network validation for cdma 2000 1x ev-do …...9- testing and analysis of imt-2000 networks in the...
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InaccordancetotherequirementsoftheRequestforEngineering,wecarriedout
severalinformationandasksinPanama,China,Sweden,USA,Norway,Finland,Korea
andTaiwan.Theselocationsarehometoequipmentsuppliers,networkoperatorsor
productregionalrepresentatives.
Thetasksoutlinedforcomplianceweredefinedas:
1-Revision,testing,analysisandrecommendationofinitialterminalequipmentfor
useinthelocalIMT-2000network.Compilationofaccurateonthefield
informationontroublesomeequipment.
2-SecureavailabilityofterminalequipmenttosynchronizewiththenewIMT-2000
platform.
3-Interpretationandrecommendationofaproductreleaseinformationlistingthat
willbeabletointeractwiththemajorityofavailableterminals,particularlylow-
endsupplies,withoutaffectingGoS/QoS.
4-Cellulartestsandmeasurements.Performdatathroughputtestswithterminals
inworkingIMT-2000networks.SensitivityandPerformancemeasurements.
5-Revision,testing,analysisandrecommendationoftestingequipmenttobeused
forengineeringpurposesintheIMT-2000networkatterminallevel(level1,2,3)
andnetworklevel.
6-Conductlaboratorytestingandmeasurementsonnetworkequipment(including
antennas)andterminals.
7-PurchasingofsparepartsofkeycomponentsoftheIMT-2000network.
8-Pursuingadequatetrainingrelevanttothetechnologyandvendorforknow-how
transfertonetworkoperator.
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9-TestingandanalysisofIMT-2000networksinthecountriesvisitedwithhardware
andsoftwaretools.
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InmeetingswithmanufacturersofIMT-2000terminalswereheld,modelcompatibility
wasobservedandtechnicaltrainingreceivedbythemanufacturersofequipment.The
trainingincludedRFandprogrammingmattersoneachofthemanufacturer’splatforms
anddevices.Thistrainingwasconductedinlaboratoriesandonthefieldoncurrently
existingEricssonplatforms.Also,worksessionswithworldwidemobileterminals
manufacturerswereheldtoestablishthenetworkparameters.Thesenetwork
parametersincluded:
-NetworkdefinitionsforPRI,
-RFconfiguration,
-PRL,
-ERIdefinitions,
-NVRdefinitions,
-WAPdefinitions,
-andfunctionalitydescriptionofterminalstobereplicatedinthenetwork.
ExtensivetrainingandanalysisofexistingnetworksrunningEricssonCDMA1XEVDO
platformswasconductedtoreplicatethescenariosinthelocalnetwork.Sessionswith
networkengineerswereheldtogatherinformationregardingshortcomingsoftheir
networkswiththeintentiontoavoidtheseinthelocalnetworkimplementation.Specific
problemsinthelocalnetworkwerereviewedwithmanufacturerswiththeobjectiveof
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correctingthem.Theseallowedtheteamtohavethelatestknow-howandbeableto
transferittothelocalnetworkoperator,whichisanoperatorresponsibility.
SoftwareinterfaceswerealsoanalyzedandbasicprogrammingtrainingonPSTfor
eachdevicewasconducted.
Withtestingequipmenttoberecommendedforpurchase,visitedIMT-2000networks
weretestedandanalyzedinordertoreplicateimplementationlocally.Network
problems,throughput,performance,latency,congestion,etc.wereobserved.
Koreademandedmostoftheresources,astwomajormanufacturersarelocatedinthis
country,andmanyothershaveassemblyplantstoo.Whilenoticeable,network
correlationtolocalimplementationwasnotexact(duetodifferentfrequencyallocations),
terminaltestingwasmandatory.
Alsotestedweremicrowavelinks,antennas,repeaters,filters,combiners,etc.askey
componentstotheIMT-2000networkunderdevelopmentfromimportantsuppliers
aroundtheworld,inordertopurchasespareequipmentforredundancymattersinthe
network.
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Theinformationcollected,trainingreceived,equipment,spareparts,software,
hardwareandknow-howhasbeenforwardedtothelocaloperator,whichshouldbe
invaluablefortheoperatorśgrowthandcustomersatisfaction.Theobjectives
describedintheRFEweresuccessfullyachievedandexposedaccordinglyinaPFE.
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TableofContents
Introduction................................................................................................11
Objectives..................................................................................................12
Summary....................................................................................................13
ProjectOverview........................................................................................17
AbbreviationsandAcronyms.....................................................................18
DataGathering...........................................................................................20
NetworkAffiliation......................................................................................21
TerminalClients.........................................................................................22
ClientperOperator....................................................................................23
Technology................................................................................................24
FrequencyChannelAllocation...................................................................25
Workpackage1.........................................................................................25
Workpackage2.........................................................................................25
DataPerformance......................................................................................28
TestedandMethodology...........................................................................30
ExperimentalMethodology........................................................................32
BenchmarkingPerformance......................................................................33
PerformanceOptimizations........................................................................33
ApplicationLevelTechniques....................................................................34
SessionlayerTechniques..........................................................................37
TransportlayerTechniques.......................................................................39
LinklayerTechniques.................................................................................41
SummaryofResults...................................................................................43
Discussion..................................................................................................44
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RelatedWork..............................................................................................48
DigitalRevolutionandEvolution................................................................50
CDMA2000TakestheNextStep..............................................................51
ANetworkStructureDesignedforPacketizedCommunication................51
TheRadioAccessNetwork(RAN).............................................................52
TheCoreNetwork’sRoleintheCDMAInfrastructure................................53
ThePDSNdoesthefollowingactivities:....................................................53
TheAAAServer..........................................................................................54
TheHomeAgent........................................................................................54
DetectingandSolvingSomeCommonProblemsincdma20001X
Networks....................................................................................................54
ThroughputOptimization...........................................................................58
ThroughputOptimization...........................................................................60
NumericalResults......................................................................................62
CALCULATIONS........................................................................................64
RESULTS....................................................................................................65
CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................66
REFERENCES............................................................................................70
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IntroductionTheprocessofmeasuringperformanceofnetworksin
productionandcomparethemagainstthefocus
infrastructureisknownas“networkvalidation”.Because
efficientuseofresourcesisakeydesignproblemforany
cellularnetwork,ingeneral,andcodedivisionmultiple
access(CDMA)networks,inparticular,wherethenumber
ofsimultaneouscallsthatcanbeadmittedinonecell
dependsonthenumberofsimultaneouscallsinmany
cellsinthenetwork,networkvalidationbecomesamust
performprocess.
Thefocusinfrastructureisusuallyaneworrecently
implementednetwork.Networkvalidationisnecessaryto
matchnetworkplanningandconfigurationto“sturdy”(or
immune)networks.Thesenetworksaregradeofservice
provenandinproduction.Theknow-howtransferredin
thisprocessisoneofthesinglemostimportantfactorsfor
networkfinetune-upandusedasaparametertovalidate
thenetworkdesignandimplementationbasedonthe
comparisonofperformanceagainstothernetworks.
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Objectives
Theobjectivesofthisprojectweretogatherinformation,
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performtests,takemeasurements,runsimulations,
performaccuratebenchmarkofapplicationperformance
over
such
commercially
deployed
environments,
implementandcharacterizetheimpactofvarious
optimizationtechniquesacrossdifferentlayersofthe
protocolstack,quantifytheirinterdependenciesunder
realisticscenarios,issueresultsinproductionnetworksin
ordertovalidatetheimplementationofthelocalnetwork
asrequestedintheRFEdocumentation.Theresultsand
analysisconcludedinthisreportsaretobeusedfor
validationofthelocalnetwork.Thisreportdoesnot
comprehendthelocalnetworkvalidation,butprovidesthe
toolstoperformthistask.Theproductionnetworksin
considerationarelocatedindifferentcountriesthathave
embracedtheCDMA20001XEV-DOtechnology.
Oneofourgoalsistoobtainparameterstomaximizethe
throughputinthenetworkandprovideconsistentgrade-
of-service(GoS),i.e.,thecallblockingrate,forallthecells
inthenetworkwhileatthesametimemaintainingthe
quality-of-service(QoS),i.e.,theprobabilityoflossof
communicationquality,foralltheusers.
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Summary
Toprovideafirmvalidationfoundationforthetechnical
andcommercialmeasuresthatwouldplayacriticalrolein
theoperationofthethird-generation–“3G”–network,
runningunderCDMA20001XEV-DO.
Itwasanticipatedthatthiswouldbeinthecontextof
comparisonwithERICSSONplatforms,butsincehas
judgedfundamentaltocomparetheERICSSON
technologywiththatoneofothersuppliersasamainissue
inthenetworkvalidation,greatcarehasbeentakento
considerthismatter.Bytakingthisopportunity,thework
playsavitalroleinsettingcriticalcomponentsofthe
network.
Thecloseassociationwithmajorkeyplayersinthe
industryattheoperatorlevelandimplementerlevel,and
theunbiasedpositionofthefirmtowardsanysupplier,isa
keymajoradvantage,particularlyimportantsinceitis
likelythatglobalinfluencecanaccidentallybiasmost
consultingfirms.
Thetasksperformedwererelatedtotheprocessof
validationofthenetworkinstallationforphaseIIperRFE.
ThevalidationprocesswasperformedinChina,Chile,
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USAandCanada.
EricssonIMT-2000,NortelNetworks,Lucent,Huawei,
Daxian,Samsung,LGandMotorolaoperatingplatforms
wereanalyzedinparticularwithemphasisonEricsson
platforms.
Ingeneralterms,theteamhadthepurposeofvalidating
networkimplementationbyconsideringseveralfactorslike:
•frequencyplanning,
•trunknetworkplanning,
•timeframe,
•propagation,
•channelcapacity,
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•noiseperformance,
•interference(frequencyreuse,co-channel,adjacent
channel,fromothersystems),
•intermodulation,
•blocking,
•BScontrolandsignaling,
•gradeofservice(GoS)inothernetworks
forlatercomparisontothelocalinstallationwiththe
intentionof:
-applyingcorrectionswherenecessary,
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-improvingnetworkefficiency,
-maximizeinvestmentusage.
Atproductionnetworklocations,thefollowingprocesses
wereconducted(notexclusive):
1-
AnalysisofPNsdistributionandgeneral
distributionofnoiseinthecarrierwave.
2-
EvaluationoftheGoSoftheaccesschanneland
GoSofthevoicechannelasasoleparameter.
3-
FERmeasurements.
4-
Handoffs,HardHand-offparameterswherethere
ismorethanonecarrierwave.
5-
Analysisofcallsdropped,on-netcompletedcalls,
off-netcompletedcalls,completionrate,
6-
RBSlocationanalysis,RFengineering,signal
strengthmeasurements,fadepathway
7-
Channelallocation,spectrumusage,channel
congestion.
InlocationswhereEricssonwasnotthetechnology
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supplier,benchmarkanalysiswithotherplatformswas
performed,morespecificallywithNortelNetworks
platformsinstalledonthosenetworks.Theperformance
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obtainedfromthesenetworkswereusedtovalidatethe
EricssonIMT-2000behavior.
Alsoanalyzedwerecellularbillingsystem,fraud(roaming
fraudwasparticularlyobserved)andfingerprinting
techniquesusedinthosenetworks.
TheinteractionwiththeSwitch/BSCwasobserved,
calibrationoftestequipmentconductedandalso
personnelperformancetomatchagainsttheservicelevels
reportedlocally.
Theprocessofvalidationdidrequiretravelingthrough
entirenetworkscoveragearea,performingmeasurements
includingparticularlytroublesomelocations.Theresults
weretoconcludeontheresultsonthefirstlistingofthis
document.
Systembalance,Loadbalance,interconnection,power
distributionsystems,protection,grounding,switchingat
alllevels(includinghierarchy),roamingservices,contents,
authentication,signalingandsynchronizationfactorswere
observedforvalidationofthelocalnetwork.Infrastructure
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likeframes,masts,poles,andcivilworkswerealso
observed.
Inconclusion,thedivisionperformedthesetasksinorder
tocomplywiththeRFE.Asaresult,aPFEinbeing
developed.
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ProjectOverview
Wirelesscellularnetworksarebeingupgradedworld-widetosupport2.5Gand3G
mobiledataservices.Forexample,CDMA2000andUMTSnetworksinEurope,and
CDMA1xRTTandCDMA2000networksintheUSAandAsiaarecurrentlybeing
deployedandtestedtoprovidewirelessdataservicesthatenableubiquitousmobile
accesstoIP-basedapplications.
CDMA20001xEV-DO(1XEvolutionData-Only)wirelesstechnologyintroducesanew
airinterfacewithapeakdatarateof2.4Mbpsandanaveragethroughputofabout600
Kbpsontheforwardlinkprovidingoperatorswithuptothreetimesmoredatacapacity
thancurrentCDMA20001Xnetworks.1xEV-DOisoptimizedforthebursty,high-speed,
broadbandaccesscharacteristicsoftheInternetdatamodel.Enhancementstothe
1xEV-DOstandard,referredasRevisionA,increasedataspeeds,reducelatencyand
provideQoSmechanismsmakingthestandardviableforrealtimeapplicationssuchas
VoIP.Alltheseconsiderationsweretakenintodecidingwhichnetworkstoanalyzefor
performance.SinceourcostumerwilloperateasanEV-DOenvironment,greatcare
wastakenintoobservingthedataprogressinCDMAnetworks.
Measurementstakeninthenetworksofwell-knowncarriersimpliedattimesagreements
withthosecarriersbutalso60%ofthenetworksanalyzedweredonewithoutsigning
anyagreement.Thiswasdonetomakerandommeasurementsofwell-knownoperators
andobservealltheproblemsandconstraintstheirnetworkshavewithoutbeingdirected
bythecarrieritselftowardstheirtroublelessinstallationsonly.
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Inmattersofourresults,itwasmeasuredthatnetworkssuchasVerizonWireless,MTC
MobilityandSprintPCSoccupyafirsttierinqualityperformance.AllTel,Western
Wireless,USCellular,MetroPCShaveminorproblems.
OurresultsalsoindicatedthatSmartcomPCS,Leap,ChinaUnicomhadatthetime
measurementswereperformedproblemswithnetworkthroughput.
Theresultsobtainedarevalidtobeusedfornetworkvalidation.
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AbbreviationsandAcronyms
AAA
Authentication,Authorization,andAccounting
AAL5
ATMAdaptationLayerType5
ANSI-41
AmericanNationalStandardInstitute
ATM
AsynchronousTransferMode
BSC
BaseStationController
BSS
BaseStationSub-system
BSSAP
BSSApplicationPart
BTS
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BaseTransmissionSystem
CDMA
Code-DivisionMultipleAccess
DHCP
DynamicHostConfigurationProtocol
DSC
DataSwitchingCenter
FA
ForeignAgent
FR
FrameRelay
FW
FireWall
GOS
GradeOfService
GRE
GenericRoutingEncapsulation
HA
HomeAgent
HDLC
High-levelDataLinkControl
HLR
HomeLocationRegister
IKE
InternetKeyExchange
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IOS4.0
Inter-operabilitySpecificationVersion4.0,alsoseeIS2001
IP
InternetProtocol
IPv4
IPVersion4
IPv6
IPVersion6
IPsec
IPSecurity
IS2001
InterimStandard2001:DefinesProtocolsforA1,A7,A9,A11-
InterfacesforCDMA
IS-41e
InterimStandard41:DefinesProtocolsforD-InterfaceforCDMA
IS-95
InterimStandard95:DefinesProtocolsforU-InterfaceforCDMA
IWF
Inter-WorkingFunction
LAC
LinkAccessControl
M3UA
MTP3UserAdaptation
MAC
MediumAccessControl
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MAP
MobileApplicationPart
MIP
MobileIP
MMSC
ShortMessageSwitchingCenter
MS
MobileStation
MSC
MobileSwitchingCenter
MSS
MobileServiceSubscriber
MTP-Adapt
MessageTransferPartAdapter
P.S0001
SpecificationforWirelessIPbasedprotocols
PCF
PacketControlFunction
PDSN
PacketDataServingNode
PL
PhysicalLayer
PPP
Point-to-PointProtocol
PSTN
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PublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork
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RADIUS
RemoteAuthenticationDialInUserService
RAN
RadioAccessNetwork
SCCP
SignalingConnectionControlPart11
SCMG
SCCPManagement
SCTP
SCCPTransportProtocol
SMS
ShortMessageService
SS7
SignalingSystemNo.7
SSSAR
ServiceSpecificSegmentationandReassemblySub-layer
TCAP
TransactionCapabilitiesApplicationPart
TCP
TransmissionControlProtocol
UDP
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UserDatagramProtocol
VLR
VisitorLocationRegister
1xRTT
1xchiprateof1.2288McpsforRadioTransmissionTechnology
1xRTTEV-DO
1xRTTEvolution-DataOnly
3xRTT
3xchiprateof1.2288McpsforRadioTransmissionTechnology
2G
2ndGenerationofMobiletelecommunication
2.5G
“2.5”GenerationofMobiletelecommunication
3G
3rdGenerationofMobiletelecommunication
3GPP
3rdGenerationPartnershipProject
3GPP2
3rdGenerationPartnershipProject2
AMPS
AdvancedMobilePhoneSystem
ARIB
TheAssociationofRadioIndustriesandBusinesses(Japan)
CDMA-HDR
CDMAHighDataRate
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CDMA-MC
CDMAMultiCarrier
cdmaOne
CDMAfor2G
EDGE
EnhancedDataratesforGSMEvolution
ECDMA2000
CDMA2000forEDGE
FDD
FrequencyDivisionDuplex
GPRS
GeneralPacketRadioSystem
GSM
GlobalSystemforMobileCommunication
HSCSD
HighSpeedCircuitSwitchedData
IMT2000
InternationalMobileTelecommunicationsforthe2000s
IS136
InterimStandard136:DefinesProtocolsforTDMA(AMPS)
IS136B-HS
IS136BHighSpeed
IS-634b
InterimStandard634b:DefinesProtocolsforA-Interfacefor
CDMAone
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PDC
PersonalDigitalCellular(Japan)
TDMA
TimeDivisionMultipleAccess
TIA
TelecommunicationsIndustryAssociation
UMTS
UniversalMobileTelecommunication/TelephoneSystem
UWC136
UniversalWirelessCommunicationsforIS136
W-CDMA
Wide-bandCDMA
CC
CallControl
MM
MobileManagement
P-H
PDSNtoHomeAgentInterface
R-P
RANtoPDSNInterface
SDU
SignalDataUnit
U
AirinterfacebetweenMSandBTS
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DataGathering
Datagatheringorminingfromnetworkmeasurementswasperformedasfollows:
Country
Locations
Operator
Notes
Santiago
Chile
Concepción
SmartComPCS
Valparaíso
ViñadelMar
Durham,WilmingtonNC.
