neuro-linguistic programming: the effect of process ...€¦ · neuro-linguistic programming 1...
TRANSCRIPT
NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING: THE EFFECT OFPROCESS INSTRUCTIONS ON THE EXPERIENCE OF
SELF IN NATURALLY OCCURRING LIFE SITUATIONS
Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic)
Authors Pazda, Susan Lynn
Publisher The University of Arizona.
Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this materialis made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona.Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such aspublic display or performance) of protected items is prohibitedexcept with permission of the author.
Download date 24/03/2021 03:57:39
Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/291238
INFORMATION TO USERS
This reproduction was made from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction.
1.The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image of the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photographed, a definite method of "sectioning" the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again-beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete.
4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Customer Services Department.
5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed.
University Micrcxilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
1319460
PAZDA, SUSAN LYNN
NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING: THE EFFECT OF PROCESS INSTRUCTIONS ON THE EXPERIENCE OF SELF IN NATURALLY OCCURRING LIFE SITUATIONS
The University of Arizona M.A. 1982
University Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106
NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING: THE EFFECT OF
PROCESS INSTRUCTIONS ON THE EXPERIENCE OF SELF IN
NATURALLY OCCURRING LIFE SITUATIONS
by
Susan Lynn Pazda
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1 9 8 2
1
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposes use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
SIGNE1
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
Date
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES iv
LIST OF FIGURES v
ABSTRACT vi
1. INTRODUCTION 1
Neuro-Linguistic Programming 1 Review of NLP Research Literature 4 Aim of this Study 9
2. METHOD 11
Design 11 Participants 11 Instrument 12 Procedure . . . 13
3. RESULTS 18
4. DISCUSSION 20
APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE 29
REFERENCES 31
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Participant Demographic Information by Group: Mean Age, Class, and Number of Psychology Classes Taken, Inclusive 25
2. Analysis of Covariance Results Main Effect of Treatment and Simple Effect of Semantic Differential Factor (N = 62) 26
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Main Effect of Treatment 28
2. Simple Effects of Semantic Differential Factor 29
v
ABSTRACT
The Neuro-Lingulstic Programming model states that content-free
linguistic patterns called process instructions are an effective psycho
therapeutic intervention. This study tested this assumption. Sixty-two
participants silently identified an important life situation that was to
occur within twenty-four hours. Then approximately one-half of the
participants listened to tape recorded process instructions designed to
increase ones' experience of oneself as a positive, potent, active agent
during the future life situation. The remaining participants listened to
tape recorded relaxation instructions. The following day participants
completed a semantic differential devised to assess ones' experience of
oneself during the previously identified life situation. Overall, and
on each semantic differential factor (evaluation, potency, and activity)
the group that received process instructions rated themselves during
their life situations as significantly more positive, potent, and active
than the group which received relaxation instructions.
vi
INTRODUCTION
Neuro-Linguistic Programming
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) was originated in the early
nineteen-seventies by Richard Bandler, a mathematician and later a
Gestalt therapist, and John Grinder, a psycholinguist, with the goal
of formalizing impactful human communication (Bandler & Grinder, 1975;
Goleman, 1979). Impactful communication was considered to be meaning
ful communication which elicited specifically desired outcomes from
the person to whom the communication was being directed. Interested
in identifying patterns across schools of psychotherapy, they observed
hypnotists, gestaltists, transactional analysts, behavioral, family,
and psychoanalytically oriented mental health professionals (Bandler &
Grinder, 1979). Later they concentrated on the patterns of hypnotist
Milton H. Erickson and family therapist Virginia Satir because they
considered them such exquisite communicators (Bandler, Grinder, &
Satir, 1976; Grinder, DeLozier, & Bandler, 1977).
The historical development of NLP leads to its definition as a
meta-model, a model of, or about, therapeutic models. However, since
its inception as a meta-model, NLP has grown from a purely linguistic
and digital (verbal) model of communication to an increasingly complex
set of observations regarding the structure of internal experience and
an increasingly large set of technologies for changing behaviors, in
cluding internal experience (Cameron-Bandler, 1978; Lankton, 1980).
1
2
Therefore, alternative definitions of NLP reflect the changed scope
and nature of the field. For example, the following description
appears in a 1980 publication (Dilts, Grinder, Bandler, Bandler, &
DeLozier) five years after the specification of NLP as a meta-model.
