Neuroscience and Neuroscience and Biological FoundationsBiological Foundations

Neuroscience:Neuroscience: Interdisciplinary Interdisciplinary field studying how biological field studying how biological

processes relate to behavioral and processes relate to behavioral and mental processes.mental processes.

NeuronNeuron

NeuronNeuron

Dendrites—branching structures that Dendrites—branching structures that receive neural impulses from other neurons receive neural impulses from other neurons and convey impulses toward the cell bodyand convey impulses toward the cell body

Cell Body—contains the cell nucleus, as well Cell Body—contains the cell nucleus, as well as other structures that help the cell carry as other structures that help the cell carry out its functionsout its functions

Axon—a long, tubelike structure that Axon—a long, tubelike structure that conveys impulses away from the neuron’s conveys impulses away from the neuron’s cell body toward other neurons or to cell body toward other neurons or to muscles or glandsmuscles or glands

NeuronNeuron Communication Communication

Action potential—neural impulse that Action potential—neural impulse that carries information along the axon of a carries information along the axon of a neuron. (electrical impulse)neuron. (electrical impulse)

Neurotransmitter—chemicals Neurotransmitter—chemicals manufactured and released by neurons manufactured and released by neurons that alter activity in other neuronsthat alter activity in other neurons Synapse—junction between the axon tip of the Synapse—junction between the axon tip of the

sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; during an action the receiving neuron; during an action potential, neurotransmitters are released and potential, neurotransmitters are released and flow across the synaptic gapflow across the synaptic gap

NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters

Endorphins—chemical substances in Endorphins—chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates and in structure and action to opiates and are involved in pain control, pleasure are involved in pain control, pleasure and memoryand memory

Linked to disease—Parkinson’s Linked to disease—Parkinson’s Disease (too little Disease (too little dopaminedopamine), ), schizophrenia (excessively high schizophrenia (excessively high dopaminedopamine), depression (too little ), depression (too little serotoninserotonin))

Neurotransmitters and DrugsNeurotransmitters and Drugs

Drugs act as agonists (“contest, Drugs act as agonists (“contest, struggle”) or antagonists (“members struggle”) or antagonists (“members of the opposing team”)of the opposing team”) i.e., nicotine is an agonist for i.e., nicotine is an agonist for

acetylcholineacetylcholine whereas amphetamines whereas amphetamines act as agonists for act as agonists for norepinephrinenorepinephrine

HormonesHormones

Chemicals manufactured by Chemicals manufactured by endocrine glands and circulated endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream to produce in the bloodstream to produce bodily changes or maintain bodily changes or maintain normal bodily functionsnormal bodily functions Endocrine System—a collection of Endocrine System—a collection of

glands located throughout the body glands located throughout the body that manufacture and secrete that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstreamhormones into the bloodstream

HormonesHormones

Like neurotransmitters, Like neurotransmitters, hormones activate cells in the hormones activate cells in the bodybody

Pituitary Gland—the master Pituitary Gland—the master gland of the bodygland of the body

The Nervous SystemThe Nervous System

Central Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System The Brain—directs mental processes and The Brain—directs mental processes and

maintains basic life functionsmaintains basic life functions The Spinal Cord—receives sensory input, The Spinal Cord—receives sensory input,

sends information to the brain, responds sends information to the brain, responds with motor outputwith motor output

The Nervous System The Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous SystemPeripheral Nervous System Somatic nervous system—conveys Somatic nervous system—conveys

sensory information to the central sensory information to the central nervous system and sends motor nervous system and sends motor messages to muscles (voluntary)messages to muscles (voluntary)

Autonomic nervous system—serves basic Autonomic nervous system—serves basic life functions, such as heartbeat and life functions, such as heartbeat and response to stress (involuntary)response to stress (involuntary)

Sympathetic—readies the body to respond to Sympathetic—readies the body to respond to threatthreat

Parasympathetic—calms the body down and Parasympathetic—calms the body down and maintains energymaintains energy

Phineas GagePhineas Gage

Different parts of the brain must Different parts of the brain must control different physical, emotional, control different physical, emotional, thinking processesthinking processes

Phineas could survive physically Phineas could survive physically because the part of his brain that because the part of his brain that controlled breathing, heart, etc. was controlled breathing, heart, etc. was untoucheduntouched

His injuries effected the emotions, His injuries effected the emotions, motivation, impulse control, etc.motivation, impulse control, etc.

The BrainThe Brain

Brainstem—area at the base of Brainstem—area at the base of the brain in front of the the brain in front of the cerebellum responsible for cerebellum responsible for automatic, survival functionsautomatic, survival functions

Midbrain—neural centers located Midbrain—neural centers located near the top of the brainstem near the top of the brainstem involved in coordinating involved in coordinating movement patterns, sleep and movement patterns, sleep and arousalarousal

The BrainThe Brain

Pons—structure at the top of the Pons—structure at the top of the brainstem involved in brainstem involved in respiration, movement, waking, respiration, movement, waking, sleep, and dreamingsleep, and dreaming

Medulla—structure at the base of Medulla—structure at the base of the brainstem responsible for the brainstem responsible for automatic functions such as automatic functions such as breathing and heart ratebreathing and heart rate

The BrainThe Brain

Cerebellum—structure at the Cerebellum—structure at the base of the brain, behind the base of the brain, behind the brainstem, responsible for brainstem, responsible for maintaining smooth movement, maintaining smooth movement, balance, and some aspects of balance, and some aspects of perception and cognitionperception and cognition

