cádiz: UCA• Fontanella de Weinberg, M. (1995): El Español de América. Madrid:

MAPFRE• Hernandez, C.; Pranda, G.P.; Hoyos C.; Fernández, V. (1991): El Español

de América. Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y León, Consejería de Cultura y Turismo.

• Hualde, J. I. (2005): The Sounds of Spanish. Cambridge: CUP• Penny, R. (2000): Variation and Change in Spanish. Cambridge: CUP• Dueñas, M. y Sánchez, A. (2002). “Language Planning in the Spanish-

speaking world”. Current Issues of Language Planning. Vol.3, No.3, 280 -305

• MERMA, G. 2005. «Antecedentes históricos del contacto entre el español y las lenguas indígenas americanas: los intérpretes indígenas, la iglesia y los españoles que se incorporaron a la vida indígena». Res DiachronicaeVirtual 4: El Contacto de Lenguas. Número monográfico coord. por Ana Rodríguez Barreiro y Ana García Lenza. 171-183.

Sources• http://asale.org/ASALE/asale.html• http://hispanidadymestizaje.es/african17.htm• https://www.indiana.edu/~iulcwp/pdfs/07-Kostakis.pdf• http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/i.e.mackenzie/andean.htm• http://www.oxfordlanguagedictionaries.com/Public/PublicResource

s.html?direction=b-es-en&sp=S/oldo/resources/es/Varieties-of-present-day-Spanish-es.html

• http://www.transitionsabroad.com/images/maps/latin_america.gif(map of Latinamerica)

• http://zachary-jones.com/spanish/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/lenguas.jpg (map of Spain)

• http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialecto_andino• http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl• http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechua