negative priming effects on cognitive dissonance

Running head: PRIMING AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE 1

Priming effects on cognitive dissonance

Rachel Wallace

Wingate University

PRIMING AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE 2

Abstract

Priming can be defined as any stimulus that elicits a conscious or unconscious behavior (Ihrke,

Behrendt, Schrobsdorff, Visser, and Hasselhorn, 2013). Priming in general is used to “evaluate

how degrees of “preparedness” for a given stimulus affect the reaction time” (Ihrke et. al, 2013,

pg 12). Negative priming is most often defined as the affect an ignored stimulus has on a

behavior, once the ignored stimulus is attended to (Ihrke et. al, 2013). Cognitive dissonance is

most readily defined as two opposing cognitions that cause a state of psychological unrest until

either an action or belief is modified (Viosin, Stone, and Becker, 2013). The current study had

multiple experimental groups, assessing three differing levels of negative priming; extreme,

moderate, and none. It was hypothesized that the more extreme the statistics, the more cognitive

dissonance one would experience, also that beliefs on alcohol would change after exposure to a

prime. Results indicate exposure to statistics elicits changes in beliefs on alcohol, but not

changes in self-report.

Keywords: cognitive dissonance; priming; alcohol; extra-curricular activities


Priming effects on cognitive dissonance.

Priming as a general topic can be defined as the ability of a stimulus to affect the

reactions of an individual (Dennis & Perfect, 2013; Ihrke et. al, 2013). Although most

researchers agree that individuals can be primed to react to a probe, there are differing views on

priming effects and causes (Dennis & Perfect, 2013; Ihrke, Behrendt, Schrobsdorff, Visser, &

Hasselhorn, 2013; Skowronski, Sedikides, Heider, Wood, & Scherer, 2010; Yap, Balota, & Tan,

2013).

Horner and Henson’s research stated that there are three levels of response coding within

priming: classification, decision, and action. Using this definition, the classification level was

described as the period in which an individual responded to the initial size of the stimuli. The

decision level was described as the period in which the individual coded the stimuli, or when the

person decided on the impact. The action level was described as when the individual actually

responded to the stimuli (Horner & Henson, 2009). Dennis and Perfect (2013), along with

Horner and Henson (2009) worked under the definition of priming as responding to a stimulus,

invoking a response that then becomes associated with the original stimuli, so when the stimulus

is re-experienced, the response is as well.

As the field of psychology has progressed, priming has been studied in more

detail, with emphasis on differing ideas of the topic. Semantic priming, one of the more widely

known branches, receives a relatively large amount of focus. As stated by Yap, Balota, and Tan

(2013), “the semantic priming effect is the well-known finding that words preceded by related


primes are recognized faster than those preceded by unrelated primes” (pg 140). Although the

current study’s focus is not semantic priming, it is important to understand the implications of

the effects on the participants. The fact that this effect is present in written words is important in

the foundation of the survey to be used to measure this study. As a researcher, one would not

want to skew the data by accidental priming.

The current study plans to focus on negative priming, which allows researchers to study

how ignored information is processed (Ihrke, et al., 2013). Negative priming is often referred to

as a form of priming in which subtle primes are used to induce a behavior or action (Skowronski,

Sedikides, Heider, et al., 2010). In studies previously conducted that have contained negative

priming, behaviors and attitudes have been altered due to a previous prime (Skowronski,

Sedikides, Heider, et al., 2010). The current study hopes to see if this in conjunction with

cognitive dissonance can cause college students to unconsciously falsify self-reports of behavior.

Cognitive dissonance can be defined as shifting one’s beliefs or actions to match the

conflicting belief or action to reduce feelings of unease (Jarcho, Nerkman, & Lieberman, 2011).

This states that if a behavior or action does not match the belief of the individual, either the

behavior or belief will be changed to reduce the feelings that something is not right (Allahyani,

2012). An example to better explain cognitive dissonance is smoking. A person can have the

belief that smoking is wrong, but if they start smoking they are likely to rationalize the behavior

with life examples of people who have smoked and not experienced the side effects. There have

been many studies over the years focusing on cognitive dissonance, all of which have worked to

find the balance between what causes humans to need consistency and why they constantly


change beliefs or behaviors (Allahyani, 2012; Hoshino-Browne, 2012; Jarcho, Berkman, &

Lieberman, 2011; Voisin, Stone, & Becker, 2013).

Hoshino-Browne (2012), worked to examine cognitive dissonance in a cultural context.