Comscape
Phoenix,AZ.
Leap
Phoenix,AZ.
Alltel
Denver,CO.
Leap
NewYorkCity,NY.
Verizon
U.S.A.
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NewYorkCity,NY.
SprintPCS
St.Louis,MO.
Verizon
Atlanta,GA.
MetroPCS
Atlanta,GA.
SprintPCS
LosÁngeles,CA.
SprintPCS
LosAngeles,CA.
WesternCellular
Stillwater,OK.
USCellular
Miami,FL.
SprintPCS
Miami,FL.
Verizon
FortLauderdale,FL.
MetroPCS
PortCharlotte-FortMyers,FL.
MetroPCS
WestPalmBeach,FL.
MetroPCS
Athens,GA
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MetroPCS
Monterrey-Salinas,CA.
MetroPCS
Altona
Bonnet
Grandview
Canadá
Morris
MTSMobility
Polonia
Rusell
Steinbach
Woodside
AnHui
Beijing
Henan
Henan
China
Jiangsu
ChinaUnicom
Liaoning
Shanghai
Sichuan
Yunnan
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Table1-NetworksinProductionmeasured
NetworkAffiliation
Thefollowingserviceprovidersweremeasured:
Operator
Country
USCellular
UnitedStates
MetroPCS
UnitedStates
SprintPCS
UnitedStates
MTSMobility
Canada
SmartComPCS
Chile
ChinaUnicom
China
Comscape
UnitedStates
Leap
UnitedStates
VerizonWireless
UnitedStates
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Table2-NetworkAffiliation
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TerminalClients
Thefollowingclientswereusedtoperformourmeasurementsandtesting.
Client
Model
Notes
Kyocera
2255
DataCapable,SMS
DataCapable,BREW2.0,
Kyocera
KE413/KX414Phamton
SMS
Kyocera
2235
DataCapable,SMS
Kyocera
S14
DataCapable,SMS
Audiovox
CDM8300
DataCapable,SMS,WAP
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Audiovox
CDM9155
DataCapable,SMS,WAP
DataCapable,SMS,Push
Sanyo
PM-8200
ToTalk,MMS,WAP
Sanyo
SCP-8100
DataCapable,SMS,WAP
Data
Capable,
JAVA
Motorola
V720
enabled
Data
Capable,
BREW,
Motorola
T730
gpsOne
Samsung
SCH-N255
DataCapable,SMS
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Data
Capable,
BREW,
Samsung
SCH-A610
gpsOne,SMS,MMS
DataCapable,gpsOne,
Samsung
SCH-A310
SMS
Data
Capable,
BREW,
LG
VX-4400
gpsOne,WAP2.0,SMS
Data
Capable,
BREW,
LG
VX-6000
gpsOne,WAP2.0,MMS,
SMS
Nokia
2270
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SMS
Table3-ClientsDevices
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ClientperOperator
Client
Model
Operator
Kyocera
2255
Leap,ChinaUnicom
Kyocera
KE413/KX414Phamton
Leap
Kyocera
2235
SmartcomPCS
Kyocera
S14
MetroPCS,Leap
Audiovox
CDM-8300
Comscape
Audiovox
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CDM-9155
AllTel
Sanyo
PM-8200
SprintPCS
Sanyo
SCP-8100
SprintPCS
Motorola
T730
MTS
Samsung
SCH-N255
WesternCellular
Samsung
SCH-A610
ChinaUnicom
Samsung
SCH-A310
VerizonWireless
LG
VX-4400
USCellular
LG
VX-6000
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VerizonWireless
Smartcom
PCS,
Metro
Nokia
2270
PCS
Table4-Clientsusedatnetworks
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Technology
Protocol
Networks
Notes
IS-95A
Nonetested
-
IS-95B
Nonetested
-
All
networks
had
developedintoEV-DO.
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IMT-2000
Nonealone
Someweredeveloping
intoEV-DV
MostnetworkswereEV-
IMT-20001XEV-DO
Some
DOenabled
AlthoughtherewereEV-
DVnetworksinoperation
IMT-20001XEV-DV
Nonetested
intheUS,didnottest
these.
Table5-TechnologyProtocols
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FrequencyChannelAllocation
Frequency
Carrier
800
Verizon,SPRINTPCS,ChinaUnicom,
Smartcom,AllTel,Commnet
1800
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Verizon,WesternWireless,Commnet
SPRINTPCS,ChinaUnicom,SmartCom
1900
PCS,Verizon,USCellular,MetroPCS,
Leap,MTSMobility,AllTel
2100
ChinaUnicom
Table6-FrequencyChannelAllocation
Workpackage1
Therentaloracquisitionofsophisticatedequipmentwasconsideredinorderto
measurethenetworksparameters.Itwasconsideredthatthekeytoolsto:
a)MeasureRFparameters
b)MeasureandTestsCallsperformance
ocallscompleted
ocallsdropped
ocallsfailed
ojitter
oecho
ointerference
onoise
c)PhaseNoise
Workpackage2
Extensivemeasurementspreparationswerealsoobservedfor:
a)MBS
b)MSC
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c)BSC
d)BTS
e)BSS
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f)SMSC
g)DSC
h)MSS
i)RAN
Forthesetasks,itwasestablishedthattheitemsonTable7-Measurement
Equipmentfortestingwerenecessary.
ItemNo.
Equipment
Model/System
Options/Notes
PortableSpectrumAgilentE443APSA
Withoptions226(Phase
LE1290
Analyzer
Noise
Measurement),
option
B78
(CDMA
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2000),option204(1xEV-
DOMeasurement).
LE1315
TestDriveSet
E7477ACdma2000Supportfor850MHz,1.8
Network
DriveSystem
GHz
and
1.9
GHz,
Optimization
AgilentE6474A
1XRTT/SR1
Platform
Option
E6474A-740
(WAMS)
AllowstestingofMMS,
SMS,Video,WAP,HTTP,
FTP
LE1337
Wireless
BaseE7495A/B
OptionCDMA2000Tx
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StationTestSet
CDMAovertheairtest
tool
NortelCDMAtestSW
PowerMeter
Interferenceanalysis
LE1501
LaptopComputer
Toshiba
SatelliteSerialports,CDRW,LAN
Centrino
Softwareincludin:
EDXPCSAnalyzer
LE1601
Software
Specializedsoftware
MarconiPlanet
MapInfo
IntegratedAnalyzerfor
LE1702
AnalizadorCDMA
NetTekAnalyzer
CDMA
Table7-MeasurementEquipmentfortesting
•ItemLE1290PortableSpectrumAnalyzer
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Thisitem,theportablespectrumanalyzerAgilentE443APSAwiththeoptiontomeasure
phasenoise,andIMT-2000with1xEV-DOextension.Thisistheheartofthe
measurementconfigurationandthesinglemostpowerfultooltomeasurespectrum
usage.OurpreferenceforAgilentagainstotherbrandsreviewed(especiallyAndo)was
basedsolelyinacost-benefitanalysis.
•ItemLE1315CDMATestDriveSet
TheTestDriveSetisaspecializedtoolthatallowsengineerstoliterallydrivearoundthe
networkcoverage.ItallowstheengineerstoobtainRFcoverage,serviceperformance
anddatatestmeasurementsforwirelesscommunicationsnetworksthatusethe
advancedCDMA2000technology.ThesystemrunsonalaptopPCthatinterfaceswith
anAgilentdigitalreceiverand/oraCDMA2000mobilephone.Thesystemcancontrol
uptofourreceiversandfourphonessimultaneously.Thedrivetestsystemisaplatform
productwhichprovidesthefollowingfeatures:carry-aroundtesting,indoortesting,real-
timemappingaswellasmeasurementscapabilitiesinothertechnologiessuchasIS-
95,CDMA,TDMAandCDMA-2000.
TheengineeringteamchoseAgilentbecausethisisthebesttestdrivetoolinthemarket
forCDMA2000networks.
•ItemLE1337WirelessBaseStationSet
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Thebasestationtestsetisthemostfunctionalone-boxtoolforwirelessandwireline
testavailabletoday,eliminatingtheneedfortechnicianstocarry,manage,andlearn
multipletesttools.Consolidatingthemostusedfrequentlyusedtoolsintoonebox
dramaticallyincreasesthetechnicianśproductivity.Thishelpsreducetheassetcosts,
trackingcosts,calibrationandmaintenancecosts,andtrainingcostsassociatedwith
learningthespecificsofseparateinstruments.
ItsupportsCDMAOneandCDMA2000Txanalysis.Itcontainsanantennatester(to
includeoneportandtwoportinsertionloss,returnloss,anddistancetofault
measurements),spectrumanalyzer,internalGPSreceiver,andasetofaccessories
(cables,attenuators,opens,shorts,etc.).
Theoptionincluded:
-PowerMeter
-CWandCDMAreverselinksignalgenerator
-CDMAovertheairtesttool
-NEMspecifictestsoftware(NortelCDMAtestSW)
-12VoltDCBiasOutput
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-Interferenceanalysis
•ItemLE1501LaptopComputer
ToshibaSatellitewithserialportsrunningWindowsOSandToshibaSatelliterunning
Linux.BothmachineswerepoweredbyIntelPentiumIVCentrinochips,512MbRAM.
•ItemLE1601Software
DiversesoftwareusedasMapInfoandMarconiPlanet.
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Planetusesthemostadvancedarchitectureanddesigncomponentsbasedon
MicrosoftNET.Itiseasycustomizableandallowstoworkwith3rdpartyvendors.
MapInfoisourpreferredmappingandcartographyapplication.
•ItemLE1702NetTekAnalyzer
TheNetTekAnalyzerisabasestationtransmitterandinterferenceanalyzer.The
TektronixNetTekanalyzerisarevolutionaryportablefieldtool.TheYBT250testmodule
tailorsthissystemforfasttroubleresolutionandeasytransmitterverificationofcellular,
DCS/PCSand3GbasestationsandNodeBs.
TheNetTekAnalyzerwiththeYBT250testmoduleisnotanexpensive,doeverything
solution:instead,theNetTektestmoduleisoptimizedtoperformtheday-to-dayRFand
demodulationmeasurementtasksthatoccupythemajorityofatechnician’stime.
DataPerformance
ForDataperformancemeasurementsandanalysis,IMT-2000ftp/webtraceswere
collectedoverthenetworksaboveoffering1Xservices.Theclientweredescribedas
mobilephoneterminalsinuseinthenetworksexamined.anyCDMA20003G-1X
FTP/WebtraceswerecollectedoverthemobilephonesdataconnectioninCDMA2000
3G-1XNetworkinthenetworksanalyzed.Theclientsusedareestablishedbeforeas
designatedterminals(Samsung,LG,Sanyo,Nokia,Kyocera,Motorola,Audiovox).Inall
cases,theterminalsweresetwithmaximumidealdownlinkrateof144Kbpsandthe
networkoperatingat1900Mhz.Forwebdownloadsweusedthestandardwebsites
hostedinourremoteLabintheUnitedStates.Inaddition,someCDMA20003G-1X
tracesloggedindatacentersinthecountriesoflocationofthenetworkswereusedbut
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inthiscasewehavethesender(serverside)tcpdumptracescollected.Traffictcpdump
tracestakenoverhigherdata-rateCDMA2000EV-DOandmeasuredwhenavailable.
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Wehaveconducteddetailedperformancestudiesofdifferentapplicationsover
commercialWWANnetworks.Weprimarilyfocusontheperformanceofwebbrowsing
applicationsintheseenvironments.Ourexperimentsshowthatallstandardweb
browsersoperatingintheirdefaultsettingssignificantlyunderutilizethelimited
resourcesoftheWWANwirelesslink.Thisissurprisinginthecontextofpriorwork,
whichshowedthatTCP,theunderlyingtransportprotocolusedbyHTTP,makes
efficientuseoftheWWANwirelesslink.Infact,theseresultsarealsore-confirmedby
ourexperiments.Weexplainthisperformancediscrepancybasedoninefficienciesin
sessionandapplicationlayers.Ourexperimentsshowthatsuitableoptimizations
implementedintheselayerscansignificantlyimproveapplicationperformanceover
WWANenvironments.Ourresultsalsodemonstratethatcollectivesuiteofoptimizations
appliedatdifferentlayersoftheprotocolstackinmanycasesimprovesend-userweb-
browsingexperiencebyatleastafactoroftwo.
TopreciselyquantifythecausesofpoorperformanceoverWWANs,wefirst
benchmarkedstandardwebbrowsers,protocols,andtechniqueswithrespecttotheir
performance.Throughourexperimentswehavemeasuredthedifferentcomponents
thatcontributetothelatenciesduringwebdownloadsforarangeofpopularwebsites
(rankedinwww.100hot.com).Subsequently,weexaminedalargenumberof
optimizationchoicesthatareavailableatdifferentlayersoftheprotocolstack.
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SpecificallywestudythefollowingaspectsoftheseoptimizationsforWWANs:
•Applicationlayer
WequantifythebenefitsofusingschemeslikeHTTPpipelining,extendedhash-based
caching,deltaencodinganddynamiccontentcompressionoverWWAN.
•Sessionlayer
Westudytheimpactofmultiplesimultaneoustransportconnectionsastypicalin
standardwebbrowsers,examinetheimpactoftechniqueslikeDNS-Rewritingand
URLrewritingandofserver-side‘parse-and-push’.Transportlayer,Weevaluatethe
performanceofstandardTCP,arecentlyproposedandimplementedlink-adaptedTCP
variantsuitedforWWANenvironmentsandacustomizedUDPbasedsolution.
•Linklayer
Westudytheinteractionbetweenlink-layerretransmissions(ARQ)andforwarderror
correction(FEC)schemesusingtrace-basedsimulationsfordifferentapplicationsin
WWANenvironments.Toconductthisstudyweimplementedallnecessarytechniques
(includingthreedifferentproxies)forourWWANinfrastructure.
Theresultspresentedinthisprojectsummarizesourexperiencesandlessonslearnt
throughdeploymentandoperationofourWWANtestbedintheCDMAnetworks.The
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followingweresomeofourinterestingobservations:(1)AlthoughTCPitselfisrelatively
efficienteveninWWANenvironments,thedefaultHTTPprotocolsignificantly
underutilizestheWWANwirelesslinks.(2)Appropriateapplicationlayerandsession
layermechanismsarenecessarytocorrectthesignificantmismatchbetweentransport
andapplicationperformance.(3)Proxybasedoptimizationsarecrucialtorealizemany
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oftheperformancebenefitsoverWWAN.
•KeyContributions
oWehighlightthemaincontributionofthisworkasfollows:Wepresentthe
firstdetailedevaluationofapplicationperformanceovercommercialWWAN
environments.
oWeimplementandstudyawideselectionofoptimizationtechniquesat
differentlayersandtheircrosslayerinteractionsonapplicationperformance.
Inourexperiments,weplacedtheproxyinourlaboratoryandthenuseawell
provisionedIPSecVPNto‘backhaul’thetrafficfromthecellularprovider’snetwork.The
mobileclientconnectstothewebserversthroughthisproxy.Wepresentanexperiment
methodologybasedonvirtualwebhostingthatisessentialforperformingreproducible
andrepeatableexperimentsoverWWANenvironments.
TestedandMethodology
TheexperimentsreportedinthispaperhaveprimarilybeenperformedonCDMA-2000
1XEV-DObasedWWANnetworks,whicharewidelydeployedindifferentpartsofthe
world.TheSGSNactsasapacketswitchthatperformssignalingsimilartoamobile
switchingcenter(MSC)inCDMAnetworks,alongwithcellselection,routing,and
handoversbetweendifferentBaseSwitchingCenters(BSCs).ItalsocontrolstheMobile
Terminal(MT)’saccesstotheCDMAnetworkandroutespacketstotheappropriate
BSC.TheGGSNisthegatewaybetweenthemobilepacketroutingofCDMAandthe
fixedIProutingoftheInternet.Wehavealsoexperimentallyevaluatedapplication
performanceonthenextgeneration(3G)cellularnetworks,whicharecurrentlybeing
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deployedindifferentpartsoftheworld.Wirelesslinksusingthese3Gtechnologieshave
higherdataratesthanexisting2.5Gtechnologies.Ourpreliminarystudyconducted
overtwodifferent3Gnetworks,CDMA2000andW-CDMAUMTS,arepresentedin
Section5.Theseresultsindicatethatourobservationsandevaluationspresentedinthis
paperapplyalsotothesehigherdatarate3Genvironments.
Inthissetup,amobileterminal(MT),e.g.alaptop,connectstotheWWANnetwork
throughamobiledevice–aPCMCIACDMA20001X.cardoraphone.Inordertouse
theWWANnetwork,theMTfirstattachesitselftotheGGSN(PDSNinCDMA2000)
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throughasignalingprocedureandestablishesaPoint-to-PointProtocol(PPP)
connectionwiththeGGSN.TheMTisdynamicallyassignedanIPaddressandthe
WWANnetworkisresponsibleforswitchingdatabackandforthtothisIPaddressas
theMTmovesthroughthenetwork.
InourexperimentstheMT(ormobileclient)downloadedwebcontentovertheWWAN
linkfromdifferentcontentlocations:(1)directlyfromtherealwebservers,e.g.CNN,
Yahoo,and(2)virtuallyhostedweb-servers(explainedlaterinthissection)thatwere
locatedinourlaboratory.
Ineithercase,thedatafromthemobileclienttotheserverstraversethroughthecellular
service-provider’snetworkaswellasthepublicInternet,beforeitisfinally‘back-hauled’
toourlaboratory.Tostudythedifferentoptimizationtechniquesatdifferentlayersofthe
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protocolstackandtheiroverallimpactonapplication(web)performance,our
experimentsrequiredustoimplementoptimizationspecificproxies.