Thalamus—a brain structure at Thalamus—a brain structure at the top of the brainstem that the top of the brainstem that relays sensory messages to the relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortexcerebral cortex

The BrainThe Brain

Hypothalamus—a small brain Hypothalamus—a small brain structure beneath the thalamus structure beneath the thalamus that maintains the body’s that maintains the body’s internal environment and internal environment and regulates emotions and drives, regulates emotions and drives, such as hunger, thirst, sex and such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggressionaggression

The BrainThe Brain

Limbic System—An interconnected Limbic System—An interconnected group of lower-level brain structures group of lower-level brain structures involved with the arousal and involved with the arousal and regulation of emotion, motivation, regulation of emotion, motivation, memory and many other aspects of memory and many other aspects of behavior and mental processesbehavior and mental processes

Amygdala—an almond-shaped lower-Amygdala—an almond-shaped lower-level brain structure that is part of level brain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in the limbic system and is involved in emotionemotion

The Brain’s Higher FunctionsThe Brain’s Higher Functions

The Cerebral Cortex—the bumpy, The Cerebral Cortex—the bumpy, convoluted area on the outside of convoluted area on the outside of the two cerebral hemispheres that the two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, regulates most complex behavior, including receiving sensations, including receiving sensations, motor control and higher mental motor control and higher mental processes (i.e., thinking, processes (i.e., thinking, personality, emotion, memory, personality, emotion, memory, motivation, creativity, self-motivation, creativity, self-awareness, reasoning, etc.)awareness, reasoning, etc.)

Cerebral Cortex—Four LobesCerebral Cortex—Four Lobes

Frontal Lobes—receive and Frontal Lobes—receive and coordinate messages from other coordinate messages from other lobes as well as motor control, lobes as well as motor control, speech and higher functionsspeech and higher functions

Parietal Lobes—receives Parietal Lobes—receives information about pressure, information about pressure, pain, touch and temperaturepain, touch and temperature

Cerebral Cortex—Four LobesCerebral Cortex—Four Lobes

Temporal Lobes—hearing, Temporal Lobes—hearing, language comprehension, language comprehension, memory and some emotional memory and some emotional controlcontrol

Occipital Lobes—vision and Occipital Lobes—vision and visual perceptionvisual perception

Brain HemispheresBrain Hemispheres

The Cerebral Cortex is divided The Cerebral Cortex is divided into two hemispheres connected into two hemispheres connected by the by the Corpus CollosumCorpus Collosum

Each hemisphere receives and Each hemisphere receives and sends information to the sends information to the opposite side of the bodyopposite side of the body

Each hemisphere also specializes Each hemisphere also specializes in certain functionsin certain functions

The Left Hemisphere (or Left The Left Hemisphere (or Left Brain)Brain)

Language Functions (speaking, Language Functions (speaking, reading, writing, and reading, writing, and understanding language)understanding language)

Analytical Functions Analytical Functions (mathematics, physical sciences)(mathematics, physical sciences)

Right-hand touchRight-hand touch

The Right Hemisphere (or Right The Right Hemisphere (or Right Brain)Brain)

Non-verbal abilities (music, art, Non-verbal abilities (music, art, perceptual and spatial perceptual and spatial manipulation, facial recognition)manipulation, facial recognition)

Some language comprehensionSome language comprehension Left-hand touchLeft-hand touch

Genetics and EvolutionGenetics and Evolution

Gene—a segment of DNA that Gene—a segment of DNA that occupies a specific place on a occupies a specific place on a particular particular chromosome chromosome and carries the and carries the code for hereditary transmissioncode for hereditary transmission

Chromosome—Threadlike strands of Chromosome—Threadlike strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic DNA molecules that carry genetic informationinformation

Behavioral genetics—the study of the Behavioral genetics—the study of the effects of heredity on biolgical, effects of heredity on biolgical, behavioral and mental processesbehavioral and mental processes

Study MethodsStudy Methods Heritability—the measure of the Heritability—the measure of the

degree to which a characteristic is degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic factors (think related to genetic factors (think correlation rather than cause-effect)correlation rather than cause-effect)

Twin studies—studies of identical Twin studies—studies of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins. What traits or (dizygotic) twins. What traits or behaviors do we see the same in behaviors do we see the same in identical twins that are not in identical twins that are not in fraternal twinsfraternal twins

Adoption studies—what traits or Adoption studies—what traits or behaviors do we observe in families behaviors do we observe in families even when the child has been adoptedeven when the child has been adopted

Study MethodsStudy Methods

Family studies—are there Family studies—are there increased incidents of a increased incidents of a particular trait or behavior particular trait or behavior within family units?within family units?

Genetic abnormalities—traits or Genetic abnormalities—traits or disorders that are linked to disorders that are linked to chromosomal problems (i.e., chromosomal problems (i.e., Down syndrome)Down syndrome)

Things to RememberThings to Remember

Genetic traits are not fixed or Genetic traits are not fixed or inflexibleinflexible

Heritability estimates Heritability estimates DO NOTDO NOT apply to individualsapply to individuals

Genes, individuals and the Genes, individuals and the environment are inseparableenvironment are inseparable

Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology

A branch of psychology that A branch of psychology that studies evolutionary principles, studies evolutionary principles, like natural selection and genetic like natural selection and genetic mutations, which affect mutations, which affect adaptation to the environment adaptation to the environment and help explain commonalities and help explain commonalities in behaviorin behavior