Near-Infrared Spectroscopyin Agriculture

Co-EditorsCraig A. Roberts

Jerry Workman, Jr.James B. Reeves III

Managing Editor: Lisa Al-Amoodi

Editor-in-Chief ASA Publications: Kenneth A. BarbarickEditor-in-Chief CSSA Publications: Craig A. RobertsEditor-in-Chief SSSA Publications: Warren A. Dick

Number 44 in the seriesAGRONOMY

American Society of Agronomy, Inc.Crop Science Society of America, Inc.Soil Science Society of America, Inc.

PublishersMadison, Wisconsin, USA

2004

iii

Copyright © 2004 by the American Society of Agronomy, Inc.Crop Science Society of America, Inc.Soil Science Society of America, Inc.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER THE U.S. COPYRIGHT ACT OF1976 (PL. 94-533).

Any and all uses beyond the limitations of the “fair use” provision of the lawrequire written permission from the publisher(s) and/or the author(s); not ap-plicable to contributions prepared by officers or employees of the U.S. Gov-ernment as part of their official duties.

The views expressed in this publication represent those of the individual Ed-itors and Authors. These views do not necessarily reflect endorsement by thePublisher(s). In addition, trade names are sometimes mentioned in this pub-lication. No endorsement of these products by the Publisher is intended, noris any criticism implied of similar products not mentioned.

American Society of Agronomy, Inc.Crop Science Society of America, Inc.Soil Science Society of America, Inc.677 South Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711-1086 USA

ISBN: 0-89118-155-5

Library of Congress Control Number:

Printed in the United States of America.

CONTENTS

Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixForeword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiPreface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiContributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvConversion Factors for SI and Non-SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

SECTION A—NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

1 Understanding and Using the Near-Infrared Spectrumas an Analytical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Jerome Workman and John Shenk

2 Near-Infrared Spectrophotometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Jerome Workman

3 Testing and Validating Instrument Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33W.L. Cap Munday, Charles M. Zapf, and James Reeves

4 Network Design and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Phil Williams and John Antoniszyn

5 Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Ian Murray and Ian Cowe

SECTION B—CHEMOMETRICS FOR NEAR-INFRAREDSPECTROSCOPY

6 Mathematical Data Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115James Duckworth

7 Quantitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Mark Westerhaus, Jerome Workman, James Reeves,and Howard Mark

8 Qualitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175Richard Kramer, Jerome Workman, and James Reeves

9 Standardization and Calibration Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207John Shenk

v

SECTION C—NIR APPLICATIONS IN ANALYSIS OF FOOD CROPS

10 Analysis of Forages and Feedstuffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Craig Roberts, Jerry Stuth, and Peter Flinn

11 Analysis of Small Grain Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269Stephen Delwiche

12 Analysis of Oilseeds and Coarse Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321Dan Dyer

13 Analysis of Coffee, Tea, Spices, Medicinal Plants andAromatic Plants, and Related Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Hartwig Schulz

14 Analysis of Fruits and Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377David Slaughter and Judy Abbott

15 Analysis of Sugarcane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399Reiji Sekiguchi, Masami Ueno, and Sumio Kawano

SECTION D—NIR APPLICATIONS IN ANALYSISOF PROCESSED FOODS

16 Analysis of Cereal Food Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411Sandra Kays

17 Analysis of Baking Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439Chris Scotter and Sam Millar

18 Analysis of Beverages and Brewing Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465Bob Dambergs, Michael Esler, and Mark Gishen

19 Analysis of Fats and Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487Ana Garrido-Varo, Juan García-Olmo, andMaria Delores Pérez-Marin

20 Analysis of Dairy and Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559Roberto Giangiacomo and Tiziana M.P. Cattaneo

21 Analysis of Meats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599Gerard Downey and Kjell Ivar Hildrum

vi CONTENTS

SECTION E—NIR APPLICATIONS IN ANALYSISOF NON-FOOD AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

22 Analysis of Timber and Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635Jerry Workman and Laurie Schimleck

23 Analysis of Animal By-Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647Daniel Cozzolino and Ian Murray

24 Analysis of Wool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663Michael Hammersley and Trisha Townsend

25 Analysis of Cotton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671Joseph Montalvo and Terri Von Hoven

26 Analysis of Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729Diane Malley, Paul Martin, and Eyal Ben-Dor

Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785

CONTENTS vii

ix

DEDICATION

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy inAgriculture is dedicated to Phil Williamsand Karl Norris. Collectively, they madethis technology usable, especially in agri-cultural applications. Individually, eachhas his own list of contributions andachievements.

