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4. Conditioning :

  In psychology, the process of performing some particular 

action(s) to directly influence an individual's learning.

There are two types of Conditioning:

Classical Conditioning  Operant Conditioning  

 Ivan Pavlov

1. Classical Conditioning  Classical conditioning is a technique used in

behavioral training. A naturally occurring

stimulus is paired with a response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with

the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to

evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two

elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.

Experiment: (Ivan Pavlov)

  Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent 

conditioning, Pavlovian reinforcement  ) is a form of conditioning that was first 

demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov (1927). The typical procedure for inducing classical

conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some

significance, the "unconditional stimulus." The neutral stimulus could be any event that 

does not result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under investigation.

Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes a natural

response. Pavlov called these the unconditional stimulus (US) and unconditional

response (UR), respectively. If the neutral stimulus is presented along with the

unconditional stimulus, it would become a conditional stimulus (CS). Pavlov used the

term conditional because he wanted to emphasize that learning required a dependent or 

conditional relationship between CS and US. If the CS and US always occur together and

never alone, this perfect dependent relationship or pairing, causes the two stimuli to

become associated and the organism produces a behavioral response to the CP. Pavlov 

called this the conditional response (CR).

The Conditioned Stimulus:

   The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral

stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes

to trigger a conditioned response.

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The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to thepreviously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feelinghungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

Conditioned Stimulus and Conditioned Response

Pavlov then began to pair the dog food (UCS) with the ringing of a bell (neutral stimulus). Through these repeated pairings, the dogs are conditioned to salivate at the sound of thebell even when no food is presented. The previously neutral bell has become a conditionedstimulus that produces salivation. The salivation at the sound of the bell is now aconditioned response.

The Unconditioned Stimulus:

   The unconditioned stimulus is one that

unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you

smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the

smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

The Unconditioned Response:

   The unconditioned response is the unlearned responsethat occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling

of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

 Extinction:

  In psychology, extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a

conditioned response that result in the behavior decreasing or disappearing.

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In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with

an unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction in Classical Conditioning:

Consider this example of extinction in classical conditioning.

If the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle

(the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of 

hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) was no longer paired with

the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), then the conditioned response (hunger) would

eventually disappear.

 Spontaneous recovery:

  In classical conditioning , the reappearance of the conditioned

response after a rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and

unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a

spontaneous recovery.

 Stimulus Generalization:

  Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned

stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned.

For example,In the classic Little Albert experiment, researchers John B. Watson and

Rosalie Raynor conditioned a little boy to fear a white rat. The researchers observed that the

boy experienced stimulus generalization by showing fear in response to similar stimuli

including a dog, a rabbit, a fur coat, a white Santa Claus beard and even Watson's own hair.

 Discrimination:

In classical conditioning, discrimination is the ability to differentiate between

a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned

stimulus.

For example, Imagine that a dog has been trained to run to his owner when he hears a

whistle. After the dog has been conditioned, he might respond to a variety sounds that are

similar to the whistle. Because the trainer wants the dog to respond only to the specific

sound of the whistle, the trainer can work with the animal to teach him to discriminate

between different sounds. Eventually, the dog will respond only to the whistle and not to

other tones.

2. Operant Conditioning:

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Definition: Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning ) is a

method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through

operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for 

that behavior.

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner , which is why you may

occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed

that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he

suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon theenvironment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explainedhow we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day .

 Examples of Operant Conditioning:

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employeesfinishing projects to receive praise or promotions. In this example, the promise or possibilityof rewards causes an increase in behavior.

But operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of anundesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent

undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease indisruptive behaviors.

Components of Operant Conditioning 

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

 Reinforcement Punishment 

1. Reinforcement:

  Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anythingthat increases the likelihood that a response will occur.

There are two major categories of reinforcement:

1. Primary reinforcement , sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement, occursnaturally and does not require learning in order to work. Primary reinforcers often have anevolutionary basis in that they aid in the survival of the species. Examples of primary 

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reinforcers include food, air, sleep, water and sex . Genetics and experience may also play a role in how reinforcing such things are. For example , while one person might find acertain type of food very rewarding, another person may not like that food at all.

2. Secondary reinforcement  , also known as conditioned reinforcement, involves stimulithat have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus. For 

example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as primary reinforcers. Thesound of a clicker can be associated with the praise and treats until the sound of the clicker itself begins to work as a secondary reinforcer .

In operant conditioning, there are two different types of reinforcement:

1.  Positive Reinforcement, In operant conditioning , positive reinforcement involves anything

that follows a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future.When a favorable outcome, event or reward occurs after an action, that particular response or 

 behavior will be strengthened.

One of the easiest ways to remember positive reinforcement is to think of it as

something being added.

2. Negative Reinforcement, Negative reinforcement is a term described by B. F.

Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. In negative reinforcement, a response or

behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome or

aversive stimulus.