"Neuro"...stands for the fundamental tenet that all behavior is the result of neurological processes. "Linguistic"...indicates that neural processes are represented, ordered, and sequenced into models and strategies through language and communication systems. "Programming" refers to the process of organizing the components of a system (sensory representations in this case) to achieve specific outcomes, (p. 2)
In short, in the space of five years NLP developed from a meta-
model concerned with a set of structural elements (words) and their
syntax (rules for well-formedness in therapy) to a body of knowledge
concerned with the basic processes used by all individuals to encode,
transfer, guide, and modify behavior. Throughout its development,
the emphasis has been on discovering effective stimuli for elicting
changes' in internal processes that result in external (observable)
behavior. These developments lead to another, more economical and
elegant, definition of NLP as the study of the structure of subjective
experience (Dilts et al., 1980).
NLP differentiates itself from other models in its: Criterion
of usefulness (not truthfulness); existence as an atheoretical tech
nology utilizing presuppositions (working assumptions); development
for the purpose of being an adjunct to other therapies; and emphasis
on the structure and forms of language, communication, and change
(Bandler & Grinder, 1979).
3
As a result of an emphasis on the usefulness of structure and
de-emphasis on content, NLP has contributed to the development and
popularization of a particular form of therapeutic intervention called
process instructions (Bandler & Grinder, 1979; Grinder & Bandler, 1981;
Harman & O'Neill, 1981, Lankton, 1980). Process instructions are
patterns of language that sound specific but have no content. Such
instructions are used to elicit desired states in the client. Assuming
the establishment of rapport, the instructions lead the client through
a series of steps for which the client provides the specific sensory
and cognitive content. An example of this is , "as you relax (step 1),
you are becoming more comfortable (step 2) and you will recall a
pleasant memory (step 3) from which you will get a new learning
(step 4)". Harman and O'Neill (1981) ennumerate the advantages of
content-free techniques as 1) client's inward attention increases
problem-solving activity, 2) therapist interpretation and value imposi
tion is prevented, and 3) therapists are provided with a way to work
with clients unwilling to disclose the content of their problems. In
addition, content-free statements are considered respectful in that
they do not violate internal experience (Bandler & Grinder, 1979).
Grinder, DeLozier, and Bandler (1977) initially identified and
systematically studied the structure of this technique as linguistic
pattern in Ericksonian hypnosis. However, process instructions are
representative of NLP techniques in general in that they are the
structure of techniques utilized in most psychotherapies. For example,
transactional analysis redecision therapy utilized process instructions
4
in formally sequencing a set of states in the client which lead to
redecision (Goulding & Goulding, 1979). Gestalt fantasy exercises
and two-chair work and many behavioral techniques such as systematic
desensitization also involve the sequencing of states specific to
the client through non-specific Instructions from the therapists
(Polster & Polster, 1973; Wolpe, .1969).
Much of the contribution NLP has made to the technology of
therapy has been the extraction of common structures of techniques
across schools of psychotherapy. Therefore, studies of the effec
tiveness of NLP techniques are potentially valuable for many thera
pists.
Review of NLP Research Literature
Research has been conducted on the following NLP related
concepts: The eye movement hypothesis; representational systems;
matching; and linguistic surface structure in family interaction.
Thomason, Arbuckle and Cady (1980) tested the eye movement
hypothesis. Briefly stated, the hypothesis is that an individual
will make eye movements indicating through which sensory system
(visual, auditory, or kinesthetic) she/he is processing (constructing
or recalling) information. This hypothesis is usually presented in
the form of an eye movement chart for a right-handed individual with
normal cerebral organization. Upward eye movements indicate visual
activity (towards the individual's right signals constructed imagery;
the left signals eidetic imagery); defocusing also indicates visual
processing. Lateral eye movements indicate auditory processing
(right is constructed, left is recalled). Downward eye movements
indicate kinesthetic processing if towards the right and auditory
tonal processing if towards the left. The study observed forty
subject's eye movements through a one-way mirror in response to a
set of stimulus questions designed to elicit either visual, kines
thetic, auditory, or auditory tonal processing. A chi square test
(with a validity criterion of 75 percent consistency between ques
tion and eye movement modalities) showed a significant discrepancy
between the criterion and observed eye movements (p < .01). The
authors concluded the study did not support the eye movement hypo
thesis.