He focused on the area in which an individual resided and how it affected his or her personal

dissonance levels. For instance he noted that in North America, individuals are more likely to

experience dissonance if their behaviors do not match their beliefs because the society is highly

individualistic and values personal beliefs as a virtue (Hishino-Browne, 2012). For example,

because North America is an individualistic society being individual and standing out is valued

higher than blending. This leads to greater shifts in behavior when dissonance in experienced.

However, it was also noted that in East Asia the opposite was true. In a collectivist society the

norm was to adjust to society’s standards rather than one’s own. This would lead to a greater

shift in attitude than in behavior, so as to escape social exclusion from non-conformity. This is

important to remember when assessing the data to be collected in this current study, as the

location is in an individualistic society. The results could be different if the current study were to

be conducted in a collectivist society.

Researchers have studied ways to use cognitive dissonance to break habits for long

periods of time. In an article by Glock, Muller, and Krolak-Schwerdt (2013), it was found that

simply believing healthy behaviors would compensate for unhealthy habits would not reduce

cognitive dissonance. This is a very important finding because from it one can see that cognitive

dissonance has a strong grip on the mind. Although cognitive dissonance can be reduced for

short periods of time through beliefs, ultimately one must change their actions (Glock, Muller, &

Krolak-Schwerdt, 2013).


Although both cognitive dissonance and priming have been studied in length, neither

phenomenon has been studied in conjunction with the other. Cognitive dissonance causes unrest

in the mind (Allahyani, 2012; Hoshino-Browne, 2012; Jarcho, Berkman, & Lieberman, 2011;

Voisin, Stone, & Becker, 2013), while priming causes unconscious responses (Dennis & Perfect,

2013; Ihrke, Behrendt, Schrobsdorff, Visser, & Hasselhorn, 2013; Skowronski, Sedikides,

Heider, Wood, & Scherer, 2010; Yap, Balota, & Tan, 2013). It was the goal of the current study

to see how the two affected each other in a study that assessed the negative priming of alcohol

statistics. It was my prediction that college students who were exposed to extreme levels of

alcohol statistics would experience higher levels of cognitive dissonance that would in turn cause

students to be dishonest on self-reports of alcohol use. It was also predicted that beliefs on

alcohol use would change after exposure to varying levels of the prime.

Methods

Participants

There were 25 participants (n=25) with ages ranging from 18-22, with the average age

being 18. Of the participants, there were eight males, sixteen females, and one who did not

disclose demographic information. Participants were recruited from a pool of students in

Introduction to Psychology courses, as well as other students enrolled in the college institution.

To gain participation, the study was advertised on a website to the Introduction to Psychology

students, and posted on social media sites to encourage participation by older members of the

college community.

Instrumentation


Extra-Curricular Activity Questionnaire. This study used a Likert-type scale survey

created by the researcher. It consists of 15 questions asking the participant about the activities

they engage in outside of the classroom. This questionnaire was designed to measure whether or

not priming had an effect on self-report. In order to do so without arousing suspicion, the items

designed to measure the intended effect were been mixed in with a variety of distractor items. An

example distractor item is, “How often do you attend sporting events?” An example measure

item is, “How often does alcohol impact your confidence?” The intent is to find that the

responses on the measure items vary significantly within the experimental groups. (See

Appendix A)

Alcohol Opinion Survey. This measure is an opinion survey on the participants’ beliefs

on alcohol use. The survey used consisted of five questions asking the participant how he or she

views alcohol use. This survey was administered twice, before exposure manipulation and after,

to measure possible changes in beliefs about alcohol. The intent was to see whether or not seeing

the statistics caused cognitive dissonance to the extent that the participants change their response

to the survey unconsciously. (See Appendix B)

Statistic Posters. The alcohol statistics that were used in the present study range from

accurate to exaggerated. In order to obtain the intended result, alcohol statistics have been

falsified for one of the experimental groups. As the study focused on the effects of priming on

survey responses and cognitive dissonance, it was important to have a variable that was

manipulated enough to elicit an effect. For this reason, alcohol statistics that began in astounding

numbers, for instance: 51.5% of adults 18 and over are currently alcohol drinkers

(www.cdc.gov); became: 75.9% of adults 18 and over are currently alcohol drinkers. The


exaggerated numbers were completely random, the only exception being a limit on the amount of

exaggeration. For example, one would not change a statistic from 50% to 500%, it needed to be

reasonable believable. (See Appendix C)

Experimental Conditions

Accurate Statistics. Participants were informed they would be completing a survey on

their extra-curricular activities. Once they had arrived in the initial location, after ensuring all

distractors were removed, the Alcohol Opinion Survey was administered. Once the Alcohol

Opinion Survey was completed, the researcher asked for all the participants with the number “2”

on their Consent Form to follow her. They were then led to the appropriate experimental

condition room. Once the participants had settled in their desks, and all it was ensured all

distractors were removed, the researcher left the room to go check on other experimental group.