Basedontheuseofproxies,ourexperimentscanbeclassifiedintothreemodes:
•NoProxyMode
Inthiscasetheclientdirectlyconnectedtotheserverandtheexperimentsdidnot
requireanyinterveningproxy.Theseoptimizationsaretheeasiesttodeploy.
•TransparentProxyMode
Thismodeisusedforthoseexperimentsheretheclientneednotbeawareofthe
existenceofaproxyandthecellularprovider’snetworktransparentlyguidestheclient’s
connectionsthroughaproxyasnecessary.Transparentproxysolutionsarealsoeasy
todeploy,sincetheyrequireochangesorconfigurationtobemadeinthemobileclients
themselves.
•ExplicitProxyMode
Thismodewasusedinexperimentswhichrequirethemobileclienttobeawareofthe
proxyinthenetwork(inthiscasecalledthe‘server-side’proxy).Thisrequireseither(a)
explicitbrowserconfigurationor(b)softwareupdatesatthemobileclienttoenableitto
interactwiththeserver-sideproxy.Thesoftwareupdateisa‘client-side’proxyand
hencewerefertothisapproachasadual-proxysolution.
Intheproxy-basedoptimizationstheproxyneedstobedeployedwithinthecellular
provider’snetwork.Sinceitwasnotpracticalforustoinstallourownequipmentinside
acommercialcellularnetwork,weinsteadplacedtheproxyinourlaboratoryandused
awellprovisionedIPSecVPNto‘backhaul’CDMAtraffictoitdirectlyfromthecellular
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provider’snetwork.Thisensuredthatthepathbetweentheproxyandthecellular
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provider’snetworkwasneverthebottleneck.Intheproxy-basedexperiments,the
mobileclientconnectstothewebserversthroughthisproxy.
ExperimentalMethodology
Weusevirtualwebhostingtoemulaterealwebdownloads.Virtualwebhostingisan
importantconstructtoperformrepeatablewebbrowsingexperimentsoverWWANlinks
involvingfast-changingwebsites.
Contentsofpopularwebsiteschangeveryfrequently(e.g.inCNNcontentchanges
withinminutes).Ifrealweb-downloadexperimentsweretobeconductedoverlow-
bandwidthWWANlinksinvolvingsuchweb-sites,thendifferentdownloadattemptsmay
noticesignificantdifferencesinthedownloadedcontentstructureandvolume.Thetotal
numberofdownloadsrequiredforeachwebsiteconsideredinthisworkwasmorethan
500(includingatleast20downloadsforeachconfiguration).Thistranslatestoa
durationofover1500minutestoperformtheexperiments,leavingsidesetuptimes,
transientnetworkcongestion,unavailablewirelesslinkconditions,etc.Henceitwould
nothavebeenfeasibleforustomakemeaningfulcomparisonsperformeddirectlyusing
realwebsites.Toavoidthisproblemweimplementedavirtualwebhostingsystemin
ourlaboratory,wherewereplicatedthecontentsofthepopularwebsitesintoasetof
webservers(inourlaboratory)withpublicdomainnames.Thusamobileclientcan
accessthevirtuallyhostedwebpagesusingWWANnetworksjustastheywouldfrom
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actualserversinarepeatableandreproduciblefashion.Asnapshotonthemain
webpageofapopularnewsweb-sitelikeCNNshowsthatithasmorethan100
embeddedobjects.Whilesomeoftheseobjectsmaybehostedonthemaincontent
servers,there’sarehostedbyCDNservers,e.g.Akamai.
Whenauserattemptstodownloadhttp://www.cnn.com,thebrowserfirstperformsa
DNSlookuptoresolvecnn.comanddownloadsthemainwebpage.Subsequentlyit
performsfurtherDNSlookupstoresolvetheCDNserversthatholdsomeofthe
embeddedobjectsinthatpage,andperformsappropriatedownloadsfortheseobjects.
DownloadsfrompopularwebsitessometimesinvolvesalargenumberofDNSlookups,
whichsignificantlyaffectthedownloadperformanceoverWWANlinks.Hence,inthe
virtualwebhostingsetup,itwasnecessarytofaithfullyreplicatethedistributedweb
contentanditsoverallstructure.Foreachserverintheoriginalwebsite,weassigneda
separatewebserverinourlaboratoryto“virtually”hostthecorrespondingcontent.The
domainnamesofthesevirtualweb-hostingserverswereconstructedfromtheiroriginal
domainnamesbypre-pendingWeb-page.
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BenchmarkingPerformance
Ourexperimentalevaluationisfocusedontheweb-browsingperformanceoverWWAN
network.Wehaveexperimentedwithdifferentstandardweb-browsersavailable(e.g.
InternetExplorer6,Netscape7.0).Someotherwebbrowsersforhandhelddevices(e.g.
Blazer,PocketIE)mayhaveadditionalfeaturessuchasprogressiverenderingand
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smartcaching.Whiletherearesomevariationsintheirimplementations,weobserved
thattheirbehaviorisroughlysimilar.Intheexperimentalresultsreportedinthispaper,
weusetheMozillabrowserversion1.4.InitsdefaultsettingMozillaopensupto8
simultaneousTCPconnectionsperweb-serverusingHTTP1.0andupto2TCP
connectionsusingHTTP/1.1.Mozillaalsosupportsproposedexperimentalfeaturesin
HTTP/1.1,e.g.pipelining.Duetoitsopensourcenature,itwaseasiertoalterthedefault
browsertosuitexperimentalneeds.
Theexperimentsreportedinthispaperwereperformedusingalaptopwitha1.4GHz
processorrunningLinux(kernel2.4.20)whichconnectstotheWWANCDMA2000
networkusinga‘3+1’CDMAphone.TheWWANoperatesinthe1.8-1.9GHzbandand
supportstheuseofCS-2codingschemeforForwardErrorCorrection(FEC).CS-2isa
‘goodcompromise’codingschemegivinganidealdownlinkdatarateof39.6Kbpsfor
a‘3+1’phone.(NotetheactualpayloadthroughputseenbytheRadioLinkControl–
RLClayerisslightlylowerthanthisvalue).Thereliability(retransmissions)offeredby
theRLClayerwaskeptenabled.Furthermore,wesawnoevidenceofnetworkresource
contention(CDMAtime-slots)inourWWANcell.Thisisperhapsduetothesmall
numberofCDMA-20001Xusersandgeneroustime-slotprovisioningbytheWWAN
operator.Inallourexperimentsthemobilehost(laptop)waskeptstationarytoavoid
linkvariations.MeasuredsignalqualityatthelocalFileSize(KB)FTP-throughput(Kbps).
Theseresultsindicatethattherearesignificantopportunitiesforoptimizingweb
browsingperformanceforWWANnetworks.
PerformanceOptimizations
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Wehaveexaminedandcharacterizedtheperformanceofawideselectionof
optimizationtechniquesthathavebeenproposedatthedifferentlayersoftheprotocol
stack—application,session,transport,andlink.Asdiscussedsomeofthese
optimizationtechniquesreliedonatransparentorexplicitproxythatwaslocatedinour
laboratory.
Wewillquantifytherelativebenefitsobservedbyeachofthesetechniques,exceptfor
theexplicitdual-proxytechniquesinmostcases.Thedual-proxytechniquesworkswith
verydifferentassumptionsofdeploymentandhenceitisnotpossibletomakeafair
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comparisonofthesetechniqueswiththeno-proxyorsingle-proxytechniques.Therefore,
wewillpresentthebenefitsofthedual-proxyschemesindividuallyandcommenton
theircombinedeffectsinthesummaryofresults.
ApplicationLevelTechniques
Weconsiderthreeapplication-leveloptimizationtechniques.First,weexaminecontent
compressionanditsimpactonwebdownloadperformance.Ourresultsshowthatweb
contentishighlycompressible,butthisdoesnottranslatetocommensuratebenefitsin
webdownloadperformanceoverWWAN.Next,weexaminethevariouschoices
availablethroughtheHTTPprotocol,e.g.HTTP/1.1withpersistentconnectionsand
HTTPrequestpipelining].Ourresultsshowthatthedefaultconfigurationparametersof
mostbrowsers(typicallychosentoworkwellinwirednetworksorwirelessLANs)
performpoorlyinWWANenvironments.
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Finally,wealsoexploresomeadvancedtechniquesincludingdeltaencodingand
extendedcaching.
ØDynamicContentCompression
Thetotalsizeofcontentofmanywebpagesisquitelargerelativetothedownlinkdata
rateofWWANnetworks.Hence,contentcompressionisanaturalcandidatetofurther
reducedownloadlatencies.Wefirstexaminethe“compressibility”ofthedifferent
websites.Weclassifycontentintotwoparts—fixedfidelitycontent(includesallHTML,
CSS,JS,files)andvariablefidelitycontent(includesallimages).Forallfixedfidelity
dataweappliedlosslessdatacompression,usinggzipandforallvariablefidelitydata
weappliedlossdatacompression,byreducingthedepthlevelofimages.
Notethatotherformsofdatacompression,e.g.htmlreformatting,imageresizing,etc.
couldalsobeappliedhere.However,wedonotemploysuchtechniquesinourproxy,
sincetheyrequiresignificantknowledgeofthecontentsemantics.Weimplement
dynamiccontentcompressionusinganapplication-levelproxyoperatinginthe
transparentaswellastheexplicitdual-proxymode.WebsiteFixed-fidelityVariable-
Wepresenttheperformancebenefitsofcontentcompressionofwebdownload
latencies.Whenlosslesscompressionisused,theclientneededtoperforman
uncompressedoperation.(NotethattheextraCPUoverheadtouncompressed,saya
100KBdatafile,isoftheorderofafewmillisecondsformosthandhelddevicesandis
insignificant.)Wecanobservethatalthoughthecontentinthedifferentwebsitesare
verycompressible,thebenefitsofcompressiononapplicationperformancei.efullweb-
pagedownloadtimeisnotassubstantial(exceptforYahoo).
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Wecanexplainthisapparentanomalousbehaviorbasedontheobjectsizedistribution
ofthewebpages.Wecanobservethatmostoftheobjectsinthewebpagesaresmall,
e.g.nearly60%oftheobjectsinCNNarelessthan1KB(typically1TCPsegmentfor
1400bytepayloadIPpackets).Anyamountofcompressionwouldclearlynotchange
thenumberofsegmentsbelowone.FurthermoreeachGETrequestforsuchsegments
willincuranoverheadofatleastoneWWANroundtriptime.Therefore,thetotal
overheadofissuingindividualGETrequestsforeachoftheseobjectsintheweb-page
sequentiallyovertheTCPconnectionsstartsdominatingtheoveralltransfertimeof
theseobjectsandhenceimprovementintheweb-pagedownloadlatencydueto
compressionwillbeminimalinthesecases.Incontrast,thedistributionofobjectsizes
intheYahoowebsiteisskewedtowardslargervalues(theaverageobjectsizeis3.8KB
inYahoo,asopposedto2.2KBand2.8KBforAmazonandCNNrespectively).Wecan
observeherethattheimpactofcontentcompressionissignificantlygreatersincethe
numberofobjectsinYahooweb-pagearerelativelyfew(hencereducedRTToverheads
ofissuingGETrequests)whiletheaverageimagesizelarge(therebyyieldinggreater
compressionfactorperimageobjectwheremostobjectsarelarge).Hencethe
improvementinresponsetimebyreductioninthepayloadofferedby
ØMechanismDescription
HTTP/1.0UseofseparateTCPconn.ForeachobjectdownloadedHTTP/1.1-def.Use
oftwo“persistent”TCPconn.todownloadallobjects.HTTP/1.1-PipeliningUseof2
“persistent”TCPconn.withsimultaneousGETsHTTP/1.1-Opt.Useof6“persistent”
TCPconn.compressingtheobjectsincaseofYahooisfargreaterthanthe
overheadofissuingindividualGETs–datacompressionhasasignificantlybetter
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impactondownloadlatenciesofsuchwebsites.
ØOptimizingHTTPusingPipelining
Manycurrentwebbrowserscontinuetousenon-persistentconnections(HTTP/1.0),
whichopens-upnewTCPconnectionforeveryobjectdownloaded.Incontrast,
HTTP/1.1initsdefaultmodeopenstwoTCPconnectionstoeachserverwhichareused
todownloadalltheobjectsfromthatserver.OurresultsshowthatHTTP/1.1-default
suffersfromsignificantunder-utilizationoftheWWANlink.Thereforewenowstudythe
impactoftheHTTP1.1-Pipeliningfeaturewhichisanexperimentaloptioninthestandard.
InTable5wesummarizethedifferentvariantsoftheHTTPprotocolthatwestudy.A
browserthatimplementsHTTPrequestpipeliningisallowedtoissuenewGETrequests
withoutwaitingfortheentireresponseofthepreviousones.Henceabrowsercanuse
thismechanismtoissuesimultaneousGETrequestsandensurethattheTCP
connectionarefullyutilizedfordatatransfer.ThisisincontrasttotheHTTP/1.1-default
(non-pipelined)whichissuesGETrequestssequentiallyovereachopenTCP
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connection.Infact,itispreciselythis‘stop-and-go’GETbehaviorofHTTP/1.1-default
whichleadstosignificantofunder-utilizationoftheWWANlink.
InTable6wecanseethatHTTPPipeliningprovidesbetween35%to56%benefitfor
thedifferentwebsites.ThebenefitisparticularlyhighforlargewebsiteslikeCNNwith
manyobjectsintheirwebpage.Weexplainthisusingthedistributionofobjectsizes
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shownearlier.Mostoftheobjectsinthesepopularwebpageshavealargenumberof
smallobjects(e.g.CNNhasmorethan60%oftheobjectslessthan1KBinsize).The
defaultHTTP/1.1protocolgetseachofthesesmallobjectssequentiallyoveritstwoTCP
connections,andwaitsnumeroustimesbetweenthecompletionofeachGETrequest
andthebeginningofthenext.
Incontrast,pipeliningallowsmanyGETrequeststobeissuedsimultaneouslyythe
mobileclientandhencetheobjectsarefetchedwithoutanyinterveninggaps.TTP
pipeliningisanexperimentaltechniqueintheHTTP/1.1standardandwefoundthat,
unfortunately,mostbrowsersdonotenablethisfeaturebydefault.Additionally,our
experimentsshowthatthewebserversofmanypopularwebsitescurrentlydonot
respectthispipeliningfeature.Therefore,therealperformancebenefitsofthis
mechanismonwirelesswebbrowsingcanbequitelimited.Inalloursubsequent
experimentation,wewillignoreHTTP/1.1-pipeliningtechniqueforthisreasonandre-
visititinoursummaryofresults.Wewillstudytheimpactofasessionlayertechnique
inwhichwevarythenumberofsimultaneousTCPconnectionsandshowhowitcan
approximatethebehaviorofHTTPpipelining.
ØExtendedCachingandDeltaEncoding
Inthisexplicit,dual-proxybasedoptimization,weevaluatedextendedcontent-hash
basedcachinganddeltaencodingschemes.Inthisscheme,a‘client-proxy’software
wasinstalledinthemobiledevicewhichinteractedwiththe‘server-side’proxylocated
intheWWANinfrastructure.Intheextendedcachingscheme,theclientaswellasthe
serverproxyindexeswebobjectsbytheirSHA-1fingerprint,whichwecallContent
HashKey(CHK).Eachtimetheclientattemptstodownloadawebpage,itgetsaCHK
listofalltheobjectsinthewebpagefromtheserver-sideproxy.Usingthis
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information,
theclientmakesrequestforonlysingleinstanceofobjects,eveniftheypointtomultiple
URLs(sameresponsebutaliasedtomultipleURLs).Experimentshaveshownthatin
manydynamicallygeneratedwebsites(e.g.bbc.co.uk)suchaphenomenonis
commonplace(alsoknownasresponsealiasing).Hence,CHK-basedcachingisable
toeliminateredundantdatatransferoverWWAN,savediskspaceandalsoimprove
overallwebdownloadtimes.
Whenthedatabeingdownloadedisadifferentversionofthesameobjectpreviously
cached(i.e.sameURLbutdifferentCHK),adeltaencodingschemeisused.Delta
encodingisastandardtechniqueinwhichtheserver(inourcasetheserver-sideproxy)
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sendsonlythedifferencesbetweenthenewandoldversionsofadocumenttotheclient.
Thistechniqueisveryusefulforwebsiteslikecnn.comandbbc.co.uk,wherethe
contentchangesincrementally,butfrequently(e.g.time-of-daystrings).Ourexperience
showsthattheuseofCHK-basedcachinganddelta-encodingonaverageimproves
realweb-browsingperformancebyabout3-6%insuchfast-changingweb-sites.Note
thatindividualbenefitsfromCHK-basedcachinganddeltaencodingdependslargely
onthetypeofweb-siteanditscontent.Ingeneraltheseareexpectedtovaryfordifferent
web-sites.Thefiguresreportedherearebenefitsuserscannominallyexpectforour
exampleweb-sitesduringrealweb-browsingsessions.
SessionlayerTechniques
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Thegoalofthesession-layeroptimizationsistomitigatethelink‘idletime’effects
incurredduringDNSlookupsandsomeotherfactorsduringwebdownloads.We
performedadetailedstudyoftheperformanceenhancementschemesfor:
(1)impactofmultiplesimultaneoustransportconnectionsastypicalinstandardweb
browsers,
(2)impactofDNSlook-upsonwebdownload,and,
(3)server‘parse-and-push’technique.WestudyURL-rewriting/DNSRewritingwiththe
transparentproxy,andParse-and-Pushschemeasanexplicitdual-proxyapproach.
ØVaryingNumberofTCPConnections
WeshowedthattheHTTPpipeliningfeaturehassignificantimpactonwebbrowsing
performanceinWWANmailTCPconnectionsforthewebbrowserwasvaried.
DownloadtimesnormalizedwithrespecttotheHTTP/1.1defaultoftwoTCPconnections.
(ThedefaultconnectionsettingsinWebbrowsersleadstosignificantunder-utilization
overWWAN.)environments.Unfortunately,thepipeliningfeatureisnotfaithfully
supportedbymanycommercialwebservers.Thereforewelookatanalternative
sessionlayertechniquewherewetreateachHTTPdownloadasasinglesessionand
optimallychoosethenumberofsimultaneousTCPconnectionsopenedbytheclientto
theserver.ThenormalizationwasdonewithrespecttoHTTP/1.1-default(two
connections).Inallthecases,wefoundthebestperformancewhen6connectionswere
used(wecallthisHTTP/1.1-Opt).ThedownloadlatencyforHTTP/1.1-Optreducedby
35-42%forthedifferentwebsites.ThenumberofparallelGEToperationsincreasewith
thenumberofconnections,thus,decreasingthetotal‘idletime’onthewirelesschannel.