This study has been criticized by a representative of NLP's
Division of Training and Research (D.O.T.A.R.) from both an experi
mental and NLP framework (Steinback, 1981). Perhaps the most serious
objection to this study is that NLP states the eye movement hypothesis
is not universal. However, they assert individual organization is
consistant. This study did not address the question of intra-indivi-
dual reliability.
Three studies have investigated the concept of representa
tional systems and related hypotheses. Representational systems are
thought to be the sensory-based systems (visual, auditory, kenes-
thetic, gustatory, and olifactory) people use to represent or store
a given experience. NLP states that people give behavioral cues
(ie. eye movement, predicates) that allow an observer to determine
which system an individual is using.
6
Owens (1977) investigated the relationship between eye movement
patterns, verbalizations and individual self-report as measures of
representational systems. One-hundred-twenty-eight subjects were
presented with nine stimulus questions. Six of the stimuli required
no verbal response and eye movement measures were taken, while for the
remaining three both eye movements and verbal responses were recorded.
Measurement of the dependent variable was in terms of its frequency.
At the study's end, subjects' self-rated their primary representational
system. Analysis showed one significant (p < .05) finding: The
combination of observing eye movements and listening for the most
frequently used predicate system was significantly related to the
subject's self- reported primary representational system.
Beale (1981) tested the hypothesis that by observing eye
movements and verbal predicates, therapists can identify how (in which
representational system) a person is organizing her/his ongoing
conscious experience. The independent variable was a set of twenty-four
stimuli (ie. questions, pictures). The way in which the forty subjects
made sense of the stimuli was recorded on video and audio tape.
Hypotheses for the combined predictions of eye movement and verbal
predicates were not substantiated, confounding the results. The author
concluded conscious experience cannot be identified solely in terms of
visual, kinesthetic, and auditory representations.
Shaw (1977) examined the communication hypothesis that people
find communication more meaningful when it is presented in their
primary representational system. One-hundred-eight subjects whose
7
representational systems had previously been identified (through
verbalization, eye movement, and primary and secondary self-report)
were shown one of three forms (visual, auditory, or kinesthetic) of a
video taped story. As a measure of meaningfulness, subjects were then
asked to list as many of the experiences described in the story as
they could remember. Analysis did not show that subjects identified
by representational system responded differentially to a story presented
in various representational systems.
Two studies have examined the effects of matching. Matching is
a technique through which the therapist paces the client (mirrors or
matches some aspect of the client's experience) in order to establish
rapport. Possible client behaviors to match include: Posture, voice
tone and/or tempo, depth and/or rate of breathing, vocal intonation,
gross language patterns (subjects, predicated), and representational
systems (predicated, ie. adjectives, adverbs).
Rebstock (1980) inventigated the effects of counselor training
in matching techniques on client's ratingsof rapport with the counselor.
Two groups of twelve counseling students received training in NLP
matching techniques. One group was trained prior to initial interviews
with new clients and the other group was trained after the initial
interview. Both groups then conducted a second interview with
counselees. After each interview, clients and counselors filled out
rapport ratings and frequency counts of matched predicates were made
from tape recordings. Analysis of the data showed no significant
differences between the groups on either of the measures. The author
8
recommended further research be conducted on the effectiveness of
matching in developing rapport. It was concluded that the study
demonstrated the lack of effectiveness of the particular training,
not necessarily the ineffectiveness of matching techniques in general.
Yapko (1971) tested the effect of matching primary representa
tional system predicates on hypnotic relaxation. Primary, secondary,
and tertiary systems were identified through frequency counts of
predicates used in answering open-ended questions and baseline
Electromyograph (EMG) recording were taken. Subjects then listened to
three recorded hypnotic inductions utilizing predicated from one of the
three major representational systems (visual, auditory, kinesthetic).
EMG recordings were taken while the tapes played and subjects rated
their level of relaxation after each tape. Results showed subjects
relaxed most deeply when listening to inductions matching their primary
representational system (p < .05). The second and third most deep
levels of relaxation were achieved with tapes corresponding to subject's
secondary and tertiary representational systems.
Linguistic surface structure in family interaction was investi
gated Macroy (1979). NLP, as a linguistic model, is based on Chomsky's
model of transformational grammar and utilized the concepts of deep
and surface structures. Bandler and Grinder (1975) have identified
three universal linguistic (and modeling) processes that occur during
the transformation of experience from deep to surface structure. They
are generalization, deletion, and distortion. Language which contains
these processes is said to be semantically ill-formed. The assumption
is that semantically ill-formed language does not accurately express
an individual's experience. Macroy hypothesized that families who
express dissatisfaction with current intra-familial relationships
would use the above linguistic structures to a greater extent in
their interactions with familial members than would satisfied families.