The group was informed that the researcher would be back shortly, and not to leave the room

unless absolutely necessary.

When the researcher returned, the Extra-Curricular Activity Questionnaire was

administered. The researcher then left the room again to check on the other conditions, informing

the group she would return. As participants finished the Questionnaire, they were handed the

second Alcohol Opinion Survey, and asked to wait until the others finished. Once everyone had

completed the tasks, the group was debriefed and dismissed.

Exaggerated Statistics. Participants were informed they would be completing a survey

on their extra-curricular activities. Once they had arrived in the initial location, after ensuring all




on their Consent Form to follow her. They were then led to the appropriate experimental

condition room. Once the participants had settled in their desks, and all it was ensured all

distractors were removed, the researcher left the room to go administer the surveys to the first

experimental group. The group was informed that the researcher would be back shortly, and not

to leave the room unless absolutely necessary.

When the researcher returned, the Extra-Curricular Activity Questionnaire was

administered. The researcher left the room during the completion of the second survey,

informing the participants she would return shortly. As participants finished the Questionnaire,

they were handed the second Alcohol Opinion Survey, and asked to wait until the others

finished. Once everyone had completed the tasks, the group was debriefed. Within the

debriefing, it was made sure that the participants were made aware that the statistics they were

presented with were false and that they were given the accurate ones. Once it was made clear

there was no confusion, they were dismissed.

Control condition. Participants were informed they would be completing a survey on

their extra-curricular activities. Once they had arrived in the initial location, after ensuring all



on their Consent Form to fill out the Extra-Curricular Activity Questionnaire while she directed

groups “2” and “3” to their designated rooms.

PRIMING AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE10

When the researcher returned, the Alcohol Opinion Survey was re-administered and

participants were asked to remain until all participants had completed the survey. Once everyone

had completed the tasks, the group was debriefed and dismissed.

Procedure

Participants were given a consent form to read over and sign. Each consent form had a

number between one and three written as a page number in the top right hand corner of the page

and they were shuffled to assure randomness. Each number corresponded to an experimental

condition: “1” was the control, “2” was the Accurate Statistic condition, and “3” was the

Exaggerated Statistic condition. Once consent forms were collected, so were phones and other

distractors to ensure that the statistics were viewed.

The control group did not have alcohol statistics. The researcher did not change the

environment other than the initial taking of cellular devices. After each group had completed the

questionnaire they were asked to complete the alcohol opinion survey again, debriefed and made

aware the true purpose of the study. Experimental Group 3 was also made aware that their

statistics were false and given information containing the correct statistics so that they did not

believe false information.

Results

Analyses on the three conditions, Control (n = 8), Accurate Statistics (n = 8), and

Exaggerated Statistics (n = 9), were conducted in multiple ways. To test the hypothesis that

college students who were exposed to extreme levels of alcohol statistics would experience

higher levels of cognitive dissonance that would in turn cause students to be dishonest on self-


reports of alcohol use a one-way between-subjects ANOVA was conducted. To test the second

hypothesis that beliefs on alcohol would change after exposure to varying levels of the prime a

Repeated Measures ANOVA was needed, however access to software to conduct the test was

unavailable. In lieu of this, three Paired Samples t tests were run in conjunction with a

Bonferroni correction to account for Type I errors. Within analyses, higher scores indicate more

negative views on or higher use of alcohol. For the Alcohol Opinion Survey the range ran from

5-18. For the Extra Curricular Activity Questionnaire there was a possible range of 4-26 but

participants scored within a range or 4-20.

Descriptive Statistics

Analysis on the Extra Curricular Activities Survey indicated differences in the means for

the three conditions. The Accurate Statistic condition showed more use of alcohol (M = 12.50,

SD = 5.16) than both the Control (M = 8.75, SD = 4.40), and the Exaggerated Statistic conditions

(M = 9.67, SD = 5.32).

Analysis on the Alcohol Opinion Surveys revealed differences in participant opinions of

alcohol from the pre-test to the post-test in all three conditions. The Control condition had a

greater change in means from the pre-test (M = 10.25, SD = 1.04) to the post-test (M = 11.13, SD

= 0.99) than either of the other two conditions. The Accurate Statistic condition had the second

greatest change in means from the pre-test (M = 10.00, SD = 0.76) to the post-test (M = 10.63,

SD = 0.92). The Exaggerated Statistic Condition had the smallest change in means from pre-test

(M = 10.89, SD = 2.15) to post-test (M = 11.00, SD = 1.50).