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However,weobservenoadditionalbenefitsofincreasingthenumberofconnections
beyondsix,atwhichpointthedownloadperformanceislimitedbyotherinefficiencies
(e.g.DNSlookups,TCP3-wayhandshakeandslowstarteffects,etc.).Infact,the
performancedegradesduetoadverseinteractionsandoverheadfromtheTCP
connections.
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TheoptimalnumberofTCPconnectionsthatminimizesdownloadlatencyisaproperty
ofthewirelessinterfaceandthenetwork.Ourresultsindicatethat6TCPconnections
providemaximumthroughputwhenusingaGRPSnetworkwithanidealdownlinkdata
rateof39.6Kbps.TheoptimalnumberofTCPconnectionscanvaryforaCDMA2000
3G-1Xnetworkwithanidealdownlinkdatarateof144KbpsorforaUMTS3Gnetwork
withmaximumdownlinkdata-rateof384Kbps,andwerecommendanempirical
configurationoftheoptimalsettingsinbrowsersbasedonsuchpropertiesoftheWWAN
network.IncreasingthenumberofsimultaneousTCPconnectionsisanaggressive
behavior.However,forbandwidth-depletedenvironmentslikeWWANenvironments,
suchabehaviorleadstosignificantimprovementintheuserexperience(i.e.forCNN
thedownloadlatencyreducesfrom196.3secondsto123.0seconds).
WecanobservethattheuseofHTTP/1.1-Opt(6connections)leadstosignificant
performancebenefitsforwebdownloads.Whiletheperformanceimprovementof
HTTP/1.1-OptissimilartothatofHTTP/1.1-Pipelining,itissomewhatlowerinsome
cases.ThisisbecauseHTTP/1.1-Optisonlyabletoapproximatethebehaviorof
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HTTP/1.1-PipeliningbycarefullychoosingthenumberofsimultaneousTCPconnections.
IncludesApp.Opts:FullCompression
Thegoalofboththeseoptimizations,intheWWANcontext,aresimilar—toreducethe
numberandoveralldurationofidletimesbetweensuccessiveGETrequestsovereach
TCPconnection.SincemostwebserverscurrentlydonotsupporttheHTTPpipelining
option,HTTP/1.1-OptisanalternativeapproximationthatmaybeusedbyWWANclients
torealizesimilarbenefits.
•URLRewriting/DNSRewriting
ThesearetwoalmostequivalenttechniquesthattransparentlyreducetheDNSlookup
andTCPconnectionsetupoverheadsatthemobileclient.IntheURLre-writing
technique,theproxyinthecellularprovider’snetworkinterceptstheGETrequestissued
bytheclientforawebpage,sayindex.html,andmakesappropriateserverrequestson
theclient’sbehalf.Onreceivingtheindex.htmlpage,theproxyparsesthecontents,
andidentifiesthenamesofallotherserversthatholdsdifferentembeddedobjectsand
replacesthemwithitsownIPaddresssimilartoschemesemployedbyContent
DistributionNetworks.Itthenrespondswiththismodifiedindex.htmltotheclient.The
clientnowdirectlycontactstheproxyusingthelatter’sIPaddressfortheseembedded
objectsthroughsubsequentGETrequests.Theproxyagain(pre-)fetchestheseobjects
fromtheotherserversandinturnservesthemtotheclient,muchlikeawebcaching
system.ThustheclientneedstoperformatmostoneDNSlookup.DNS-Rewriting
achievesthesameeffectasURLre-writing,butbyintelligentlymanipulatingDNS
queriesfromtheclient.ByrespondingtotheDNSquerieswithafixedIPaddress,the
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DNSRewritingtechniqueimplicitlyforcestheclienttopointtoonesingle(proxy)server
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sothatclientcanopenanoptimalnumberofTCPconnectionstherebyimprovingoverall
performance.Thus,wefindthatbothschemescanbenefitperformanceintwoways:
(1)byavoidingextraDNSLookups,and,
(2)byminimizingtheoverheadofopeningdistinctTCPconnectionstodifferentservers.
Toquantifythebenefitsoftheseschemes,weimplementedtheDNS-Rewriting/URL-
rewritingproxyandperformeddownloadexperimentsfordifferentwebsites.Wepresent
theresults.
Sincewewantedtoquantifytheadditionalbenefitsofthedifferentsessionlevel
techniques,weperformedtheapplication-leveloptimizations(notincludingHTTP/1.1-
pipeliningsinceitsprevalenceisstilllimitedincommercialwebservers)inallthese
experiments.Asnotedbefore,useofHTTP/1.1-Optitselfleadstosignificant
performancebenefits,i.e.between37-44%,whileeliminationoftheDNSlookup
overheadaddsanother5-9%improvementinthedownloadlatency.Thecombined
improvementsduetothesesessionlayertechniquesarebetween53-65%.
•Serverside
ParseandPush.Parse-and-pushisasession-level,explicit,dual-proxyschemewhere
theserver-sideproxylocatedattheotherendofthewirelesslinkintheWWANnetwork
attemptstospeculatively‘push’objectsWebsiteApp.+SessionOpts:1.1-Opt+DNS-
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b/URL-rDownloadtimeinseconds.Noneimpliesnotransportoptimizations,T1isTCP-
WWANandT2isUDP-CDMA.ImprovementswithrespecttoNone(firstcolumn)
towardstheclientthatitknowstheclientwillhavetodownload.Forexample,whenthe
clientmakesarequestfortheindex.htmlpage,theserver-sideproxywillbeginpushing
thevariousobjectsembeddedintheindex.htmlfileevenbeforetheclientmakesexplicit
GETrequestsforit.Parse-and-pushemulatesdeterministiccontentpushingtowards
themobileclient,whenthewirelessdownlinkwouldhavebeenotherwiseleftidle.While
supportingparseandpushmechanismrequiresexplicitclient-sidesoftwareupdate,
theschemehelpstoimproveoverallutilizationofthelink.Ourexperimentshaveshown
thatparse-and-pushcanprovideanadditionalbetween5%to12%improvementinthe
web-pagedownloadlatencyforpopularwebsites.
TransportlayerTechniques
Wenowexaminetwooptimizationtechniquesinthetransportlayerthathavebeen
proposedinrecentliterature.Thefirstoneisatransparent-proxysolutionthatattempts
tooptimizeTCPperformanceusinga‘transparent’proxylocatedinthecellular
provider’snetwork,werefertothistechniqueasTCPWWAN.Theotherisan‘explicit
dual-proxy’solutionwhichdefinesacustomprotocolbasedonUDP(wecallitUDP-
CDMA.)
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WhileTCPisdesignedtooperateoverawide-rangeofnetworkandlinkconditions,the
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optimizedprotocolsstudiedinthissectionspecificallyleveragetheknowledgeofthe
underlyingWWANwirelesslinksandhenceachieveimprovedperformance.Dueto
spaceconstraintsweonlysummarizethekeyfeaturesofboththeseimplementations.
•TCPWWAN
TCPWWANdefinesatransparentproxy-basedsolutioninwhichtheproxyislocatedin
thecellularprovider’snetwork.Theproxyspecificallyaddressessomeofthemain
performanceproblemsofTCPforwebdownloadsoverWWANs.Forexample,instead
ofusingtheTCPslowstart,itusesapre-determinedvalueofthebandwidth-delay
productandperformsaggressiverecoveryduringpacketlossesandlinkstalls.Note
thatsuchaggressivebehaviorcanbeverydisruptiveifimplementedintheInternet.
However,TCP-WWANisimplementedonlywithinthecellularprovider’snetworkwhich
alreadyimplementappropriatebandwidthsharingmechanisms(forCDMA2000)
betweenusersatlowerlayeroftheprotocolstack.StandardTCPleadstolargequeue
build-upduetogenerousbufferprovisioninginWWANnetworks.Long-livedTCPflows
destinedtomobileclientsaccumulatesegmentsintheselargequeuescausingSender
TCPRTOinflationthatprolongsrecoveryduringloss.Furthermore,WWANlinkscanbe
subjectedtolink‘stalls’.Whensuchlinkstallsoccur,undeliveredTCPsegments
accumulateintheselargeWWANqueues,whicharethencorrectlyre-transmittedby
thereliablelinklayeronlinkrepair.However,thisresultsinsenderexperiencingsudden
‘delayspikes’thatcancausespurioustimeouts.NotethatTCP-WWANcanestimatethe
DownloadLatency(Norm.)FEC%Impactofdynamiclink-layerFECsonDownload
Latency
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WWANlinksonbulkdatadownloadsunderdifferentchannelconditions.(WWANtrace-
drivensimulations)availablebandwidthonthewirelesslinktosufficientlyregulatethe
flowofTCPsegmentstowardsthemobileclient.Itavoidsexcessqueuebuild-upinside
WWANnetworksandalsopreventsspurioustimeoutsshouldwirelesslinkstallsoccur.
WeimplementedaTCP-WWANproxyforanexperimentalevaluationofthistechnique
basedonthedescriptionofChakravorty,Katti,PrattandCrowcorft.
•CustomTransportProtocol
UDP-CDMA2000isanexplicitdual-proxybasedschemetoimprovethetransport
performanceofwebdownloads.ThisschemedefinesareliableprotocolusingUDPand
implementsordered,reliable,messagetransfer.Theprotocolisoptimizedspecifically
forCDMAnetworksbyleveragingitsknowledgeoftheCDMA2000wirelesslink.For
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example,thisprotocolisawarethattheCDMA2000linklayersofferreliablein-order
datadelivery.HenceitusesaselectiverepeatwithNegativeAcknowledgementsfor
lossrecovery.UsingsuchspecificpropertiesandcharacteristicsofCDMA2000links,
thisprotocolrespondsefficientlyevenintheeventofcommonpatternsofpacketlosses.
Periodicmessagesaregeneratedeveryfewsecondswhichallowhoststodetect
seriouslinkstalls.Ifsuchalinkstallisdetected,theclientdisconnectsandre-attaches
totheCDMA2000network.Experiencehasshownthatthisactionoftenrepairsthe
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link
failures.
Anunawaretransportprotocol(e.g.standardTCP)willexperiencesevereback-offsand
failuresundersimilarcircumstances.UDP-CDMA2000,bydesign,alsoavoidsTCP’s
connectionsetupandslowstartdelays.WhileTCPhastooperateoverlinkswithwidely
varyingqualities,beingacustomsolutionUDP-CDMA2000canmakemanymore
assumptionsabouttheunderlyingnetwork.Forinstance,sinceCDMA2000networks
implementamechanismtosharebandwidthbetweenusers,thereisnoneedforthe
UDP-CDMA2000protocoltoimplementitsowncongestionavoidancemechanisms.
Instead,itemploysasimplecredit-basedflowcontrolscheme.Thecreditvalueisso
chosentoensurethatthewirelesslinkremainsfullyutilizedeventhoughthebuffer
occupancyinthecellularnetworkremainslow.Thisavoidsexcessqueueingthatsome
longlivedTCPflowscause.Wepresenttheadditionalperformancebenefitsofapplying
theabovetransport-leveloptimizations.WecanobservethatTCP-WWANachieves
between5-13%additionalbenefitsforthedifferentwebsites.UDP-CDMA2000
leveragesitsspecificknowledgeofthewirelesslinkcharacteristicstoimprovethe
downloadperformancefurther(between7-14%forthedifferentwebsites).
LinklayerTechniques
Wefinallypresentanevaluationoflink-layermechanismsandtheirimpactonuser
performance.WWANwirelesslinksusetwodifferentschemestoprovidereliability
acrossthewirelesslinksoverawiderangeofchannelnoiseconditions.Thefirstofthis
isadataencodingschemewithvariouslevelsofForwardErrorCorrection(FEC).For
example,CDMA2000networksusefourdifferentFECschemes(CS-1toCS-4).The
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choiceoftheappropriateencodingschemeismadestaticallybytheRadioLinkControl
(RLC)layer.MostcurrentCDMA2000WWANsmakeuseoftheCS-2scheme,which
allowsgooddataprotectioninmoderatetohighnoisyradioconditions.Thesecondone
isanAutomaticRepeatRequest(ARQ)schemethatworksaggressivelytorecoverany
datatransferlossesthroughre-transmissions.Sincere-transmissionsincurdelays,all
shorttermlinkoutagesarehiddenfromthehigherlayersandmanifestasincreased
delays.Thehigherlayerswilldetectlossesonlyfor
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(1)deepfadingthatleadstoburstylosses,or
(2)cell-reselectionduetothecellupdateprocedurethatleadsto‘black-outs’(orlink
stalls).
WestudymechanismsthatwillallowtheRLCtodynamicallychoosetheencoding
schemesinconjunctionwiththeabilitytoenableordisableARQ,andtheimpactof
suchmechanismsonapplications.Performingactualexperimentationforallofthis
studywasdifficultsincewehadnocontrolontheencodingschemesusedbytheBase
Stationtotransmitdatatothemobileclient.Atthemobileclientweonlyhadtheflexibility
toenableordisableARQ,andtheabilitytodisableFECs.Inordertostudythetrade-
offsbetweenARQ-basedandvariableFEC-basedlinklayerreliabilityapproaches,in
somecaseswereliedontrace-basedsimulations(thetracesweregeneratedfrom
actualexperimentsonourtestbed).
Ourtracesweregeneratedasfollows:wesentastreamofUDPpacketsfromtheproxy
tothemobileclient.TheWWANwirelesslinkisthebottleneckinthissystem,and
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therefore,theseUDPpacketswillqueueatthebasestation.TheRLClayerwill
appropriatelyfragmenttheseUDP/IPpacketsintoblocksandpacethemouttothe
mobileclientattheratepermissiblebythewirelesslink.Togenerateourtraces,we
disableARQ.AdditionallywesettheRLClayeratthemobileclienttodeliverallpackets
uptotheIPlayer(includingpacketsinerror)1.TheRLCblocksaresub-dividedinto
slots,andwecaninferwhichslotsare1Blockswithcorruptedheaderscouldnotbe
correctlyinterpretedandhencewasnotdeliveredtotheupperlayerscorruptedover
thewirelesslink.WethenapplyvariouslevelsofFEC-basedencodingsandARQon
thesetracesandobservetheirperformanceontheapplications.Weconsidertwokinds
ofapplications:
(a)reliabledatatransferapplications(likeftpandwebtraffic),and,
(b)nonreliabledatatransferapplications(likestreamingmedia).
Forreliabledatatransferapplications,weassumethatthelinklayercandynamically
chooseanamountofFEC(includingnone)toapplyontheRLCdatablocks.Forease
ofexposition,weassumethattheFECisappliedatthegranularityofslots.Ifthereare
100slotstoablockandtheamountofFECappliedis5%,then5outofthese100slots
areusedtoredundantlyencodetheremaining95.Slotsthatarenotrecoveredafter
FECisapplied(duetohigherchannelerrorconditions)arerecoveredusingtheARQ
scheme.Forthenon-reliabledatatransferapplicationswecompletelydisableARQ.
HencedatathatcouldnotberecoveredafterFECisapplied,islost.
•ReliableDataTransferApplications
Weplotthenormalizeddatadownloadlatencyforreliabledatatransferforalargedata
filefordifferentchannelconditionsandamountofFEC(thedataisnormalizedwith
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43
respecttotheexperimentwiththebestchannelconditionandnoFEC).Itiseasytosee
thatforeachdifferentchannelconditionthereisanoptimalvalueofFECthatleadsto
theleastdownloadlatency.Forexampleamoderatelypoorchannel,withanerrorrate
of0.9%ontheCDMA2000channel,5-6%FECistheoptimalchoicetominimize
downloadtimes.Bydoingso,thedatalatencyreducesbyabout21.9%.Inabetter
channel(saywith0.2%errorrate)thecorrespondingbenefitisabout5%.Theamount
ofrequiredFECforsuchoptimalperformanceincreaseswithincreaseinchannelerror
rates.Thisdatasuggeststhat,insteadofusingafixedvalueofFEC(e.g.CS-2inCDMA),
networksshouldimplementanRLCthatcancontinuouslymonitorthechannel
conditionsanddynamicallychoosetheamountofFECtobeappliedonreliabledata
transfersacrossthewirelesslinks.
•NonReliableDataTransferApplications
Animportantconsiderationfornon-reliabledatatransferapplicationslikemedia
streamingisthejitterexperiencedbythedatastream.Ourexperimentsindicatethat
useofARQschemesfordatarecoveryincursahighjitterontraffic—itcanvary
between600msto3secondsdependingonthenumberofre-transmissionsattempted.
Forsuchnon-reliabledataapplicationsweconsiderthescenariowhereARQis
completelydisabled.OnlyvariableamountsofFECisusedtorecoverfromlinklayer
losses.UseofFECincursconstantdelayoverheadsevenwhenthechannelislossfree.
Whilethiswoulddecreasethejitterbetweensuccessivedatapacketsinsuchmedia
streams,underpoorchannel(highnoise)conditionsitwouldalsoincurlosses.
WeshowhowthechoiceofFECimpactslossesexperiencedbyastreamingapplication.
WecanseethatevenalowamountofFECissufficienttoobtainalowloss
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performance
forstreamingapplications,whilemaintaininglowjitter.However,adisadvantageof
usingFECtohandlelossesisareductionindatathroughput.Forexample,whenthe
channelerrorrateis0.9%,5-6%FECisusefultoeliminatemostofthechannelerrors.
Nevertheless,thisalsoleadstoareductionofusefuldatabandwidthby5-6%.Thegains
ofsuchFEC-basedapproachesareincorrespondingreductioninjitter.
SummaryofResults
Intheprevioussections,wepresentedanumberofdifferentoptimizationtechniquesto
improvewebdownloadperformance.ApplicationandSessionLayeroptimizations
dominateperformanceimprovements,weassumeareasonablygoodwirelesslink,
(errorlessthan0.2%)wheredynamicFECsprovidealatencyimprovementofupto5%.