In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

 Punishment:

Definition, Punishment is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to any change thatoccurs after a behavior that reduces the likelihood that that behavior will occur again in thefuture. While positive and negative reinforcement are used to increase behaviors,punishment is focused on reducing or eliminating unwanted behaviors.

Types of Punishment;

There are two types of punishment 

 Positive punishment  is a concept used i n B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning.

The goal of  punishment is to decrease the behavior that it follows. In the case of positive

 punishment, it involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following anundesirable behavior 

 Negative punishment  is an important concept in B. F. Skinner's theory of operant 

conditioning. In behavioral psychology, the goal of  punishment is to decrease the behavior that precedes it. In the case of negative punishment, it involves taking something good or 

desirable away in order to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior .

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 Negative punishment is most effective when:

• It immediately follows a response

• It is applied consistently 

In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

  Learning: 

 Definition, Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills,

values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. Theability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development , school or

training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology , educational psychology , learning theory ,and pedagogy . Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seenin many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play , seen only inrelatively intelligent animals.Learning may occur consciously or without consciousawareness.

Types of Learning:

1. Trail and error 

  Thorndike regarded learning as a mechanical and

blind process devoid of intelligent or conscious determination.He believed that ananimal learns to reach the goal prompted by blind impulses.Leaning,therefore,is atrail and error process. In the initial trail,there are large number of error,but as trailsare repeated number of errors are gradually reduced.Finally there is no error andthe is success.Thorndike’s theory of learning is thus based ontrailand error.

Thorndike's Experiments on Cats:

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 Thorndike experimented on a variety of animals like cats, fishes, chicks andmonkeys. His classic experiment used a hungry cat as the subject, a piece of fish asthe reward, and a puzzle box as the instrument for studying trial-and-error learning.In this typical experiment, a hungry cat was placed inside the puzzle box, and apiece of fish was kept outside the box. The cat could not reach the fish unless itopened the door. In order to escape from the box, the cat had to perform a simple

action as required by the experimenter. The cat had to pull a loop or press a lever inorder to open the door. Once the door was opened, the cat could escape and eatthe fish.What did the hungry cat do inside Thorndike's puzzle box? Initially it made randommovements and ineffective responses. On the first trial, the cat struggled valiantly;it clawed at the bars, it bit; it thrust its paws out through any opening; it squeezeditself through the bars; it struck out in all directions. All the irrelevant responsescontinued for several minutes until the cat hit upon the correct response, bychance.Accidentally, it pulled the loop and the door opened. The cat came out of the boxand was allowed to take a small part of the fish. It was then put inside the puzzlebox for the second trial.

In the second trial, the time taken to pull the loop reduced a bit. Every time the catcame out of the box and took a piece of fish, Thorndike put the cat inside the boxagain. Thorndike and the cat kept up this exercise for a while. With increasing trials,the time taken to pull the loop (response latency) decreased.

 The wrong responses (errors) that the cat was showing also decreased, as trialsincreased. Finally, the cat learned the trick. As soon as it was put in the box, itpulled the loop to escape for a well-deserved reward. The name, trial-and-errorlearning comes from the fact that errors decreased over trials. The cat learned fromits errors.

  2. Cognitive learning 

  Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes.

  Cognitive learning is a powerful mechanism that provides the means of knowledge, and

goes well beyond simple imitation of others. Conditioning can never explain what you are

learning from reading our web-site. This learning illustrates the importance of cognitive

learning. The procedures we have for manipulating information 'in our heads'. Cognitive

processes include creating mental representations of physical objects and events, and other

forms of information processing.

How do we learn cognitive?In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or

experiencing and then processing and remembering the information. Cognitive learningmight seem to be passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, thelearner is quite active, in a cognitive way, in processing and remembering newly incominginformation.Cognitive learning enables us to create and transmit a complex culture that includessymbols, values, beliefs and norms. Because cognitive activity is involved in many aspectsof human behavior, it might seem that cognitive learning only takes place in human beings.However, many different species of animals are capable of observational learning. Forexample, a monkey in the zoo, sometimes imitates human visitors or other monkeys.

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Nevertheless, most information about cognitive learning is obtained from studies on humanbeings.

3. Insight learning

Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the

characteristics of objects under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could

occur by "sudden comprehension" as opposed to gradual understanding. This could occur

without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training, or investigation are

necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another person.

Sultan, one of Kohler's chimpanzes, learned to use a stick to pull bananas from

outside of his cage by putting pieces of stick together. Given two sticks that could

be fitted together to make a single pole that was long enough to reach the

bananas, aligned the sticks and in a flash of sudden inspiration, fitted the two

sticks together and pulled in the bananas. He didn't do this by trial and error, but 

had a sort of sudden inspiration or insight.

 

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 Psychology Assigment 

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 Prepared By: Submitted To:

 Mobeen Liaquat (L114797) Miss Raheela Tariq

  Civil