Karl Norris was the first to demon-strate that NIR spectral data could bemeasured on samples such as groundgrains. His real contribution was the in-corporation of computers to interpret data that could predict composition. This con-tribution, while it appears intuitive in our time, was innovative 40 years ago, longbefore desktop computers existed. The coupling of computers with spectropho-tometers for statistical interpretation of spectra has facilitated the subdiscipline nowknown as chemometrics. In addition to working with small grains, Norris workedwith other agricultural products. He collaborated with coworkers at the Instru-mentation Research Laboratory at the USDA, Beltsville, MD to predict moisturein soybean and fat content in milk. This work involved both design of instrumentsoperating in the NIR region and development of software to process the data. Be-cause of this work, as well as the applied collaboration with Williams, many peo-ple consider Karl Norris the unofficial father of modern NIR spectroscopy.

Phil Williams was the applied equivalent of Norris. He was first ever toapply NIR technology to large-scale, real-world testing of a commercial com-modity. In his search for a method rapid enough to test railway carloads of wheatat the time of unloading, Williams acquired one of the first NIR instruments everbuilt. His commitment to analytical precision, supported by the engineers of whatwas then the Neotec Corporation, resulted in replacement of the traditional Kjel-dahl method by an automated NIR system for the protein segregation program.Within only four years, all testing—about 600,000 samples per year—was carriedout at terminal elevators. Williams’ subsequent work has been aimed at resolvingproblems associated with application of NIR technology to grain handling, with par-ticular emphasis on electronic grading. In the field of plant breeding, Williams hasconcentrated on development of calibration models for the prediction of function-ality, as well as composition. Over the past 32 years his research on evaluation ofnew instruments has been of significant benefit to several instrument manufactur-ing companies.

Though Williams and Norris have both retired from their original positions,they remain active in the field of NIR spectroscopy. They continue to help jump-start new analytical laboratories, mentor young spectroscopists, and field questionsto almost anyone searching for an answer. As a result of their substantial contri-butions, they have both received prestigious awards. Today, Williams and Norrisare household names, often mentioned together because of their synergistic effectin spawning, then documenting, a growing technology.

x

FOREWORD

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is a remarkably versatile and robust ana-lytical methodology. Its nondestructive nature, fast analysis time, and relative easeof use has led to the development of many applications in a broad array of agri-cultural fields. The evolution and widespread application of NIR spectroscopy inthe past several decades is one of the great success stories in analytical technologydevelopment. From the humble beginnings of fixed-filter instruments and simplecalibrations to the scanning monochromators and advanced chemometrics of today,the technology has undergone an astonishing transformation. Key to this achieve-ment was the rapid development of the microprocessor and the advanced analyti-cal software it made possible. Today, NIR spectroscopy is widely used to detect andquantify an almost unending list of analytes in a host of agricultural and foodproducts.

This volume provides monographic coverage of the use of NIR spectroscopyin agriculture. It begins with a section on fundamental principles of NIR spec-troscopy, including chapters on instrumentation and sample preparation. This is fol-lowed by a comprehensive section on advanced chemometrics for qualitative andquantitative NIR analysis. The remaining three sections describe NIR applicationsfor analysis of food crops, processed foods, and other agricultural products andbyproducts. The chapters are authored by a who’s who list of the leading expertsin the design, calibration, and application of NIR spectroscopy. The book is trulyinternational in scope with contributing authors from around the world.

Our thanks to the feasibility committee, editors, authors, reviewers, and staffthat worked diligently to make this outstanding volume available. They have cre-ated an exceptional reference, that will serve as a leading source and definitive au-thority on NIR spectroscopy in agriculture for many years to come.