Thisvalueisderivedfromourtrace-basedsimulations.ThebenefitsofdynamicFECs
willincreasewithpoorerwirelesschannelconditionsanddecreasewithfurther
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improvedchannelconditions.Wehaveexploredtwoclassesofoptimizations—those
thatrequirere-configurationorsoftwareupdateinthemobileclient,i.e.usesanexplicit
proxy,(calledClient-reconf.)andthosethathavenosuchrequirements(calledNo-
reconf.).WeplottherelativecontributionoftheNo-reconf.schemeswhenallofthem
areappliedsimultaneously.Theoptimizationsinclude,FullCompression,HTTP/1.1-Opt,
DNS-Rewriting/URL-rewriting,TCP-WWAN,anddynamicFECs.WebsiteNo-reconf.-I
No-reconf.-IIClient-reconf.
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Theimprovementprovidedbyallthetechniquesappliedsimultaneouslywerethesum
ofthesevalues,63.0%,whichbroughtthedownloadlatencyfrom76.4secondsto29.3
seconds.Ingeneral,wecanobservethatapplicationandsessionlayertechniques
dominateimprovementsinwebperformance.Theyleadto48-61%performance
improvementsforourexamplewebsites.Thusourworkdemonstratesthatthe
applicationandsessionlevelmechanismscurrentlydeployedforwebbrowsing
applicationsmakepooruseoftherelativelyefficientlowerlayers.Employing
appropriateoptimizationsattheselayerscanhelpbridgethisperformancegap
observedbetweentheupperandlowerlayers.
Notethattransportandlinklayersoptimizationstypicallyprovide5-10%additional
performanceimprovements,whichisstillsignificantforwebdownloadsoverWWAN
links.
WedistinguishbetweentwodifferentNo-reconf.solutions:Noreconf.-IusesHTTP/1.1-
OptwhileNoreconf.-IIusesHTTP/1.1-Pipelining.Notethatthesetwotechniquesare
interchangeablesincetheyhavethesamegoalwithsomewhatsimilareffect.Inboth
thesesolutionswealsoapplyalltheotherNo.reconf.solutionsatthedifferentlayers.
TheClientreconf.solutionincludesFullcompression,Deltaencodingandextended
caching,Parse-and-push,andUDP-CDMA2000.Aswewouldexpect,theClient-reconf.
solutionleveragesextrafunctionalitybetweentheclientandtheserver-sideproxyto
achievebetterperformancethantheNo-reconf.techniques.Additionallywecan
observethatbetweenthetwoNo-reconf.solutions,thepipeliningbasedtechnique
achievesbetterperformancethantheHTTP/1.1-Optbasedtechnique.Thisindicates
thatpipeliningisaverycrucialtechniquetoimproveperformanceandshouldbe
enabledbyallwebservers.
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Discussion
Theresultspresentedindicatethatoptimizationsatindividuallayersofprotocolstacks
arenecessarytoachievesignificantperformancebenefitsinCDMA2000environments.
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Alsoquantifiesthespecificbenefitsofperformanceoptimizationsatthesedifferent
layers.Inthissectionwediscussthefollowingrelatedquestions:
-Aretheseoptimization-basedbenefitsspecificto2.5GCDMA2000based
WWANnetworksordoweexpectsimilarperformancebenefitsinthenext
generation(3G)networksaswell?Hencewefirstpresentapreliminarycase
studyof3Gnetworksanddemonstratethatourobservationsinthispaperwould
largelyextendtotheseenvironments.
-AreWWANenvironmentsaspecialcaseoflow-bandwidthhigh-latency
networks?Inparticularshouldweexpectthattheoptimizationsstudiedinthis
paperinthecontextofWWANswouldalsoleadtoequivalentperformance
improvementsinwireddial-upenvironments?Hencewenextpresentasimilar
studyforwebapplicationsrunoverwireddialupenvironmentstodemonstrate
thatWWANenvironmentshavesignificantlydifferentcharacteristicsand
performance.WepresenttheseresultsforFTPandwebthroughputs
respectivelyaswediscusslater.
-Finally,wewillconcludewithadiscussionoflimitationsofproxy-basedsolutions
andtheimplicationsofsuchlimitationsinthecontextoftheresultspresented.
•Implicationsin3GNetworks.
Toevaluatethepotentialimpactofourresultson3GWWANenvironments,we
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conductedexperimentsovertwodifferentcommercialclass3Gnetworks–CDMA2000
3G-1XnetworkandW-CDMAUMTS3Gnetwork.Intheseexperimentsweuseda
SamsungVGA1000handsetforconnectingtothe3G-1Xnetwork(maximumideal
downlinkdata-rateof144Kbps)whilefortheUMTS3Gexperimentsweuseda3G
PCMCIAdata-card(qualcommchipset)formeasuringFTPandwebthroughputs(ideal
UMTSdownlinkdata-rateof384Kbps).
Thegoalofourstudywastoexaminethepotentialbenefitsofoptimizationsto3G
networks.HencewepresenttheFTPthroughputsfordifferentfilesizesandthe
unoptimizedwebthroughputforthefourwebsitesandcomparethemwiththe
correspondingperformanceofourCDMA2000experiments.Wequantifytheunder-
performanceofthetwodatatransferprotocols—theunder-performance(in
percentage).
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WecanobservethatCDMA2000and3G(bothCDMA20003G-1XandUMTS)networks
exhibitasignificantadditionalunder-performancebetweenFTPandWebthroughput.
ForinstancetheFTPthroughputinthe3G-1Xcasefora200KBfileisabout36%less
thantheidealdownlinkdatarateof144Kbps,whereasthewebdownloadof186.8KB
sizeCNNpageshowsasignificantlygreaterunder-performance.Wecanalsocontrast
theCDMA2000and3G-1X(under)performancewiththatofUMTS3GWWANthat
offersamaximumdownlinkdata-rateof384Kbps.WefindthatforthecaseofUMTS
3GWWANtheaveragewebdownloadthroughputof62.3Kbps(againdownloadingthe
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CNNweb-page)isfarbelowtheaverageFTPthroughputof156.8Kbpsfora200KB
filetransfer.
Notethatintheseexperimentswedonotapplyanyperformanceoptimizationsatany
layer.Theseresultsdemonstratethatperformancemismatchasseenover2.5GCDMA
2000WWANarealsopresentin3GWWANenvironments.Thus,eventhough3Goffers
higherdataratesthan2.5G,thehighandvariablelinklatencyinWWANimpacts
performanceofweb-basedapplicationsnegativelyleadingtopoorend-user
experience.Appropriateuseandchoiceofoptimizationsimplementedatthedifferent
layersoftheprotocolstackasshowninthispaperarenecessarytoimprove
performanceandoverallend-userexperience.Henceweexpectthebenefitsfromsuch
performanceoptimizationstoextendtothesehigherdata-rate3Genvironments.
WiredDial-upEnvironments.Wealsoexperimentallyinvestigatedperformanceofwired
(dial-up)environments.WeconductedexperimentsusingastandardV.9056Kbpsdial-
upmodem.FTPandWebDownloadthroughputsforCDMAWANandwireddial-up
links.Heredegradation(in%)withrespecttoidealdownlinkdatarate.(Nosignificant
mismatchseenbetweenTCPandHTTPinwireddial-uplinks.)Interestingtonoteinthat
thereexistsnosignificantmismatchbetweenFTPandwebthroughputsinthewired
dial-upscenarios.Theperformancedegradation(withrespecttotheidealdatarateof
56Kbps)ofa100KBFTPis19%,whilethatofalargewebsitelikeCNNis32%.Thisis
veryunlikethecharacteristicsexperiencedinWWANenvironments.Weattributethis
differencetothefollowingreasons.First,theRTTsfordial-upmodems(inthe100-150
msrangefor64bytepackets)isrelativelylowerincomparisontothesignificantlyhigher
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valuesencounteredinWWANlinks(nominallyinthe400mstofewsecondsrangefor
samepacketsize).Hencethe‘stop-and-go’behaviorofHTTPprotocolsindefault
settingsleadstogreaterunder-utilizationinWWANlinksthanitdoesindial-upwired
environments.Clearly,theoptimizationsstudiedinthispaperwillleadtoimprovement
indownloadperformanceoverdial-upmodemsaswell,buttheimpactofthese
techniquesaresignificantlyhigherinWWANs.Second,theRTTvariabilityondial-up
linksismarginalwhencomparedtothatofWWANlinks.Finally,lossesencounteredin
wireddial-uplinksarefewandfarinbetween(unlikeWWANenvironments).Hence
althoughthewireddial-upenvironmentshavelowbandwidths,theirimpactondata
transferapplicationsisrelativelybenign.Itallowsmodemstoimplementadditional
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statefulpacketandconnectioncompressiontechniquesthataremoredifficultto
implementinWWANenvironments.
Trade-offsinProxyDeploymentsoverWWANs.Ourresultsdemonstratethatproxy-
basedsolutionsprovidessignificantperformancebenefitstotheend-userexperience
overWWANs.However,thepresenceofproxybreaksthe“end-to-end”propertiesofan
applicationandhassecurityandotherrelatedimplications.Forexample,ifthe
webpagecontentsaredigitallysignedbythecontentprovider,thenanyupdatese.g.
URL-rewritingorcontentcompression,willviolatethesecurityguaranteesoftheclient.
Partoftheproblemwouldbesolvedifthecontentsourceitselfimplementedsuchproxy
functionality.Evenmorerealistically,itmaybenecessarytoprovidetheclientswith
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the
appropriatechoicetotrade-offperformanceagainstend-to-endguarantees.Thus,a
clientbrowsingnewsatCNNmayacceptsomesusceptibilitytoinsecuredataatthe
costofsignificantperformanceimprovementsindownloadlatencies.Thesameclient
maynotuseaproxy-basedsolutionwhendownloadingstock-quotesandinsteadprefer
therigidsecuritypropertiesofend-to-endencryption.
Theexplicitproxybasedsolutionsdefinecustomizedmechanismstoprovidethebest-
knownbenefitstoWWANclients.However,clientre-configurationoraclient-side
softwareupdateisanintrinsicrequirementofsuchschemes.Thisincreasesthe
deploymentoverheadofsuchschemeshigherthantheotherclassofschemes.
Inmanycasesitisexpensiveforcellularoperatorstoprovidesuchupdatestoexisting
clientequipment.Thepriceperformancetrade-offofthewirelesscellularoperatorswill
finallydeterminethedeploymentofsuchmechanismsinWWANenvironments.The
benefitsavailablefromusingsuchintermediaries(proxysolutions)arealsogenesisto
novelarchitecturalproposalsthatespouseuseofintermediariesintherealmsofnew
Internetfunctions.Someinterestingnewproposalsenvisagefunctionsfor
internetworking,transparentaddressextensionoralayerednamingarchitecture.
Addressingsuchissuesarenecessaryevenfortruemobileconvergence.Thus,
architecturesthatcombineperformanceissuestoaddresssuchtrade-offsusing
proxiesinWWANbenefitsthe‘mobileInternet’evolution.
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RelatedWork
Researchershaveexaminedvariousoptimizationchoicesatthedifferentlayersofthe
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protocolstackinthecontextofbothwired,wireless,andalsoforWWANenvironments.
However,muchofthepriorresearchhasfocussedmainlyonisolatedperformance
optimizations.PriorresearchinWWANshaveprimarilyfocussedonthefollowingthree
aspects:
(a)improvingTCPperformanceoverWWANs,
(b)passiveanalysisofTCPtraffictraces,and,
(c)cross-layerinteractionandoptimizationsofTCPwiththelink-layer.
OurworkdiffersfromallpriorworkinWWANsinseveralways.Inourstudy
(1)wequantifythecausesofpoorapplicationperformanceandexaminetheuser
experienceoverWWANs,
(2)wemeasurethedifferentcomponentsthatcontributetothelatenciesduringweb
downloadsforarangeofpopularwebsites,
(3)weusevirtualwebhostingasanimportantconstructtoperformrepeatableand
reproduciblewebbrowsingexperimentsoverWWANs,
(4)webenchmarkstandardwebbrowsers,protocols,andtechniqueswithrespectto
theirperformance,and,
(5)weimplementandstudyawideselectionofoptimizationtechniquesatdifferent
layersandtheircrosslayerinteractionsonapplicationperformance.
Atthelinklayer,TULIPdescribesatransportunawareARQmechanismtoimproveTCP
performance.A.ChokalingamandAyanogluexaminetheinteractionbetweenARQand
FEC-basedlinkrecoverymechanismsinthecontextofwirelessnetworksthrough
detailedsimulationsandisrelatedtoourdiscussion.A.GurtovandS.Floydindiscuss
comparativeaspectsofmodelingdifferentwirelesslinksfortransportprotocols.A.
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KumarcompareperformanceofversionsofTCPoverwirelesslinks.H.Balakrishnan
useexplicitlossnotification(ELN),mostlyinthecontextofwirelessLANs,toimprove
theperformanceofapplicationslikeHTTP.Forthetransportlayernewmechanisms
havebeendefinedtoimprovetheperformanceofreliable(data)applicationsinwireless
LANenvironments.ExamplesofthisareSnoop,I-TCP,M-TCPetc.However,solutions
meantforwirelessLANsmaynotworkthatwelloverWWAN.
Meanwhile,researchershavealsodemonstratedthattheCDMA2000WWANlinklayer
andTCPdonotadverselyinteractwitheachother.ExperiencewithUMTS3Gnetworks
alsoshowthatTCPworkswellwithlink-layer(RLC)retransmissions.Similarly,linklayer
(RLP)retransmissionsinCDMA20003Glinksensurepacketlossprobabilityofless
than1%andthatalsominimizesanyimpact(andadverseinteractions)onTCP.While
ourresultsagreewiththeseaboveobservationsthattheWWANlink-layerisgenerally
well-tunedfortransportprotocolTCPtooperateoverWWANs,theend-result(i.e.user
NetworkValidationforCDMA20001XEV-DOTechnologyTechnicalHandbookReport
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experience)forTCP-basedapplicationslikewebbrowsingremains‘remarkably’
different.Ourworkalsodemonstratesthatemployingappropriateoptimizationsatthe
applicationandsessionlayers(asdescribedinthispaper)providessignificantbenefits
toactualuser(web)experience.
Inotherimportantworks,R.Ludwiget.al.examinetheperformanceofTCPoverCDMA
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cellularlinksandsubsequentlyproposespecificlinklayermechanisms(e.g.framesize
adaptations)thatarenecessarytoimproveTCPperformanceinsuchenvironments.P.
Sinhaetal.introduceWTCPasoneofthefirstsolutiontoovercomeperformance
problemsseenforTCPoverCDPD-basedWWANlinks.Manyofthelink-related
performanceissues(highRTTs,linkstallsetc.)observedinCDPDbasedWWANsare
similartothatobservedinCDMA2000and3G-1XbasedWWANs.M.C.ChanandR.
RamjeeproposeACKRegulatorforimprovingTCPperformanceoverCDMA20003G-
1Xlinks.UnlikeGSM-basedCDMA2000,3G-1Xlinksexhibitmuchhigherrateand
delayvariationsandtransport-layeroptimizationslikeACKregulatorcanbeusedto
significantlybenefitTCPperformanceinsuchenvironments.IETFRFC3135andRFC
3481providefurtherdetailsofdifferentmechanismstoimproveTCPperformancein
differentwirelessenvironments.Researchhasalsoinvestigatedsomeperformance
issuesoverCDMA2000,e.g.,alarge-scalepassiveanalysisofend-to-endTCPflows
andsomepreliminarystudyofproxyperformanceincellularnetworks.Inarecentwork
T.Bonaldetal.inexaminetheperformanceofwirelessdatasystemsinthecontextof
dynamicinteractionofactiveflowsinmulti-cellscenarios.
Proxyandcachingbasedschemestoimprovewebperformance,similartotheones
wehaveexploredinthispaperforWWANenvironments,havebeenalreadyextensively
exploredinthepriorliteraturemostlyinthecontextofwired(includingdial-up)
environments,e.g.CacheDigests,response-aliasinginwebtransactionsetc.A
detaileddescriptionofcachingschemesispresented.Similarly,deltaencodingisalso
awell-knownandusefultechniquetoimproveHTTPperformance.WebExpressfrom
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IBMdefinessomeapplicationleveltechniques,includingcaching,differencing,and
header-reductionmechanisms,andisrelatedtosomeofthetechniquesexplored.In
thecontextofWWANenvironments,Liljeberget.al.developedMowgliCommunication
ArchitecturethatusesapairofproxiestoemployacustomprotocoltailoredfortheGSM
wirelesslink.Theirsolutionissimilarto(UDP-CDMA2000).TheWirelessApplication
Protocolisanotherrelatedmechanismthatemployexplicitproxies(optionalbuthighly
recommended)toimprovewebexperienceofWWANusers.Theoptimizationchoices
discussedcanbeappliedinthecontextofWAP2.0,specificallyforimprovements
suggestedin“wirelessprofiled”TCPandHTTP.
CDMAhasseenincrementalimprovementsincapacitythroughoutthisperiod.Now
bothtypesofnetworksaremakingatransitiontothird-generation(3G)systemsaround
theglobe,offeringyetmorecapacityanddataservices.Thisdescriptiondescribesthe
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originsofCDMAtechnologyandtheemergenceof3Gimplementationssuchas
cdma20001Xandcdma20001xEV-DO.Anoverviewofnetworktopologyisincluded,
withadetailedexplanationoftheroleofeachelementandinterfaceinthenetworkand
ofprotocoltestingtoaddressthechangingrequirementsofthenetwork.Weconcludes
withadiscussionofsomeofthetechnicalproblemsthatcanoccurinCDMAnetworks
andsomeproposedsolutions.