Dishonest self-report of alcohol behavior


Statistical significance was not found with the analysis of the Extra Curricular Activity

survey, F(2, 22) = 1.24, p > .05. This refutes the hypothesis that the alcohol statistics would

cause cognitive dissonance and change the honesty of participants’ self-report on alcohol use. A

Tukey Post hoc was preformed to ensure no errors. The Tukey also found no statistical

significance between conditions, p > .05, and the greatest insignificance being between the

Control and Exaggerated Statistic conditions. However, there was a large effect size, n2 = 0.10.

Changes in Opinion of Alcohol

The hypothesis that exposure to varying levels of the prime would change beliefs on

alcohol was partially confirmed based on the statistical analysis. Statistical significance was

found in the Control, t(7) = -7.0, p < .05, d = -0.87, and the Accurate Statistic, t(7) = -3.42, p

< .05, d = -0.75, conditions with the analysis of the Alcohol Opinion Survey. However,

significance was not found with the Exaggerated Statistic condition, t(8) = -0.244, p > .05, d = -

0.06. Because multiple t-tests had to be run to analyze the results, a Bonferroni Correction had to

be performed as well. Even after the Correction, significance was maintained in the two

conditions: Control, p < .016; Accurate, p <.016.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to determine an interaction between cognitive dissonance

and priming. More specifically, to see how introducing a college student with a prime of alcohol

statistics would influence their beliefs on alcohol, and the way they report their actions on

alcohol. Previous research has shown that individuals are likely to change either actions or

beliefs when experiencing cognitive dissonance (Allahyani, 2012; Hoshino-Browne, 2012;


Jarcho, Berkman, & Lieberman, 2011; Voisin, Stone, & Becker, 2013). It has also shown that

primes can lead people to unconsciously act towards a certain behavior or belief (Ihrke,

Behrendt, Schrobsdorff, Visser, and Hasselhorn, 2013). It was the hope of the current study to

find support for a causal relationship between the theories found in previous research.

Results of this study found no statistical significance with the measure used to test

priming on cognitive dissonance, the Extra Curricular Activities Survey, refuting the hypothesis

that the primes causes cognitive dissonance enough to change self-report on alcohol behavior.

However there was a large effect size present in the analysis, suggesting that an effect was in fact

taking place. It would be interesting to find a way to assess what effect was happening, and to

see if there was a better way to measure changes in behavior after exposure to the prime.

Results did, however, indicate some significance in regards to priming affecting cognitive

dissonance changes in beliefs. The hypothesis of this study was partially confirmed in this regard

because significance was found in the Control and Accurate Statistic conditions but not in the

Exaggerated Statistic condition. This partial confirmation was actually counterintuitive to the

researcher because it was thought that significance would be found in the Exaggerated Statistic

condition due to the greater perceived threat. However, it was found to have a small effect size.

Thus meaning, the effect was actually smaller than thought and a larger sample would have been

needed to possibly find anything.

Significance being found in the Accurate Statistic condition is beneficial to the real

world, and a real world application due to the fact that one sees accurate alcohol statistics when

researching, and not exaggerated and falsified statistics. The results that a person changes their

beliefs from a positive view on alcohol to a more negative view after exposure to the statistic


prime can be useful in aiding alcoholics in the recovery process or aiding other individuals with

other similar afflictions. It can also be interpreted to mean that the presence of a prime well

known in society to be negative to a relative degree can lead individuals to change their beliefs.

Because there was no accurate measure of change in behavior, it is possible that this change in

belief after the presence of statistics lead to a change in behavior. It would be interesting to

investigate further the complete effects of these statistics on this age group.

Also, significance being found in the Control condition leads one to question the

accuracy of the experiment as a whole. Although the Control was not exposed to the prime, there

was a significant change in their responses to the survey. This could be accounted for by the fact

that the surveys were administered back to back, and they were exactly the same. There may

have been a threat to the internal validity of the experiment, specifically a testing effect, due to

the fact that the same measure was given back to back. This may have caused the participants to

think they were supposed to change their answers. It may be better to have a distractor in the

Control room as well, that does not correlate with the experiment in any way.

With this study, the results are completely counterintuitive and lead to many more

questions. One such question is whether or not the way that the prime was introduced played an

effect. It would be interesting to see if introducing the prime in a different way would elicit

different results. Another question is why the exaggerated statistics did not show significance in

analysis. When debriefing many of the participants, it was noted that they were relieved to find

that the numbers were exaggerated. Curiosity leads on to wonder what effect fear actually has on

individuals.