KENNETH J. MOOREPresident

Crop Science Society of America

LOWELL E. MOSERPresident

American Society of Agronomy

J. THOMAS SIMSPresident

Soil Science Society of America

xi

PREFACE

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is fast becoming a preferred method of rou-tine analysis, especially in agriculture. Its growing popularity is due to its accuracyand efficiency of process. As an empirical procedure, NIR spectroscopy differs fromstandard spectroscopy; it does not require a full understanding of the physical re-lationships between spectral data and chemical functional groups. Instead, NIR spec-troscopy is based on mathematical relationships between spectra and reference data.Once a mathematical relationship is established, the NIR spectrophotometer col-lects spectra and predicts analysis, thereby expediting rapid, large-scale process-ing of samples. The repeatability and accuracy of predicted data are monitoredthrough an array of blind validation protocols.

Because of its empirical approach and indirect analysis, NIR spectroscopysometimes attracts criticism. In many ways, it is a technology comparable to crypt-analysis during World War II—it “had an aura of sorcery, but the basis was highlyscientific.”1 Criticism of NIR spectroscopy as a bench-top analytical tool is mostcommon among theoretical researchers, who strain to understand the same princi-ples they readily accept in remote sensing. Among practitioners, however, criticismis rare. In fact, practitioners have come to appreciate the inherent advantages of NIRspectroscopy, such as nondestructive sampling, reduced dependence on chemicalreagents, and simultaneous quantification of constituents.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Agriculture highlights the practical use of NIRtechnology during its first forty years in international agriculture. The book was re-quested by a feasibility committee of the Agronomy Society of America, who com-missioned the work and cosponsored it with the Crop Science Society of Americaand the Soil Science Society of America.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Agriculture is organized into five sections. Thefirst two sections present the fundamentals of spectroscopy and chemometrics. Thesetwo sections were simplified as much as possible at the request of the editors be-cause this book targets a broad scientific audience rather than a narrow group ofspectroscopists and statisticians. The last three sections are applied and give thisbook a clear niche among other NIR publications. These applied sections detail theuse of NIR analysis in crop production, food processing, and non-food agriculture.Chapters in the applied sections are generally comprehensive, and they include stan-dardized tables of applications for ease of reference.

The editors would like to express their appreciation to all authors, reviewers,and editors of these chapters, as well as the editors of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA fortheir commitment and hard work in producing this book. We thank the ManagingEditor, Lisa Al-Amoodi. We would also like to thank certain colleagues who helpedus in the early stages of this work. Specifically, we are grateful to Ian Murray andChris Scotter, who helped us identify international authors with various special-izations in NIR application. We owe a special word of gratitude to authors RobertoGiangiacomo, Tiziana Cattaneo, Stephen Delwiche, Trish Townsend, and MichaelHammersley; these authors submitted their chapters early in the process and pro-

xiii

1 Stevenson, W. 1976. A man called intrepid. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York.

vided their colleagues with excellent examples of content and composition. Finally,we are grateful to Jerry Nelson, who offered a steady stream of reliable advicethrough the entire publication process.

We hope this work will benefit all those interested in efficient analysis of agri-cultural products.

CRAIG A. ROBERTSUniversity of Missouri

Columbia, Missouri

JERRY WORKMAN, JR.Argose Inc.

Waltham, Massachusetts

JAMES B. REEVES IIIUSDA-ARS

Beltsville, Maryland

xiv PREFACE

CONTRIBUTORS

Judy Abbott USDA-ARS, Produce Quality and Safety Laboratory, BARC-West, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705, USA

John Antoniszyn Canadian Grain Commission, Grain Research Laboratory,1404 - 303 Main Street, Winnipeg, MB R3C 3G8, Canada

Eyal Ben-Dor Remote Sensing/GIS Laboratory, Dep. of Geography, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Ramat Aviv, Tel-Aviv69978, Israel

Tiziana M.P. Cattaneo Istituto Sperimentale Lattiero Caseario, Via Lombardo, 11,26900 Lodi, Italy