DigitalRevolutionandEvolution
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Whenthemobilecommunicationsindustrybeganitstransitionfromfirst-generation
analogtechnologytosecond-generation(2G)digitalarchitecture,manufacturersand
operatorschosesides:inEurope,frequency-hoppingGSMarchitecturebecamealmost
universal,whileintheU.S.,partsofAsia,andelsewhere,spread-spectrumCDMA
technologytookalargeshareofthemarket.Becausespreadspectrumuseswideband,
noise-likesignals,theyarehardtodetect.Theyarealsodifficulttointerceptor
demodulate.Further,spreadspectrumsignalsarehardertojam(interferewith)than
narrowbandsignals.TheseLowProbabilityofIntercept(LPI)andantijam(AJ)features
arewhythemilitaryhasusedspreadspectrumforsomanyyears.Bothnetwork
implementations,GSMandCDMA,haveadvancedtokeeppacewithsubscribers’
demandsformorebandwidth,featuresandreliabilityatlowercost.cdmaOneHelps
2GMobileCommunicationsTakeOffTheTelecommunicationsIndustryAssociation
(TIA/EIA)IS-95CDMAstandardpublishedestablishedthegroundrulesforacomplete
end-to-enddigitalwirelesscommunicationssystem.Thecommercialnetworksystem
architecturebasedonthisstandardisknownascdmaOne.TIA/EIAIS-95andthe
subsequentIS-95Arevisionformthebasisformostofthecommercial2GCDMA-based
networksdeployedaroundtheworld.Fromthestandpointofvoiceservices,cdmaOne
technologyoffersimportantfeaturesformobilenetworkoperators:
•An8Xto10XincreaseinvoicecapacityincreasecomparedtoanalogAMPS
systems
•Simplifiednetworkplanning,withthesamefrequencyusedineverysectorofevery
cell
Theearly2GCDMAinfrastructureproveditseffectivenessindeliveringhigh-quality,
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low-lossvoicetraffictosubscribers.Butitdidn’ttakelongformobileuserstobegin
askingforbasicdataservices,suchasInternetandIntranetservices,multimedia
applicationsorhigh-speedbusinesstransactions,tosupplementthevoiceserviceson
theirhandsets.TheTIA/EIAIS-95Astandardansweredthisdemandwithitsdefinitionof
thewideband1.25MHzCDMAchannels,powercontrol,callprocessing,hand-offsand
registrationtechniquesforsystemoperation.TIA/EIAIS-95Abroughttruecircuit-
switcheddataservicestoCDMAsubscribers;however,thesewerelimitedtoa
maximumspeedof14.4Kbpsperuser.
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AsecondroundofrevisionstotheoriginalspecificationproducedtheTIA/EIAIS-95B
standard.Thisnewdevelopmentgavesubscriberspacket-switcheddataservicesat
speedsupto64Kbpspersubscriberinadditiontotheexistingvoiceservices.Withthis
increaseddatarate,TIA/EIAIS-95B-compliantnetworksqualifyas2.5GCDMA
technology.
CDMA2000TakestheNextStep
Thetransitionto3Gnetworks,stillunderway,beganwithaprofusionofnewlyproposed
standards.SomeweredesignedtobuildonGSMinfrastructuresandothersemerged
directlyfromCDMAtechnology.UltimatelytheITUtookapositiononthematter,
defininganIMT-2000standardthatencompassedfivedifferentradiointerfaces
includingcdma2000.NotethatalloftheIMT-2000protocolsusespread-spectrum
techniques,whichhasimplicationsaboutnetworkinstallation,operationand
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maintenance.
TheITUdefinesa3Gnetworkasonethatdelivers,amongothercapabilities,improved
systemcapacityandspectrumefficiencyversus2Gsystems.Itsupportsdataservices
attransmissionratesofatleast144Kbpsinmobile(moving)environmentsandatleast
2Mbpsinfixed(indoor)environments.Thecdma2000architecturemeetsthese
objectivesandincludesseveralimplementationsthatanoperatorcanselecttobest
serveatransitionstrategybasedoncompetitiveconcerns,existinginfrastructures,cost,
andothervariables.
Amongtheseimplementationsarecdma20001Xandcdma20001xEV:
-cdma20001XdoublesthevoicecapacityofcdmaOnenetworks,delivering
peakdataratesof307Kbpspersubscriberinamobileenvironment.
-cdma20001xEVincludestwovariants,bothbackwardcompatiblewith
cdma20001XandcdmaOnetechnologies.
-dma20001xEV-DO(DataOnly),capableofdeliveringdatamultimediaservices
suchasMP3transfersandvideo-conferencingatpeakdataratesof2.4Mbps
persubscriberinamobileenvironment;
-cdma20001xEV-DV(DataVoice),capableofdeliveringintegratedvoiceand
simultaneousdatamultimediaservicesatpeakdataratesof3.09Mbpsper
subscriber.
ANetworkStructureDesignedforPacketizedCommunication
TheMobileStation(MS).Inacdma20001Xnetwork,themobilestation—the
subscriber’shandset—functionsasamobileIPclient.Themobilestationinteractswith
theAccessNetworktoobtainappropriateradioresourcesfortheexchangeofpackets,
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anditkeepstrackofthestatusofradioresources(e.g.active,stand-by,dormant).It
acceptsbufferpacketsfromthemobilehostwhenradioresourcesarenotinplaceor
areinsufficienttosupporttheflowtothenetwork.Uponpower-up,themobilestation
automaticallyregisterswiththeHomeLocationRegister(HLR)
inorderto:
•Authenticatethemobilefortheenvironmentoftheaccessednetwork
•ProvidetheHLRwiththemobile’scurrentlocation
•ProvidetheServingMobileSwitchingCentre(MSC-S)withthemobile’spermitted
featuresetaftersuccessfullyregisteringwiththeHLR,themobileisreadytoplace
voiceanddatacalls.Thesemaytakeeitheroftwoforms,circuit-switcheddata(CSD)
orpacket-switcheddata(PSD),dependingonthemobile’sowncompliance(orlack
thereof)withtheIS-2000standard.Thisdocumentdefinesprotocolsforseveral
criticalCDMAinterfacespertainingtopackettransmission,namelyA1,A7,A9,and
A11.
MobileStationsmustcomplywithIS-2000standardstoinitiateapacketdatasession
usingthe1xRTT1network.MobilestationshavingonlyIS-95capabilitiesarelimitedto
CSD,whileIS-2000terminalscanselecteitherthePSDorCSD.Parametersforwarded
bytheterminalovertheairlink(AL)tothenetworkwilldeterminethetypeofservice
requested.Circuit-switcheddatahasamaximumrateof19.2Kbpsandisdelivered
overtraditionalTDMcircuits.Thisserviceallowsuserstoselectthepointofattachment
intoadatanetworkusingordinarydialleddigits.Packet-switcheddataservicehasa
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maximumdatarateof144Kbps.ForeachdatasessionaPoint-to-PointProtocol(PPP)
sessioniscreatedbetweenthemobilestationandthePacketDataServingNode
(PDSN).IPaddressassignmentforeachmobilecanbeprovidedbyeitherthePDSNor
aDynamicHostConfigurationProtocol(DHCP)serverviaaHomeAgent(HA).
TheRadioAccessNetwork(RAN)
TheRadioAccessNetworkisthemobilesubscriber’sentrypointforcommunicating
eitherdataorvoicecontent.Itconsistsof:
-Theairlink
-Thecellsitetower/antennaandthecableconnectiontotheBaseStation
TransceiverSubsystem(Um)
-TheBaseStationTransceiverSubsystem(BTS)
-ThecommunicationspathfromtheBaseStationTransceiverSubsystemtothe
basestationcontroller(Abis)
-TheBaseStationController(BSC)
-ThePacketControlFunction(PCF)
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TheRANhasanumberofresponsibilitiesthatimpactthenetwork’sdeliveryofpacket
servicesinparticular.TheRANmustmapthemobileclientidentifierreferencetoa
uniquelinklayeridentifierusedtocommunicatewiththePDSN,validatethemobile
stationforaccessservice,andmaintaintheestablishedtransmissionlinks.TheBase
StationTransceiverSubsystem(BTS)controlstheactivitiesoftheairlinkandactsas
theinterfacebetweenthenetworkandthemobile.RFresourcessuchasfrequency
assignments,sectorseparationandtransmitpowercontrolaremanagedattheBTS.In
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addition,theBTSmanagestheback-haulfromthecellsitetotheBaseStationController
(BSC)tominimizeanydelaysbetweenthesetwoelements.NormallyaBTSconnects
totheBSCthroughun-channelizedT1facilitiesordirectcablesinco-locatedequipment.
TheprotocolsusedwithinthisfacilityareproprietaryandarebasedonHigh-levelData
LinkControl(HDLC).
TheBaseStationController(BSC)routesvoice-andcircuit-switcheddatamessages
betweenthecellsitesandtheMSC.Italsobearsresponsibilityformobilitymanagement:
itcontrolsanddirectshandoffsfromonecellsitetoanotherasneeded.Itconnectsto
eachMTXusingchannelizedT1linesforvoiceandcircuitswitcheddata;andtoun-
channelizedT1linesforsignallingandcontrolmessagestothePDSNusingthe
10BaseTEthernetprotocol.ThePacketControlFunction(PCF)routesIPpacketdata
betweenthemobilestationwithinthecellsitesandthePacketDataServingNode
(PDSN).Duringpacketdatasessions,itwillassignavailablesupplementalchannelsas
neededtocomplywiththeservicesrequestedbythemobileandpaidforbythe
subscribers.Anetworkthatprovidesa“1xchiprateof1.2288McpsforRadio
TransmissionTechnology.”
ThePCFmaintainsa“reachable”stateforbetweentheRNandthemobilestation,
ensuringaconsistentlinkforpackets;bufferspacketsarrivingfromthePDSNwhen
radioresourcesarenotinplaceorinsufficienttosupporttheflowfromthePDSN;and
relayspacketsbetweentheMSandthePDSN.
TheCoreNetwork’sRoleintheCDMAInfrastructure
ThePacketDataServingNode/ForeignAgent(PDSN/FA)ThePDSN/FAisthegateway
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fromtheRANintothepublicand/orprivatepacketnetworks.InasimpleIPnetwork,the
PDSNactsasastandaloneNetworkAccessServer(NAS),whileinamobileIPnetwork
itcanbeconfiguredasaHomeAgent(HA)oraForeignAgent(FA).
ThePDSNdoesthefollowingactivities:
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-Managetheradio-packetinterfacebetweentheBSS(BaseStationSubsystem
=BTS+BSC)andtheIPnetworkbyestablishing,maintainingandterminating
linklayertothemobileclient
-TerminatethePPPsessioninitiatedbythesubscriber
-ProvideanIPaddressforthesubscriber(eitherfromaninternalpoolorthrough
aDHCPserverorthroughanAAAserver;seebelow)
-Performpacketroutingtoexternalpacketdatanetworksorpacketroutingtothe
HAwhichoptionallycanbeviasecuretunnels
-Collectandforwardpacketbillingdata
-Activelymanagesubscriberservicesbasedontheprofileinformationreceived
fromtheSCSserveroftheAAAserver
-Authenticateuserslocally,orforwardauthenticationrequeststotheAAAserver
TheAAAServer
TheAAA(Authentication,Authorization,andAccounting)serverisusedtoauthenticate
andauthorizeusersfornetworkaccessandtostoresubscriberusagestatisticsfor
billingandinvoicing.
TheHomeAgent
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TheHomeAgent(HA)supportsseamlessdataroamingintoothernetworksthatsupport
1xRTT.TheHAprovidesananchorIPaddressforthemobileandforwardsanymobile-
boundtraffictotheappropriatenetworkfordeliverytothehandset.Italsomaintains
userregistration,redirectspacketstothePDSNand(optionally)tunnelssecurelytothe
PDSN.Lastly,theHAsupportsdynamicassignmentofusersfromtheAAAand(again
optionally)assignsdynamichomeaddresses.
DetectingandSolvingSomeCommonProblemsincdma20001X
Networks
Allofthefeaturesandcapacitiesembodiedinthemodern3Gmobilenetworkmakefor
acomplexsystemwithmanymodes,nodes,elements,interfaces,andprotocols.
Problems,whentheyarise,mayhavetheiroriginsineitherhardwareorsoftware.As
mobileInternetconnectivitybecomescommon,thechallengeofmaintaining
uninterrupteddatatransactionswillrequirenew,morepowerfulmonitoringsolutions
andprocedures,amongotherthings.Inthissection,wewillexaminesomecommon
problemsthatcanoccurincdma20001Xnetworks.FailureinMobileInitiatedPacket
DataCallSet-upandMobileIPRegistrationinordertoobtainpacketdataservices,the
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mobileperformsregistrationwiththeservingwirelessnetworkontheA1interfaceand
thenwiththepacketnetworkontheA10/A11interface.ThemobilesendsanOrigination
MessagetotheBSthatincludesthepacketdataserviceoption.Thisresultsin
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assignmentofthetrafficchannel,establishmentoftheA10connection,establishment
ofthelinklayer(PPP)andforthecasewhereMobileIPisusedbytheterminal,Mobile
IPregistrationwiththeservingpacketnetwork.Userdatatrafficcannowbepassed
overtheA10connectionencapsulatedwithinGREframes.
ThePCFperiodicallyre-registerswiththeselectedPDSNbysendingtheA11
RegistrationRequestmessagebeforetheA10connectionLifetimeexpires.A
successfulcallset-upscenarioisillustratedinFigure2.Thisstandardmessage
sequencechartoutlinesaseriesofsteps,summarizedinitems1-12tofollow.Notethat
thisexplanationbypassestheradioreception/transmissionactivitiesoftheBTS,
concentratinginsteadontheprotocolfunctionsthatbeginwiththeOriginationdialogue
betweenthemobileandtheBSC.
1.Toregisterforpacketdataservices,themobilesendsanOriginationMessage
overtheAccessChanneltotheBSS
2.TheBSacknowledgesthereceiptoftheOriginationMessage,returningaBase
StationAckOrdertothemobile
3.TheBSconstructsaCMServiceRequestmessageandsendsthemessageto
theMSC.
4.TheMSCsendsanAssignmentRequestmessagetotheBSSrequesting
assignmentofradioresources.NoterrestrialcircuitbetweentheMSCandthe
BSisassignedtothepacketdatacall.
5.TheBSandthemobileperformradioresourceset-upprocedures.
ThePCFrecognizesthatnoA10connectionassociatedwiththismobileis
availableandselectsaPDSNforthisdatacall.
6.ThePCFsendsanA11-RegistrationRequestmessagetotheselectedPDSN.
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7.TheA11-RegistrationRequestisvalidatedandthePDSNacceptsthe
connectionbyreturninganA11-RegistrationReplymessage.
BoththePDSNandthePCFcreateabindingrecordfortheA10connection.
8.AftertheradiolinkandA10connectionareset-up,theBSsendsanAssignment
CompletemessagetotheMSC
9.ThemobileandthePDSNestablishthelinklayer(PPP)connectionandthen
performtheMIPregistrationproceduresoverthelinklayer(PPP)connection.
10.AftercompletionofMIPregistration,themobilecansend/receivedataviaGRE
framingovertheA10connection.
11.ThePCFperiodicallysendsanA11-RegistrationRequestmessagefor
refreshingregistrationfortheA10connection.
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12.ForavalidatedA11-RegistrationRequest,thePDSNreturnsanA11-Registration
Replymessage.BoththePDSNandthePCFupdatetheA10connectionbinding
record.
Thisnecessarilycomplexprocesscanbethesourceofsomeproblemsthataffect
serviceandquality.Arigorousmonitoringschemeinvolvingsimultaneousobservation
oftheA1interfaceandtheA10/A11interfaceisthebestwaytodetectandcorrecterrors
early.Here,amulti-interfacecall-traceapplicationisespeciallyproductive,sinceitcan
traceandgroupalloftheproceduresrelatedtotheactivityofeachsinglesubscriberin
aCDMAnetwork,evenastheproceduresevolveovermultipleinterfaces.
Withinthecallset-upprocess,anerrorinanyelementorproceduralstepcaninhibitthe
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remainingsteps.Forexample,supposethattheMSCdoesnotrespondtotheCM
ServiceRequestmessage(Step3)sentbytheBSC/PCFovertheA1interface.Thisis
sometimescausedbyinternalMSCproblems.IfthispreventstheCMServiceRequest
fromreachingcompletion,theBSC/PCFcannotassignradioresourcestothemobile
station,inturnpreventingestablishmentoftheconnection.Theuserfindsitimpossible
tomakeadatacall—aserviceforwhichheorshehaspaidapremium.
Beforeaspecifictimerexpires,thePCFsendsperiodicallyA11-RegistrationRequest
message(Step11)torefreshtheregistrationfortheA10connection.Foravalidated
A11-RegistrationRequest,thePDSNreturnsanA11-RegistrationReplymessage(Step
12).Hereagain,internalproblemsinthePDSNcancauseittorespondlateornotatall.
Asaresulttheprocessofestablishingormaintainingtheconnectioncannotcontinue.
Theuserisonceagainunabletomakeadatacall.
Inbothcases,aprotocolanalyzerconnectedtotheA1andA10/A11interfacescan
helptrackdowntheproblem.Thecalltraceapplicationcandistinguishtheoriginof
messagesanddetectanyfailuretorespond.ThismakesiteasytopinpointtheMSC
andthePDSN,respectivelyintheseexamples.
ØInefficiencyinUserDataPacketTransmission
Frequentlyinacdma2000networktheTCPuser-planepacketshaveasmallWindow
Size.Thisimpliesthatend-to-endTCPconnectionsarenotstable.ThemoreTCP
packetslostinthenetworkandnotacknowledged,thesmallertheWindowSize,with
theresultthatmoreTCPconnectionsaredroppedandre-established.ThesmallTCP
WindowSizeisaby-productofthesoft-startmechanismbuiltintotheTCPprotocol.
Tocharacterizethisproblem,itisnecessarytocapturetheTCP/IPuserplanepackets
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flowingontheGREtunnelsontheA10interface.Protocolfilteringallowsthetoolto
homeinonjustthedataorinterest.Byapplyingdifferenttypesoffilteringwithincreasing
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levelofdetails,itispossibleto“drilldown”andisolatetherootcauseoftheshrinking
TCPpacketWindowSize.RoutingLoopsofUserDataPacketsintheCoreNetwork
“Tunnelrouterloops”areanotherclassofcdma2000networkproblemsthatcan
degradethequalityofserviceforsubscribers.Theproblemiscausedby
misconfigurationinthePDSNrouters.ItcanbedetectedbyacquiringandanalyzingIP
trafficontheP-Hinterface.