Six satisfied and six dissatisfied families were identified on the
basis of a self-rating questionnaire and were given a Revealed Dif
ferences questionnaire to discuss together. Tape recording of the
discussions were scored for eleven subcategories of generalization,
deletion, distortion, and semantic ill-formedness. Results showed
dissatisfied families used significantly more deletion (p < .01)
than the satisfied families. It was also found that mothers and
children in dissatisfied families obtained a significantly greater
ratio (p < .05) of ill-formed sentences to well-formed sentences
than did their counterparts in satisfied families.
Aim of this Study
The aim of this study is to examine the effects of process
instructions. The assumption is that the use of verbal language in
the manner suggested makes for- more powerful, influential communica
tion capable of affecting individual internal processing, ultimately
leading to changes in experience and behavior. Research has not yet
been conducted to determine if this linguistic pattern represents one
of the fundamental elements of effective communication. The particu
lar set of process instructions chosen for investigation is designed
for, and assumed to, ultimately affect an individual's experience
of self in natually occurring life situations. Testing of this
assumption is the basis for this study.
The way in which this particular set of process instructions
is intended to affect an individual's experience is to enhance one's
experience of oneself as a positive, potent, active agent during a
future life situation of importance to oneself. The following hypo
thesis will be tested: This set of process instructions will affect
subjective experience along the following dimensions: Evaluation,
potency, and activity. The group receiving process instructions will
rate their experience of themselves during their life situations as
more positive, potent, and active than the group not receiving pro
cess instructions.
METHOD
Design
A design analogous to the therapeutic situation was chosen to
test the effect of process instructions because of the advantages of
experimental control. Wherever possible, Ka*zdin's (1978) sugges
tions for appropriate variation of analogue dimensions were followed
to enable greater generalization of findings to the therapeutic
situation.
The independent variable was the type of treatment: Process
instructions (experimental group) and relaxation instructions (con
trol group). The dependent variable was the experience of self in
the life situation identified during (experimental group) or prior
(control group) to treatment as measured by the evaluation, potency,
and activity scales of the semantic differential.
This was a mixed model design, with one between subjects
factor (treatment) and one within subjects-factor (the evaluation,
potency, and activity factors of the semantic differential).
Participants
Participants were volunteers enrolled in a sophomore level
psychology class at the University of Arizona during the spring
semester of 1982. All volunteers participated with informed con
sent and anonymity was preserved throughout the study. A total of
62 participants were recruited, with 30 in the control group and
11
12
32 in the experimental group. For both groups, the mean age was
20 years, the average class was sophomore, second semester, and
the mean number of psychology classes taken (inclusive) was four.
Table 1 shows participant demographic information by group.
Instrument
Since this study focused on process regardless of specific
content, an instrument that measured the result of the process with
out reference to content was needed. The semantic differential was
chosen as such an instrument.
The semantic differential is a combination of scaling and
association procedures used to measure the psychological or conno-
tative meaning of concepts as points in three dimensional semantic
space (Osgood, 1952). Through factor analysis, three general
factors, evaluation, potency, and activity, have been identified.
In general, the test-retest reliability correlation coefficient of
the scales is .85. The three factors account for approximately
60 percent of the total variance, with about 70 percent of the
common variance due to the evaluative factor (Endler, 1961; Osgood
& Suci, 1955).
The particular form of the semantic differential used in
this study consisted of one concept ("my experience of myself in
situation X") rated on twelve bipolar scales. Each scale consisted
of a seven point continuum, with point four being a neutral position.
To counteract response bias tendencies, six of the twelve scales
were reversed so than an equal number of positive terms appeared
on each side of the scales.
The three factors of evaluation, potency, and activity were
equally represented by four adjective pairs each. Scales were
chosen to have a maximal loading on the factor they represent and
a minimal loading on the other two factors. The factors and their
respective scales were: Evaluative represented by good-bad, beau-
tiful-ugly, valuable-worthless, and pleasant-unpleasant; potency
represented by large-small, strong-weak, heavy-light, and thick-
thin; activity represented by fast-slow, active-passive, hot-cold,
and sharp-dull (see Appendix).