Limitations


In addition to the possible threat to internal validity in the Control condition, there were

limitations to this study in the way that the methodology had flaws. It was noticed when the

conduction of the experiment was taking place that it was difficult to keep consistent timing with

all of the participants and the different conditions, and that it was difficult to keep the same script

on each of the four nights. It would be beneficial, if the experiment was conducted again, to find

a way to correct the flaws in the methodology. Or, to at least have more than one researcher and

a script with specific times laid out for each part. Also, finding significance in the Control

condition needs to be corrected. It is thought that it would be beneficial to have a form of

statistical information for viewing, which was not related to the tested subject. For example, if

testing alcohol statistics use a statistic that does not relate to alcohol in any way. Another

limitation of the study was that there were only 25 participants. While the small sample size

found significance, it would have been more beneficial to have a larger, more representative

sample than 25 college students, the majority being freshman.

Conclusion

Priming and cognitive dissonance are important aspects to the field of Psychology. The

relationship between how they affect each other should be more thoroughly tested, in order to be

used to aid in further research of treatments of addictions and fears. Although the current study

had flaws and is counterintuitive in nature, it created interesting results that can lead to many

more interesting studies. It would be beneficial to the field to further test if priming causes

cognitive dissonance enough to change beliefs and or behavior.


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Appendix A

Age:

Sex:

Grade Level:

Major:

Please answer all questions as honestly as possible.

How often do you attend sporting events?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

On average, how often do you spend your time studying for upcoming tests?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

How often do you drink alcoholic beverages?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

If given the choice between staying in or going out with friends, how often do you go out?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes


Appendix A (Continued)5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

How often do you watch movies?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

On a scale of 1 to 5, how intoxicated do you become when drinking alcoholic beverages?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Occasionally4- Often 5- Every instance

How often do you go home for the weekend?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

Are you involved in on organization on campus?YesNo

If involved in an organization on campus, how often do you devote your time to the organization?

1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered


Appendix A (Continued)How often do others influence the amount of alcohol you consume?

1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

How often do you work on the weekends?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

If you work on the weekends, how often do you still find time to spend on yourself?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

How often does alcohol impact your confidence?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered

How often do you spend your time volunteering?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often


Appendix A (Continued)7- Every chance offered

How often do you spend your time focused on anything other than school work?1- Never2- Very rarely3- Rarely4- Sometimes5- Often6- Very often7- Every chance offered


Appendix B

Please answer all questions honestly your answers are confidential.

1. I believe drinking alcohol on a school night is:a. Awful, and should never been done.b. Okay depending on the situation.c. Perfectly acceptable.d. I don’t drink, and I have no opinion.

2. Alcohol is the leading cause of failure in college age students.a. True b. False

3. If I see someone drinking irresponsibly, I will:a. Not say anything, it is their business what they do with their life.b. Go find someone who can take care of it.c. Talk to them and try to help.d. Who am I kidding, I’m right there with them

4. Alcohol is:a. A gateway drug.b. Fine in moderation.c. A useful way to relax.d. I have no opinion.

5. On average I drink:a. Socially.b. Every day to relieve stress.c. Occasionally or rarely.d. I don’t drink.


Appendix C

53 percent of adults in the United States have reported that

one or more of their close relatives has a drinking problem


Appendix C (Continued)

72 percent of adults in the United States have reported that

one or more of their close relatives has a drinking problem



23.5 million people 12 years of age and older needed treatment

for an illicit drug or alcohol abuse problem in 2009



32.5 million people 12 years of age and older needed treatment

for an illicit drug or alcohol abuse problem in 2009



50,000 cases of alcohol overdose are reported each year



80,000 cases of alcohol overdose are reported each year



2009, an estimated 30.2 million people 12 or older reported

driving under the influence of


alcohol at least once in the past year


2009, an estimated 60.2 million people 12 or older reported


driving under the influence of alcohol at least once in the past

year



Number of alcoholic liver disease

deaths: 15,990

Number of alcohol-induced deaths, excluding accidents and

homicides: 25,692



Number of alcoholic liver disease

deaths: 75,990 Number of alcohol-induced

deaths, excluding accidents and

homicides: 29,862



Percent of adults 18 years of age and over who were current regular drinkers (at least 12

drinks in the past year):

51.5%



Percent of adults 18 years of age and over who were current regular drinkers (at least 12

drinks in the past year):

71.5%Appendix C (Continued)


Percent of adults 18 years of age and over who were current

infrequent drinkers (1-11 drinks

in the past year): 13.6%



Percent of adults 18 years of age and over who were current

infrequent drinkers (1-11 drinks

in the past year): 33.6%

negative priming effects on cognitive dissonance

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