Tounderstandtunnelrouterloops,imagineasubscribersurfingtheWeb(WWW)with
alaptopconnectedtoacdma2000handset.Packetsaddressedtogotoaspecific
HTTPproxyarerouted(afterpassingthroughthePCF)fromthePDSN/FA(Foreign
Agent)totheHomeAgent(HA)forde-tunneling.Withcertainincorrectinternalrouting
configurations,packetsdestinedforPort80WWWarenotde-tunnelledbytheHA.
Instead,theyaresentbackdownstreamtowardthePDSN/FA.Asaresult,multiple
packetstravelonthesamenetworksegmentwiththesamepacketID,wastingprecious
bandwidth—andnotreachingtheintendeddestination.Inaddition,foreachrepetitive
hopapackettakesbetweenthePDSN/FAandHAnodes,theIPTimeToLive(TTL)field
isdecremented.Ifthepacketisstuckinarouterloop,theTTLeventuallydecrements
allthewaytozeroandthepacketisdiscardedbythenetworknodes.“Lost”packets
mustberetransmitted,leadingtoexcessivepacketretransmissionoverheadand
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reducedthroughput.
Asintheearlierexamples,thesolutionistouseprotocolfilteringtocaptureIPpackets
onthePHinterface.Browsingthroughthecaptureddatabyapplyingincreasinglyfine
levelsoffiltering,itispossibletoseetherepeatingpacketsandresolvetheproblem.
ØDuplicationofIPtraffic
PDSNconfigurationproblemscangiverisetoothertypesofproblemsinadditionto
tunnelloops.OnecommonissueisassociatingthePDSNślogicalIPaddresseswith
morethanonephysicalMACaddress.Whenthisoccurs,morethanonehardwarecard
hasthesameIPaddress.AlltrafficsenttothatIPaddressgoestotwodifferent
hardwareentitiesandreceivesresponsesfromboth.Thiseffectivelydoublesthe
amountofIPtrafficassociatedwiththatsingleIPaddressonthatsegment.Onceagain,
protocolfilteringcapabilitiesarerequiredforeffectivetroubleshooting.
AprotocolanalyzershouldcaptureIPpacketstravellingtoaspecificIPdestination
addressviatheP-Hinterface.Browsingthroughthedataandusingfilteringto
successivelynarrowdowntheinquiry,thenatureoftheproblem(theduplicated
address)soonbecomesapparent.
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ØRoutingproblemsintheCoreNetwork
SometimesinternalproblemscancausePDSNrouterstogoofflineandcomeback
onlineafteraperiodoftime.Thiscanhappenfrequentlyandcontinuouslyina
cdma2000coredatanetwork.Whenarouterfirstcomesonlineitsroutingtablearenot
optimized.Ittakestimeforthebuilt-inOSPF(OpenShortestPathFirst)routingalgorithm
tolearnthebestwaytoroutepacketsdependingonadjacentavailablerouters.Until
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theroutingtablesareoptimized,therewillbedegradationinqualityofservice.By
capturingIPpacketsontheP-Hinterfacewithaprotocolanalyzerandapplyingfilters
ontheOSPFroutingmessages,changesindesignatedrouterandchangesin
neighboursofaroutercanbeeasilyidentified.Usingintelligentanddetailedfiltering
capabilityonOSPFmessagesandinformationelementswithinthesemessages
identifyingroutingproblemsonanIPnetworkbecomesaneasytask.
ThroughputOptimization
ØTrafficandMobilityModel
A.FeasibleStates
TheredoesnotexistamongresearchersaunanimousconsensusonwhethertheCDMA
systemcapacityisreverseorforwardlinklimited.However,themajorityoftheliterature
publishedonthesubjectisoftheformerview.Inlightofthis,inthispaperweconsider
thereverselinkcapacityonly.Consideramulti-cellCDMAnetworkwithspreadsignal
bandwidthofW,informationrateofRbits/s,voiceactivityfactorofA,andbackground
noisespectraldensityofNo.Toachievearequiredbiterrorratewemusthave(Eb/Io)
>=SforsomeconstantS.AssumingatotalofMcellswithnicallsincelli,thenumber
ofcallsineverycellmustsatisfy
ni+(MXj=1)nj_ji<=W/R/A(1/S–1/Eb/No)+1=ceff,
fori=1,...,M.(1)
whereji=Iji/njistheperuserinter-cellinterferencefactorfromcelljtocelli,andwhere
Ijidenotestherelativeaverageinterferenceofcelljtocelli.
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Asetofcallsn=(n1,...,nM)satisfyingtheaboveequationsissaidtobeafeasiblecall
configurationorafeasiblestate,i.e.,onethatsatisfiestheEb/Ioconstraint.Theright
handsideof(1)isaconstantwhichisdeterminedbysystemparametersandbythe
desiredmaximumbiterrorrate,andcanberegardedasthetotalnumberofeffective
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channels,ceff,availabletothesystem.Denotebythesetoffeasiblestates.Definethe
setofblockingstatesforcellias
Bi={n2:(n1,...,ni+1,...,nM)62}.(2)
Ifanewcallorahandoffcallarrivestocelli,itisblockedifthecurrentstateofthenetwork,n,isinBi.Thecallblockingprobabilityforcelli,Bi,istheprobabilitythatn2
Bi.
B.MobilityModel
ThecallarrivalprocesstocelliisassumedtobeaPoissonprocesswithrate_i
independentofothercallarrivalprocesses.Thecalldwelltimeisarandomvariable
withexponentialdistributionhavingmean1/µ,anditisindependentofearlierarrival
times,calldurationsandelapsedtimesofotherusers.Attheendofadwelltimeacall
maystayinthesamecell,attemptahandofftoanadjacentcell,orleavethenetwork.
Letqijbetheprobabilitythatacallinprogressincelliaftercompletingitsdwelltime
goestocellj.Ifcellsiandjarenotadjacent,thenqij=0.Defineqiiastheprobability
thatacallinprogressincelliremainsincelliaftercompletingitsdwelltime.Inthis
caseanewdwelltimethatisindependentofthepreviousdwelltimebeginsimmediately.
Wedenotebyqitheprobabilitythatacallinprogressincellidepartsfrom
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thenetwork.Thismobilitymodelisattractivebecausewecaneasilydefinedifferent
mobilityscenariosbyvaryingthevaluesoftheseprobabilityparameters.Forexample,
ifqiisconstantforalli,thentheaveragedwelltimeofacallinthenetworkwillbe
constantregardlessofwherethecalloriginatesandwhatthevaluesofqiiandqijare.
Thusinthiscase,byvaryingqii’sandqij’swecanobtainlowandhighmobility
scenariosandcomparetheeffectofmobilityonnetworkattributes(e.g.,throughput).
LetAibethesetofcellsadjacenttocelli.Let_jibethehandoffrateoutofcelljoffered
tocelli._jiisthesumoftheproportionofnewcallsacceptedincelljthatgotocelli
andtheproportionofhandoffcallsacceptedfromcellsadjacenttocelljthatgotocell
i.
Thus_ji=_j(1-Bj)qji+(1-Bj)qjiXx2Aj_xj.(3)
Equation(3)canberewrittenas_ji=_(Bj,_j,qji)=(1-Bj)qji_j,(4)
where_j,thetotalofferedtraffictocellj,isgivenby
_j=_(v,_j,Aj)=_j+Xx2Aj
_xj,(5)
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andwherevdenotesthematrixwhosecomponentsarethehandoffrates_ijfori,j=
1,...M.Thetotalofferedtrafficcanbeobtainedfromafixedpointmodel,which
describestheofferedtrafficasafunctionofthehandoffratesandnewcallarrivalrates,
thehandoffratesasafunctionoftheblockingprobabilitiesandtheofferedtraffic,and
theblockingprobabilitiesasafunctionoftheofferedtraffic.Foragivensetofarrival
rates,weuseaniterativemethodtosolvethefixedpointequations.Wedefineaninitial
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valueforthehandoffrates.Wecalculatetheofferedtrafficbyaddingthegivenvalues
ofthearrivalratestothehandoffrates.Theblockingprobabilitiesarenowcalculated
usingtheofferedtraffic.Wethencalculatethenewvaluesofthehandoffratesand
repeat.
C.AdmissibleStates
Acallarrivingtocelliisacceptedifandonlyifthenewstateisafeasiblestate.Clearly
thisrequiresglobalstate,i.e.,thenumberofcallsinprogressinallthecellsofthe
network.Furthermore,tocomputetheblockingprobabilities,theprobabilityofeach
stateinthefeasibleregionneedstobecalculated.SincethecardinalityofisO(ceffM),
thecalculationoftheblockingprobabilitieshasacomputationalcomplexitythatis
exponentialinthenumberofcells.
Inordertosimplifythecalladmissionprocess,weconsideronlythosewhichrequire
localstate,i.e,thenumberofcallsinprogressinthecurrentcell.Tothisendwedefine
astatentobeadmissibleif
ni_Nifori=1,...,M,(6)
whereNiisaparameterwhichdenotesthemaximumnumberofcallsallowedtobe
admittedincelli.Clearlythesetofadmissiblestatesdenoted0isasubsetofthesetof
feasiblestates.Theblockingprobabilityforcelliisthengivenby
Bi=B(Ai,Ni)=ANi
i/Ni!NiPk=0
Aki/k!,(7)
whereAi=_i/µi=_i/µ(1-qii).Wenotethatthecomplexitytocalculatetheblocking
probabilitiesin(7)isO(M),andthebiterrorraterequirementisguaranteedsince0_.
ThroughputOptimization
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Thethroughputofcelliconsistsoftwocomponents:thenewcallsthatareacceptedin
celliminustheforcedterminationduetohandofffailureofthehandoffcallsinto
celli.Hencethetotalthroughput,T,ofthenetworkisT(B,_,_)=MXi=1{_i(1-Bi)-Bi(_i
-_i)},=MXi=1{_i-Bi_i},(8)
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whereBisthevectorofblockingprobabilities,_isthevectoroftotalofferedtraffic,and
_isthevectorofcallarrivalrates.Weformulateaconstrainednonlinearoptimization
probleminordertomaximizethethroughputsubjecttoupperboundsontheblocking
probabilitiesandalowerboundonthesignalto-interferenceconstraintsin(1).Thegoal
istooptimizetheusageofnetworkresourcesandprovideconsistentgrade-ofservice
(GoS),i.e.,thecallblockingrate,forallthecellsinthenetworkwhileatthesametime
maintainingthequality-ofservice(QoS),i.e.,theprobabilityoflossofcommunication
quality,foralltheusers.Intheoptimizationproblemthearrivalratesandthemaximum
numberofcallsthatareallowedtobeadmittedinthecellsaretheindependent
variables.Thisisgiveninthefollowing
max
(_1,...,_M),(N1,...,NM)
T(B,_,_),subjecttoB(Ai,Ni)__,
Ni+MXj=1Nj_ji_ceff,
fori=1,...,M,(9)
Theoptimizationproblemin(9)isamixedintegerprogramming(MIP)problem.One
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techniquetosolvetheMIPproblemisbasedondividingtheproblemintoanumberof
smallerproblemsinamethodcalledbranchandbound.Branchandboundisa
systematicmethodforimplicitlyenumeratingallpossiblecombinationsoftheinteger
variablesinamodel.Thenumberofsubproblemsandbranchesrequiredcanbecome
extremelylarge.ByrelaxingtheintegervariablesNi,i=1,...,M,tocontinuousvariables,
theoptimizationin(9)issolvedusingaSequentialQuadraticProgramming(SQP)
method.Inthismethod,aQuadraticProgrammingsubproblemissolvedateach
iteration.Asolutiontothefixedpointequationsiscalculatediteratively.Anestimateof
theHessianoftheLagrangianisupdatedateachiterationusingtheBroyden-Fletcher-
Goldfarb-Shanno(BFGS)formula.Alinesearchisperformedusingameritfunction.The
QuadraticProgrammingsubproblemissolvedusinganactivesetstrategy.Inorderto
usetheSQPmethod,weneedtoevaluatethederivativesofTwithrespecttoNand_.
T(B,_,_)isanimplicitfunctionofN=(N1,...,NM)and_.Wecanobtainrelationsoftotal
andpartialderivativesofthethroughputbydifferentiatingthefixedpointequations.
Theserelationsaremanipulatedtoobtainasystemoflinearequationsinthederivatives
oftheofferedtrafficwithrespecttothenumberofcallsadmittedandthearrivalrates.
Wecalculatetheimpliedcost,i.e.,thederivativeofTwithrespecttotheimplicitvariable
N.ThecalculationoftheimpliedcostofTwithrespecttothenew-callarrivalratesis
givenintheAppendix.
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NumericalResults
Thebasestationsarelocatedatthecentersofahexagonalgridwhoseradiusis1732
meters.Basestation1islocatedatthecenter.Thebasestationsarenumbered
consecutivelyinaspiralpattern.TheCOST-231propagationmodelwithacarrier
frequencyof1800MHz,averagebasestationheightof30meters,andaveragemobile
heightof1.5metersisusedtodeterminethecoverageregion.Weassumethefollowing
fortheanalysis.Thepathlosscoefficientis4.Theshadowfadingstandarddeviationis
6dB.Theprocessinggainis21.1dB.Thebitenergytointerferenceratiothreshold,_,
is9.2dB.Theinterferencetobackgroundnoiseratiois10dB.Thevoiceactivityfactor
is0.375.Formoredetailsonthechoiceoftheseparametersreferto.Peruserinter-cell
interferencefactorsareevaluatednumericallybydividingthewholeareaintosmall
gridsofsize150mby150m.Theblockingprobabilitythreshold,_,issetto0.02.
Weconsiderthreemobilityscenarios:nomobility,lowmobility,andhighmobilityof
users.Thefollowingprobabilitiesarechosenforthenomobilitycase:qij=0,qii=0.3
andqi=0.7forallcellsiandj.Forthelowandhighmobilitycase,themobility
probabilityparametersaregiven.Inallthreecases,theprobabilitythatacallleavesthe
networkaftercompletingitsdwelltimeis0.7.Thus,theaveragedwelltimeofacallin
thenetworkisconstantregardlessofwherethecalloriginatesandthemobilityscenario
used.
Inthefollowing,wecompareourresultstoacalladmissioncontrolalgorithmwherethe
maximumnumberofcallsthatcanbeadmittedineachcellisthesame,i.e.,N1=N2
=
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...=NM=N(irrespectiveofthecallarrivalrateprofileinthenetwork).Wealsooptimize
therevenueforthisalgorithmsubjecttoalowerboundonthebitenergytointerference
ratio.Inthesequel,theoptimizedalgorithmisreferredtoasa
traditionalcalladmissioncontrol(CAC)algorithm.Notethat
LOWMOBILITYPROBABILITIES.
kAikqijqiiqi
30.0200.2400.700
40.0150.2400.700
50.0120.2400.700
60.0100.2400.700
HIGHMOBILITYPROBABILITIES
kAikqijqiiqi
30.1000.0000.700
40.0750.0000.700
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50.0600.0000.700
60.0500.0000.700
•kAikisthenumberofcellsadjacenttocelli.
•qijistheprobabilityacallincelligoestocellj.
•qiiistheprobabilityacallincellistaysincelli.
•qiistheprobabilityacallincellileavesthenetwork.Thisalgorithmwillbeoptimal
inthesenseof(9)inthecaseofequalcallarrivalrates,equalmobilityprobabilities
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forallthecells,andanetworkwithalargenumberofcells(inwhichedgeeffects
canbeignored).
Wechoosethecallarrivalratestobeequalto_callsperunittimeforallcellsexcept
thoseinGroupA(i.e.,cells5,13,14,and23)andGroupB(i.e.,cells2,8,9,and19).
ForGroupsAandBthecallarrivalratesareequalto5_callsperunittime.Thetotal
offeredtrafficpercell(thesumofthecallarrivalrateandthehandoffrate)isshownin
bracketsforthenomobility,lowmobility,andhighmobilitycases.Themaximum
numberofcallsthatcanbeadmittedineachcell,calculatedfromequation(9),isshown
inparenthesesinthesamefigures.ForthetraditionalCACalgorithmwiththesame
blockingprobabilitythreshold,systemparameters,andthebitenergytointerference
ratiorequirement,themaximumnumberofcallsthatcouldbeadmittedineachcell
wouldbe18.Inouralgorithmforthenomobilitycase,itcanbeseenthatforthecells
belongingtoGroupsAandBthemaximumnumberofcallsadmittedhasincreased
from18to22-24,whileforallothercellsithasdecreasedfrom18to7-9.Itcanbeseen
thatouralgorithmtradesoffthecallsinthecellswithlowarrivalrateforthecallsinthe
cellswithhigharrivalrate.Asthemobilitymodelchangesfromnomobilitytohigh
mobility,thehandoffratesincreasethusincreasingthetotalofferedtrafficpercell.For
thehighmobilitycase,themaximumnumberofcallsadmittednowrangesfrom20to
23forcellsbelongingtoGroupsAandB,andfrom7to11forallothercells.
ThethroughputofeachcellresultingfromouralgorithmandthetraditionalCAC
algorithmforthenomobility,lowmobility,andhighmobilitycasesaregiveninFigures
4,5,and6,respectively.Inthesefigures,thecircleandstaratthetwoendsofavertical
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barindicatesthethroughput.Totalofferedtrafficandmaximumnumberofcallsallowed
tobeadmittedpercellforthetwenty-sevencellCDMAnetworkwithnomobilityofusers,
thetraditionalCACalgorithmandouralgorithm,respectively,forthecellwhoseidis
shownonthehorizontalaxis.ThetraditionalCACalgorithmhasatotalnetwork
throughputequalto96.03,99.08,and102.43callsperunittimeforthenomobility,low
mobility,andhighmobilitycases,respectively.Ouroptimizationincreasesthe
throughputforthenetworkto127.02,131.40,and136.52callsperunittimefortheno
mobility,lowmobility,andhighmobilitycases,respectively,whichisa32%increasein
throughputoverthetraditionalCACalgorithmforthesameguaranteedblocking
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probabilitythresholdof0.02.Thevalueof_calculatedfrom(9)increasesfrom1.65(in
thetraditionalCACalgorithm)to2.19callsperunittime(inouroptimization)fortheno
mobilitycase,from1.70to2.27callsperunittimeforthelowmobilitycase,andfrom
1.75to2.37callsperunittimeforthehighmobilitycase.Duetoitscalltrade-offs
betweenlowandhightrafficcells,thisalgorithmisabletobetteraccommodatethe
unequalcallarrivalratesinthenetworkandachievehigherthroughputinallthecells
forthesameguaranteedGoS.