Procedure
Participants were divided into two groups on the basis of
sex and males and females were then randomly assigned to one of the
two groups (experimental and control). Participants met with their
respective groups twice: Once to receive the appropriate treat
ment, and again to complete the semantic differential.
At the first meeting, both groups listened to a three minute
tape-recorded introductory statement designed to establish rapport.
The experimental group then listened to a ten minute tape-
recording of process instructions designed to enhance their experi
ence of themselves as positive, potent, active agents during their
future life situations. This exercise, taken from the transcript
of an NLP workshop, was modified only slightly for the purposes of
this study (modifications bracketed) (Bandler & Grinder, 1979).
14
Sometime within the last five years, each of you has had a very CpositiveU experience in which you experienced yourself as a [potent, active, positive] human being. You may or may not have a conscious appreciation of exactly which episode in your life history this is. I would like you to allow that experience to come into your consciousness. Sit there for a moment, with feelings of comfort and strength, let yourself see and hear again what it was that happened to you back there. There are additional [ways to apply that experience to your life in the future.D I would like you to allow yourself the treat of seeing and hearing yourself go through that again so as to [re-experience those potent, positive, active feelings] which are embedded in that experience in your past history...
And when you've seen and heard something that you believe to be of value for yourself, I would like you to pick a specific situation of [importance to you] that you know will occur within the next Ctwenty-four hours.] Notice—again by watching and listening with feelings of strength and comfort - how you can apply [those positive, potent, active feelings] to this new situation that is going to arise in the next Ctwenty-four hours.] In so doing you are making elegant use of your own personal history, and you are transferring [positive, potent, active feelings} from one part of your personal history, so as to increase your choices as a creative human being in the present. Take all the time you need...
Some of you may have a clear, solid, resonant understanding of what you've succeeded in doing; some of you may simply have a sense of well-being, a feeling of having done something without actually understanding in detail explicitly what it was that you were able to do by making use of a particularly CpositiveD experience from your past in a new way....
Now I'd like you to begin to drift back slowly, understanding that if you've completed the process to the best of conscious understanding, fine....If you haven't yet finished, you've set into motion a process which can be completed comfortably outside of your awareness as you return your attention slowly here to this room. (p. 126)
In place of process instructions, the control group was asked
to "identify a specific situation of importance to you that you know
will occur within the next twenty-four hours" (the experimental group
15
did this in context of their exercise) and listened to a ten minute
tape-recording of relaxation instructions. The relaxation exercise
was designed to range from a neutral to a somewhat positive experi
ence. This treatment was structured so that the same amount of time
and similar treatment (tape-recorded instructions) and participant
behavior (sitting with eyes closed in a relaxed state) occured in
both groups. The relaxation exercise was as follows (Bry & Bair, 1979).
Close your eyes. Get yourself comfortable, and concentrate on your breathing.
Pay careful attention to your breathing. Recognize how slow and deep breathing will help to induce relaxation. Exhale. Then take a deep breath in through your nose and blow it out through your mouth. Breathe from your abdomen, deeply and slowly.
As you concentrate on your breathing, focus your attention on an imaginary spot in the center of your forehead. Look at the spot as if you were trying to see it from inside your head.
You will begin to realize that your eyelids have become tense. Get a sense of how tense the eyelids can become as you stare at the spot so that you can compart this feeling with relaxation.
When your eyelids become strained and uncomfortable, let them drop. Notice the feeling of relaxation that radiates all through and around your eyes. Allow that feeling of warmth and relaxation to move out to the temples and across the forehead.
Let the relaxation then radiate to your scalp, to the back of your head, to your ears, temples, cheeks, nose. To your mouth and chin.
As you feel all the tension leave your face, relax your jaw muscles. Let your jaw open slightly, so that all the tension can smmothly flow away.
16
Relax the muscles in your neck. As you do, let your head tip forward gently so your chin just about touches your chest.
Let this feeling of relaxation flow down into your shoulders and from there into the muscles of your arms and hands, then down your back, over to the front of the chest, on down to the abdomen, and then allow it to reach all the way down to the base of the spine.
Let the buttocks go completely loose and limp. Allow the warmth and relaxation to spread to the thighs, on down the legs, down to the ankles, and down through the feet to the tips of the toes.
Now you feel completely relaxed. Take a moment, starting from the top of your head and working down, to check to see if any part of you is not fully relaxed.
If you find any part of your body not fully relaxed, simply inhale a deep breath and send it into the area, bringing soothing, healing, relaxing, nourishing oxygen to comfort that area. As you exhale, imagine blowing out right through your skin any tension, tightness, or discomfort. By inhaling a breath into that area and exhaling right through the skin, you are able to replace tension in any part of your body with gentle relaxation.
When you find yourself quiet and fully relaxed, take a few moments to enjoy it. (p. 34-36)
Both groups were dismissed with standardized statements thank
ing them for their participation in this portion of the study and
given information regarding the date, time, and place of their next
meeting (approximately twenty-five hours later).
At the second meeting, both groups filled out a questionnaire
containing the semantic differential items. Instructions on the ques
tionnaire asked participants to recall the life situation that occurred
within the past twenty-four hours that they identified during the first
meeting. The instructions asked them to rate their experience of them
selves during their particular life situation. Participants were
i
17
given as much time as they needed to complete the scales. Group leader
and participant interaction were minimized at this meeting, with stan
dardized opening and closing statements.
RESULTS
An analysis of covariance by group using Biomedical Computer
Programs (BMDP) program BMDP2V was run on the data. The possible
confounding variable of sex was controlled for by treating sex as a
covariate. The analysis allowed for the testing of: 1) Main effects
due to treatment (do the experimental and control group means differ?),
and 2) simple effects of the main effect of semantic differential
factor (do experimental and control group means differ for the seman
tic differential factors — evaluation, potency, and activity?).
Results are presented in Table 2. Throughout this analysis,
low semantic differential scores indicate high levels of the factors
measured by the scale. Overall, means for the control and experimen
tal groups were 3.40 and 2.31, respectively (see Figure 1). The
analysis performed on these data indicated that there was a signifi
cant main effect of treatment (F = 10.86; p = .0017). The pro
portion of variance accounted for in groups' scores by treatment in
this sample, computed using n (eta), was 69%.
Means for the control and experimental groups, respectively, on
each of the semantic differential factors were: 3.00 and 2.06 for
evaluation; 3.74 and 2.66 for potency; and 3.46 and 2.22 for activity
(see Figure 2). The analysis between these group means revealed a
significant simple effect of the main effect of semantic differential
18
19
factor (F 2 0) " 9.47; p = .0002). The strength of association
measure for this analysis indicated the proportion of variance in
scores accounted for by the three factors was 32% in this sample.
No significant interaction was found between semantic differential '
factors and treatment group (F 0) * P " *6176). Sex of the
participant was not found to significantly affect responses (F -
1.84; p = .1799).
Thirty-seven percent of the participants chose to comment on the
study or about the effect of the exercise on their experience of their
life situation. Of those comments, 8% were unfavorable, 22% were
neutral, and 70% were favorable.
DISCUSSION
To review, this study found significant differences between
groups' mean ratings on the semantic differential both overall and
on each of the scale's factors. Strength of association measures
indicated that a sizable proportion of the variance in groups' scores
in this sample was accounted for by treatment. Of the participants
who commented on the study or the effect of the exercise on their
experience of their life situation, the majority commented favorably.
Specifically, the experimental group members who received
process instructions rated their experience of themselves during an
important, naturally occuring life situation as significantly more
positive, potent, and active than control group members who received
relaxation instructions. The differences between groups and the
direction of these differences support the main prediction of this study:
That the group which received process instructions would rate themselves
as more positive, potent, and active than the group which did not
receive process instructions. Likewise, as ratings were obtained for
individuals' subjective experience of self, results support the under
lying assumption that this set of process instructions would affect
subjective experience along the dimensions it was designed to impact:
Evaluation, potency, and activity.
The generalizability of this investigation's findings are limited
by the particular form of treatment utilized, the population sampled
from, and the problems inherent in analogue research. Expressly, the
20
21
effect of one particular set of process instructions were assessed for
a homogeneous sample of sophomore university students. Using Kazdin's
(1978) classification for evaluating the external validity of analogue
research, the most important dimensions on which this study deviated
from the clinical situation were determined to be the target population
and the target problem. Although the target problem intrinsically
remains unspecified in the process instruction technique, this study,
by design, did not address the issue of with which type of problems
the technique may be effective. Nor did this investigation speak to
the effectiveness of process instructions with an identified patient
population.