CALCULATIONS
CalculationoftheImpliedCostw.r.t._
Inwhatfollowswedeterminetheimpliedcostofthethroughputwithrespecttothenew-
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callarrivalrates.Thetotalderivativeofthethroughputfunctionwithrespecttoanew-
callarrivalrateisgivenby
dT(B,_,_)d_k=1+MXi=1_@T(B,_,_)@Bi
dB(Ai,Ni)d_k+@T(B,_,_)@_i
d_(v,_i,Ai)
d_k_.(10)
Thepartialderivativesneededare@T(B,_,_)@Bi
=-_i,(11)and
@T(B,_,_)@_i=-Bi.(12)
ThenwegetdB(Ai,Ni)
d_k=@B(Ai,Ni)@Ai@Ai@_i
d_(v,_i,Ai)d_k
Totalofferedtrafficandmaximumnumberofcallsallowedtobeadmittedpercellfor
thetwenty-sevencellCDMAnetworkwithhighmobilityofusers.Maximumthroughput
ineverycellforthenetwork.
Thetotalderivativeneededin(13)and(10)canbeobtainedfrom(5)asfollows
d_(v,_i,Ai)d_k=Xx2Ai
@_(v,_i,Ai)@_xi
d_(Bx,_x,qxi)d_k+@_(v,_i,Ai)
@_k,(14)
where@_(v,_i,Ai)
@_k
=I{i=k}.From(5)weget@_(v,_i,Ai)@_xi
=I{x2Ai}.Finally,from(4),thederivativeofthehandoffratewithrespecttothecallarrival
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rateisgivenby
d_(Bx,_x,qxi)d_k
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=@_(Bx,_x,qxi)
@Bx
dB(Ax,Nx)
d_k+@_(Bx,_x,qxi)
@_xd_(v,_x,Ax)d_k.
Thepartialderivativesneededin(15)areobtainedasfollows
@_(Bx,_x,qxi)@Bx
=-qxi_x,(16)
@_(Bx,_x,qxi)@_x
=(1-Bx)qxi.(17)
Thesetofsimultaneouslinearequationscanbesolvedandtheresultssubstitutedback
in(10)alongwithequations(11)and(12).Thiscompletesthederivationoftheimplied
costandthevaluesofthederivativesofthethroughputwithrespecttothecallarrival
rates.Impliedcostscapturetheeffectofincreasesinthecallarrivalrateinonecellon
thethroughputoftheentirenetwork.
RESULTS
Theoptimizationofnetworkthroughputwasoneofthemainresultsthatpresentedin
thisproject.
-Somemobileoperatorshaveaddressedtheproblemofjointlycontrollingthedata
ratesandtransmitpowersoftheusers,soastomaximizethethroughput.They
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formulateaclassicaloptimizationproblem,modelingtheconstraintsarisingfromthe
dataraterequirementsandpowerbudgets.
-Othersformulatethethroughputmaximizationproblemintermsofthespreadinggains
andtransmitpowersoftheusers,andsolveitusinganonlinearprogrammingapproach.
-Othersinvestigatethemaximumthroughputthatcanbeachievedthroughjointrate
andpoweradaptationinamulti-rateCDMAsystem.Theyassumeconventional
matchedfilterdetectionwithperfectchannelinformationandaninstantaneousBER
constraint.Theyrestricttheirattentiontomulticodeormultipleprocessinggainschemes.
Also,somecompaniesworksolutionsforthroughputoptimizationofdatatrafficfora
powerconstrainedvoice/dataCDMAsystembyschedulingofdatausers.Itwasfound
thatunderagivenreceivedpowerbudgetandtheconstraintsoftransmissionpowers,
thethroughputofdatatrafficismaximizedbyselectingsimultaneousdatausersand
allocatingpowersaccordingtothedescendingorderoftheirreceivedpower
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capabilities,whichisdefinedastheproductbetweenthetransmissionpowerlimitand
thechannelgain.Inthispaper,weformulateaconstrainedoptimizationproblemthat
maximizesthenetworkthroughputsubjecttoupperboundsonthecallblocking
probabilitiesandalowerboundonthebitenergytointerferenceratio.Wecalculatethe
impliedcosts,whicharethederivativesofthethroughputfunction,andcapturethe
effectofincreasesinthecallarrivalratesinonecellonthethroughputoftheentire
network.Wealsotakemobilityofusersintoaccountanddifferentiatebetweenthe
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blockingofnewcallsandtheblockingofhandoffcalls.Theblockingprobabilitiesare
givenbythefixedpointmodel,whichdescribestheblockingprobabilitiesasafunction
ofthetotalofferedtraffic,thetotalofferedtrafficasafunctionofthecallarrivalrates
andthehandoffrates,andthehandoffratesasafunctionoftheblockingprobabilities
andthetotalofferedtraffic.Weobtainrelationsofthetotalandpartialderivativesofthe
blockingprobabilitiesbydifferentiatingthefixedpointrelations.Thesearethenused
alongwiththeimpliedcostsinthesolutiontoourthroughputoptimizationproblem.
CONCLUSIONS
Weconductedadetailedcomparativeperformancestudyofawideselectionof
optimizationschoicesapplicableforWWANs.Oursisthefirstsignificantstudytohave
attemptedtoaddressimportantquestionslike:Whydowebusersexperiencepoor
performanceoverWWANs?EventhoughTCPisrelativelywell-tunedtoperform
efficientlyintheseenvironments,whyistheperformanceofHTTPapplications
significantlyworse?WhilepriorstudieshaveexaminedtheproblemsofTCPinWWAN
environments,wearenotawareofanypriorresearchthatpresentsadetailedevaluation
ofapplicationperformance.Ourperformancestudyalsoprovidesimportantinsightsin
understandingwhatoptimizationchoicescanyieldhowmuchbenefit.Theperformance
optimizationsappliedateachindividuallayerstudiedinthispaper,leveragewell-
adaptedandoptimizedlowerlayers.Thisavoidsanyinefficientcross-layerdesign
includingadverseinter-layerinteractions.
Thefollowingaresomeofourimportantobservations:SevereMismatchbetweenTCP
andHTTP:ThereisasignificantmismatchintheperformanceofdefaultHTTP
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protocols
anditsunderlyingtransportmechanismTCPinWWAN.Unlikethewired(e.g.dial-up)
environments,wefindthatstandardwebbrowsersdonotexploitthemeagreresources
oftheWWANlinks.Theachievedthroughputissometimes70%lowerthantheideal
downlinkdatarate.
ApplicationsandSessionLayersDominateBenefits:Significantbenefitstoend-user
experiencecanberealized(about48-61%improvements)bysuitableoptimizations
implementedattheapplicationandsessionlayers.UseofProxyBeneficial:Proxy-
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basedsolutionsaremosteffectiveinimprovingapplicationperformancethannon-proxy
basedapproaches.
Ourperformancestudyhasbroadimplications.Theadditionalbenefitsresultingfrom
usingHTTPpipelininghighlightstheneedtomitigatetheimpactofhighandvariable
WWANlinklatencybyimplementingthisfeatureinallcommercialclasswebservers
andstandardwebbrowsers.Henceappropriatesupportfromwebservervendors,
contentprovidersandbrowserdesignerswillgoalongwayinthesuccessofthenext
generation‘mobile’Internet.Wefindthatacollectivesuiteofperformanceoptimizations
implementedusingproxiesatdifferentlayersinmanycasescanreducetheresponse
timebyatleastafactoroftwo.Thisispossiblebecausetheproxiesarespecifically
awareofthecharacteristicsoftheWWANenvironmentandhencemakesmore
‘intelligent’decisionstoadapttheperformanceofdatadeliverymechanisms.Such
awarenessoflinkcharacteristicsiscrucialforimprovingtheoverallenduser-
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experience.Thiscanimplyanyoneofthefollowingtwothings:
(1)Proxy-basedsolutionsshouldnotberestrictivelyviewedasashort-termsolution.
Instead,cellularoperatorsshoulddesign,implementanddeploysuchproxysolutions
withintheirnetworkandend-usersshouldbegiventhechoicetousesuchproxies,thus,
tradingoffsecuritywithperformance.Suchanapproachmaybeacceptableincertain
scenarios.
(2)Theintelligenceoftheproxiesshouldbeimplementedinthewebservers,content
providers,aswellasthewebbrowsers.Suchanapproachwillmaintain“end-toend”
nessoftheprotocols,however,willrequiresignificantcollaborativeeffortbetweenall
thesediversevendorsofdifferentapplications.
Otherthanperformance,itisimportanttoconsiderthetrade-offsbetweenthecostand
theeaseofdeploymentassociatedwithsuchproxyinstallations.Aspreviously
discussedinourstudy,transparentproxiesaretheeasiesttodeploysincetheyrequire
nochangesorconfigurationtothemobileclients.However,fromaperformance
perspective,dual-proxybasedsolutionsseemstoprovidethemostsignificantbenefits.
Unfortunately,suchanapproachrequireseitherareconfigurationorasoftwareupdate
inthemobileclient.Thisincreasesitsdeploymentoverhead.Inmanycasesitis
expensiveforthecellularoperatorstoprovidesuchupdatestotheexistingclient
equipment.
Webelievethatafurtherdetailedcharacterizationoftheseenvironmentswillbevery
useful.Ourhopeisthatotherswillalsoperformsimilarstudiesofactualuserexperience
overotherwirelessenvironments(e.g.W-CDMAUMTSandCDMA2000)sothat
extensivebenchmarkscouldbeobtainedandeventuallyleadtoadoptionofa“bestof
bothworlds”solution.
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CDMAinfrastructureiswidespreadandsuretoformthebasisforbroadpenetrationof
CDMAnetworks.Cdma2000andother3Gtechnologiesbringtelecommunicationsinto
thepacketswitcheddomain,addingahostofnewservicesandnetworkcomplexities
intheprocess.Troubleshootingactivitiesnowrequireanunderstandingofboth
traditional“telecom”conceptsrelatedtothecircuit-switcheddomainandnew“datacom”
conceptsrelatedtothepacketswitched-domain.Networkoperationandmaintenance
personnelmustrefinetheirprocessestomeetcomplexnewtroubleshootingchallenges.
TheserangefrommisconfigurationproblemstoduplicatedIPaddressesandmore.
Protocolanalysistoolscanplayabiggerrolethaneverinkeepinganetworkrunning
efficiently.Featuressuchasmulti-interfacecalltracingandprotocolfilteringwillbecome
criticaltothejobofmaintenance.
Wehaveinvestigatedthenetworkperformancebydeterminingthethroughputthatthe
networkcanachieveforagivennetworktopologyandcallarrivalrateprofile.We
formulatedaconstrainedoptimizationproblemthatmaximizesthenetworkthroughput
subjecttoupperboundsontheblockingprobabilitiesandalowerboundonthebit
energytointerference.Totalofferedtrafficandmaximumnumberofcallsallowedtobe
admittedpercellforthetwenty-sevencellCDMAnetworkwithlowmobilityofuser’s
ratio.Theblockingprobabilitiesaregivenbythefixedpointmodel.Weobtained
relationsofthetotalandpartialderivativesoftheblockingprobabilitiesbydifferentiating
114
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thefixedpointrelations.Theyareusedinthesolutiontotheoptimizationproblemwhich
yieldsthemaximumnetworkthroughputaswellasthemaximumnumberofcallsthat
shouldbeadmittedineachcellforthenetworktoguaranteeagivengrade-of-service
andquality-of-servicerequirements.Forunequalcallarrivalrates,ouroptimization
algorithmachieveda32%increaseinthroughputoverthetraditionalCACalgorithm.
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70
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NetworkValidationforCDMA20001XEV-DOTechnologyTechnicalHandbookReport
75
APPENDIX1:Results
QUALITYVOICECALLS
Quality
No.
F
Dropped
Incomplete
Echo
Jitter
Noise
Factor
Sprint
1900
18
5
29
16
41
0.96
Verizon
1900
125
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35
8
31
21
47
0.92
Wireless
MetroPCS
1900
51
10
40
44
67
0.72
Leap
1900
55
12
48
20
81
0.70
USCellular
1900
126
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43
8
39
29
62
0.80
MTSMobility
1900
26
9
25
18
52
0.90
AllTel
1900
39
8
32
22
48
0.86
Comscape
1900
57
127
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11
41
34
79
0.69
Smartcom
1900
78
34
76
55
103
0.58
PCS
China
1900
71
46
81
51
98
0.60
Unicom
ANALYSISPERFORMEDON1000CALLS.Whenmorethanonenetworkforsame
carrierbeinganalyzed,bestresultsaretakenintoaccountintoabovetable.Worst
128
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resultsareformeasurementsagainstlocalnetworkdifferentlyandresultscan’tbe
compared.
NetworkValidationforCDMA20001XEV-DOTechnologyTechnicalHandbookReport
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DATATHROUGHPUT
Throughput
Throughput
10<,<64Kb
>64Kbps
Incomplete
<10Kbps
Droppe
Quality
No.
F
ps
connection
d
Factor
Broad
Middle
Narrow
Sprint
1900
129
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46
120
430
450
81
0.78
Verizon
1900
81
167
230
603
97
0.88
Wireless
MetroPCS
1900
92
231
571
198
167
0.62
Leap
1900
130
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103
255
560
185
181
0.67
USCellular
1900
108
278
671
51
162
0.75
MTSMobility
1900
79
199
302
499
92
0.82
AllTel
1900
82
131
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208
355
437
148
0.76
Comscape
1900
99
251
454
295
179
0.62
Smartcom
1900
267
334
615
51
303
0.43
PCS
China
1900
256
132
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246
431
323
298
0.55
Unicom
ANALYSISPERFORMEDIN1000CONNECTIONS.NON-CONNECTIONSDONOT
COUNTTOWARDSPERFORMANCEMEASUREMENTS.Whenmorethanonenetwork
forsamecarrierbeinganalyzed,bestresultsaretakenintoaccountintoabovetable.
NetworkValidationforCDMA20001XEV-DOTechnologyTechnicalHandbookReport
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Worstresultsareformeasurementsagainstlocalnetworkdifferentlyandresultscantbe
compared.
RFMBSTerminal
Handoff
RFStrength
Channel
Terminal
No.
F
MBS
Coverage
Noise
133
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Efficienc
GoS
Efficiency
Sensitivity
y
Sprint
1900
0.31
0.76
0.98
-0.70
1.01
0.99
Verizon
1900
0.23
0.77
0.96
-0.75
1.00
0.98
Wireless
MetroPCS
1900
0.27
134
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0.72
0.88
-0.92
0.99
0.95
Leap
1900
0.21
0.71
0.87
-0.81
0.96
0.95
USCellular
1900
0.23
0.71
0.86
-0.77
0.98
0.92
MTSMobility
1900
0.30
0.75
135
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0.91
-0.78
0.97
0.97
AllTel
1900
0.31
0.70
0.93
-0.92
0.99
0.98
Comscape
1900
0.32
0.77
0.89
-0.97
1.01
0.91
Smartcom
1900
0.33
0.71
0.89
136
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-1.07
0.98
0.88
PCS
China
1900
0.36
0.73
0.90
-1.04
0.97
0.87
Unicom
RESULTSFROMDIFFERENTMEASUREMENTSTAKENONTHEFIELD.
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NetworkValidationforCDMA20001XEV-DOTechnologyTechnicalHandbookReport
79
OVERALLNETWORKPERFORMANCE
Network
Evaluation
PerformanceRank
SprintPCS
Excellent
137
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1
Verizon
Excellent
2
Wireless
MTSMobility
Excellent
3
AllTel
Good
4
USCellular
Good
5
MetroPCS
Good
6
Leap
Good
7
Comscape
Poor
8
ChinaUnicom
Poor
138
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9
SmartcomPCS
Poor
10
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80
APPENDIX2:Plots
DroppedCallsComparison
90
d80
san70
uo60
50
erth40
p30
edp20
po10
Dr
0
tin
r
on
S
ap
139
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la
y
el
e
S
ilit
Spr
iz
PC
Le
luel
ob
AllT
PC
com
Ver
ro
scap
ni
et
om
U
M
SCU
TSM
140
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C
tcom
na
M
ar
hi
Sm
C
Network
IncompleteCallsComparison
d50
45
sanu40
oh35
30
ert25
20
teple15
p10
m
5
co
0
In
tin
141
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r
on
S
ap
la
y
el
e
S
ilit
Spr
iz
PC
Le
luel
ob
AllT
PC
com
Ver
ro
scap
ni
et
om
142
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U
M
SCU
TSM
C
tcom
na
M
ar
hi
Sm
C
Network
NetworkValidationforCDMA20001XEV-DOTechnologyTechnicalHandbookReport
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EchoCallsComparison
90
d80
san70
uo60
50
erth40
p30
edo20
143
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NoisedCallsComparison
120
d
100
sanuo80
h
60
erTp40
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20
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JitteredCallsComparison
60
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50
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DataThroughputIncompleteConnections
Comparison
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DataThroughputLessthan10Kbps
400
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DataThroughputbetween10and64Kbps
800
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spn300
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156
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Network
DataThroughputEquivalenttoBroadband
700
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DataConnectionsDroppedperthousand
350
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san250
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po50
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DataThroughputQualityFactor
1
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HandoffMBSSensitivity
0.4
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0.3
0.25
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sitivityn
Se0.15
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Sprint
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RFStrengthCoverageFactor(log)
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TerminalEfficiency(Compatibility)
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SystemNoise(udB)
10
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1
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ChannelEfficiency(SpectrumEfficiency)
1.02
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acto0.98
cyF0.97
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GradeofServiceFactor
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
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MeasurementsatUSCellularNetworkin800MHz
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Report
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AreaCoverageProfile(VerizonWireless)
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MariajoséVacaRivas,MBA(MasterinBusinessAdministration)Universitédu
QuébecáMontréal-UQAM-Canadá.MAE(MagisterenAdministraciónde
EmpresasmenciónenNegociosInternacionales)ESPAE-ESPOL.Ingenieraen
ElectricidadespecializaciónElectrónicaESPOL.DocenteeInvestigadora
PosgradoUniversidadTecnológicaEmpresarialdeGuayaquil-UTEG.
ConsultoradeProyectosTecnológicos.
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TableofContents
Content 2
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