While caution is warranted in generalizing findings from this
study to the clinical situation, both the form of treatment as well as
the sample population on which it was tested were analagous to NLP's
formulation of process instructions and one suggested type of target
population. The particular set of instructions utilized were a
slightly modified version of instructions used with an adult group
similar to this study's sample in that they did not assemble for the
purpose of therapeutic treatment (Bandler & Grinder, 1979). A
content-free treatment modality is advocated by NLP as useful for non-
patients in that the procedure teaches individuals a way to achieve
satisfactory outcomes perhaps more effective than the present process
used for this purpose (Bandler & Grinder, 1979). In fact, the nature
22
of many participants' comments suggest that the technique was perceived
as useful for this purpose (ie. "...you can apply it to other events
that are happening right now in my life").
To sum, further research is needed before substantive statements
regarding the effectiveness of process instructions in the clinical
situation can be made. In particular, further investigation of this
technique's impact across time, with a range of identified problems,
and with individuals sampled from client populations is necessitated.
Additional levels of treatment (kinds of process instructions) would
enable generalization of findings to more than one form of treatment.
However, within the limitations of this study, results lend credence
to NLP's assertion that content-free therapy, in the form of process
instructions, is effective in eliciting desired changed in one's
experience (Bandler & Grinder, 1979; Grinder & Bandler, 1981; Harman &
O'Neill, 1981; Lankton, 1980).
The implications of this study's results extend beyond the realm
of NLP. Process instructions are representative of NLP techniques in
general in that they contain the structure of techniques utilized in
most psychotherapies. As previously discussed, process instructions
are implicitly the higher level communication inherent in Transactional
Analysis redecision therapy, Gestalt fantasy exercises and two-chair
work,and many behavioral techniques such as systematic desensitization.
For example, the Gestalt therapist's instructions for two chair work
might be, "Put your problem (ie. headache) in the chair and talk to it"
23
(Polster & Polster, 1973). On a process instruction level, the client
is asked to disassociate from his problem and gain insight through
talking to her/his projection without being told what to say (Bandler &
Grinder, 1979). The results of this study suggest the success of
techniques such as this may partially lie in the process instructions
themselves. Therefore, further research on process instructions is
potentially valuable for therapists of varying theoretical persuasion.
24
TABLE 1
Participant Demographic Information by Group:
Mean Age, Class, and Number of Psychology Classes Taken, Inclusive
Group N Age
X SD
Control 30 20.40 1.61
Experimental 32 20.16 1.63
Number of Psychology Classes Taken,
Class Inclusive
X SD X SD
1.63 0.81 4.10 2.47
1.53 0.67 3.91 1.89
*Unit of measurement is a semester, equaling 0.50. Therefore, for both groups the average class was sophomore, second semester, with a standard deviation of two semesters.
25
TABLE 2
Analysis of Covarlance Results
Main Effect of Treatment and Simple Effect of Semantic Differential Factor (N = 62)
Source SS df MS F P
Group 54.77134 1 54.77134 10.86 .0017
Covariate (Sex) . 9.28959 1 9.28959 1.84 .1799
Error 297.58371 59 5.04379
SD Factor 13.83562 2 6.91781 9.47 .0002
SD Factor and Group Interaction .70659 2 .35329 .48 .6176
Error 87.61667 120 .73014
Adjusted Group Means (N = 62)
Overall
Group N X SD
Control 30 3.40 1.76
Experimental 32 2.31 1.15
26
Table 2—Continued
By Semantic Differential Factor
Group N X SD
Control 30
Evaluation 3.00 1.87 Potency 3.74 1.60 Activity 3.46 1.82
Experimental 32
Evaluation 2.06 1.05 Potency 2.66 1.23 Activity 2.22 1.15
7--
Mean Score on Semantic • 6--Differential
5--
1 --
Control Experimental
Group
Figure 1
Main Effect of Treatment
27
7-
Mean Score on Semantic Differential
5-
Control
1-
Evaluation Potency Activity
Figure 2
Simple Effects of Semantic Differential Factor
28
29
APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE
Group number: Sex (circle one): (0) female, (1) male
Age: Class (circle one): (0) freshman, (1) sophomore, (2) junior, (3) senior Number of psychology classes taken, including this one:
* * * * * *
DIRECTIONS: Recall the specific life situation of importance to you that you identified during yesterday's exercise. This is the life situation that was to have occurred sometime between yesterday's exercise and now.'
A) If this situation did occur, rate your experience of yourself during this situation on each of the twelve scales below. Do this by placing a check mark (/) on the appropriate place on the continuum between each of the adjective pairs.
MY EXPERIENCE OF MYSELF IN SITUATION X
1) Good : : : : : : Bad
2) Ugly : : : : : : Beautiful
3) Valuable : : : : : : Worthless
4)Unpleasant : : : : : : Pleasant
5) Large : : : : : : Small
6) Weak : : : : : : Strong
7) Heavy : : : : :. : Light
8) Thin : : : : : : Thick
9) Fast : : : : : : Slow
10) Passive : : : : : : Active
30
QUESTIONNAIRE—Continued
11) Hot : : : : : : Cold
12) Dull : : : : 5 i Sharp
B) Did you go through the experience with a greater degree of confidence than usual? (circle one): (0) no, (1) yes
C) If the specific life situation you identified yesterday did not occur, place a check here:
D) Feel free to comment on yesterday's exercise, or this project, on the back of this paper.
31
REFERENCES
Bandler, R., & Grinder, J. The Structure of Magic: A Book About Language and Therapy, Volumes I & II. CA: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1975.
Bandler, R., Grinder, J., & Satir, V. Changing with Families: A Book About Further Education for Being Human. CA: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1976.
Bandler, R., & Grinder, J. Frogs into Princes: Neuro-Linguistic Programming. Utah: Real People Press, 1979.
Beale, R.P. The testing of a model for the representation of consciousness (The Fielding Institute, 1980). Dissertation Abstracts International. 1981, 41, 9.
Cameron-Bandler, L. They Lived Happily Ever After: Methods for Achieving Happy Endings in Coupling. CA: Meta Publication, 1978.
Dilts, R., Grinder, J., Bandler, R., Bandler, L.C., & DeLozier, J. Neuro-Linguistic Programming: The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Volume I. CA: Meta Publications, 1980.
Endler, N.S. Changes in meaning during psychotherapy as measured by the semantic differential. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1961, 8, 105-111.
Goleman, D. People who read people. Psychology Today. 1979. 13. 66-78.
Grinder, J., & Bandler, R. Trance-formations: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Structure of Hypnosis. Utah: Real People Press, 1981.
Goulding, M.M., & Goulding, R.L. Changing Lives Through Redecision Therapy. N.Y.: Brunner/Mazel, Inc., 1979.
Grinder, J., DeLozier, J., & Bandler, R. Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson. M.D.. Volume I. CA: Meta Publications, 1977.
Harman, R.L., & O'Neill, C. Neuro-Linguistic Programming for counselors. The Personnel and Guidance Journal. 1981, 59. 7, 449-453.
32
Kazdin, A.E. Evaluating the generality of findings in analogue therapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1978, 46, 4, 673-686.
Lankton, S. Practical Magic: A Translation of Basic Neuro-Llngulstic Programming into Clinical Psychotherapy. CA: Meta Publications, 1980.
Macroy, T.D. Linguistic surface structure in family interaction (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1978) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1979, 40, 2.
Osgood, C.E. The nature and measurement of meaning. Psychological Bulliten, 1952, 49, 197-237.
Osgood, C.E., & Suci, G.J. Factor analysis of meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1955, j>0, 325-338.
Owens, L.F. An investigation of eye movements and representational systems. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, 1977.
Polster, E., & Polster, M. Gestalt Therapy Integrated: Contours of Theory and Practice. N.Y.: Brunner/Mazel Publishers, 1973.
Rebstock, M.E. The effects of training in matching techniques on the development of rapport between client and counselor during initial counseling interviews (Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, 1980) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1980, 41, 3.
Shaw, D. Recall as effected by the interaction of presentation: representation system and primary representation system. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, 1977.
Steinback, M. Personal Communication, October, 1981. Neuro-Linguistic, Division of Training and Research, Santa Cruz, California.
Thomason, T.C., Arbuckle, T., & Cady, D. Test of the eye-movement hypothesis of Neurolinguistic Programming. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1980, 51, 230.
Wolpe, J. Practice of Behavior Therapy. N.Y.: Pergamon, 1969.
Yapko, M.D. The effect of matching primary representational system predicates on hypnotic relaxation. The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 1981, 3, 3, 169-175.