Ian Cowe 37 Broughton Way, Osbaldwick, York YO10 3BG, UK

Daniel Cozzolino The Australian Wine Research Inst., Waite Road, Urrbrae, P.O.Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; formerly, INIALa Estanzuela, Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Colonia,Uruguay

Bob Dambergs The Australian Wine Research Inst., Waite Road, Urrbrae, P.O.Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia

Stephen Delwiche USDA-ARS, Instrumentation & Sensing Laboratory, Bldg.303, BARC-East, 10300 Baltimore, Ave., Beltsville, MD20705-2350, USA

Gerard Downey Teagasc, The National Food Center, Astown, Dublin 15, Re-public of Ireland

James Duckworth Galactic Industries Corp., 395 Main Street, Salem, NH 03079,USA

Dan Dyer Renessen, LLC, 3000 Lakeside Drive, Suite 300S, Bannock-burn, IL 60015, USA

Michael Esler The Australian Wine Research Inst., Waite Road, Urrbrae, P.O.Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; currently: Bu-reau International des Poids et Mesures, Sevres, France

Peter Flinn Agriculture Victoria, Pastoral & Veterinary Institute, PrivateBag 105, Hamilton, Victoria 3300, Australia

Juan García-Olmo ETSIAM, University of Cordoba, Apdo. 3048, 14080 Cor-doba, Spain

Ana Garrido-Varo ETSIAM, University of Cordoba, Apdo. 3048, 14080 Cor-doba, Spain

Roberto Giangiacomo Istituto Sperimentale Lattiero Caseario, Via Lombardo, 11,26900 Lodi, Italy

xv

Mark Gishen The Australian Wine Research Inst., Waite Road, Urrbrae, P.O.Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia

Michael Hammersley 2/19d Dyers Pass Road, Cashmere, Christchurch 2, NewZealand

Kjell Ivar Hildrum MATFORSK, Osloveien 1, N-1432 Ås, Norway

Sumio Kawano National Food Research Institute, 2-1-12 Kannondai, Tsukuba305-8642, Japan

Sandra Kays USDA-ARS, Quality Assessment Research Unit, Richard B.Russell Agric. Research Center, P.O. Box 5677, Athens, GA30604-5677, USA

Richard Kramer Applied Chemometrics, 77 Beach Street, Sharon, MA 02067,USA

Diane Malley PDK Projects, Inc., 365 Wildwood Park, Winnipeg, MB R3T0E7, Canada

Howard Mark Mark Electronics, 21 Terrace Avenue, Suffern, NY 10901,USA

Paul Martin #2-12 McGillivray Place, Winnipeg, MB R3T 1N4, Canada

Sam Millar Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association,Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK

Joseph Montalvo USDA-ARS Southern Regional Res Ctr, 1100 Robert E. LeeBoulevard, Bldg. 001, Rm. 3025, New Orleans, LA 70179-0687, USA

W.L. Cap Munday Sydco Technical Sales, 1706 Justin Drive, Gambrills, MD21054, USA

Ian Murray SAC, Ferguson Bldg., Craibstone Estate, Bucksburn, Ab-erdeen AB21 9YA, Scotland

Maria Dolores Pérez-Marín ETSIAM, University of Cordoba, Apdo. 3048, 14080 Cor-doba, Spain

Craig Roberts Agronomy Dep., 214 Waters Hall, University of Missouri, Co-lumbia, MO 65211, USA

James Reeves USDA-ARS, Animal & Natural Resources Institute, BARC-East, Bldg. 306, Rm. 101, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA

Laurence Schimleck D.B. Warnell School of Forest Resources, The University ofGeorgia, 4-330, Athens, GA, 30602-2152, USA

Hartwig Schulz Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants, In-stitute of Plant Analysis, 22/23, D-06484 Quedlinburg, Ger-many

xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Chris Scotter Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association,Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK

Reiji Sekiguchi Japan Food Research Laboratory, Shibuya, Tokyo 151-0062,Japan

John Shenk Infrasoft International, 109 Sellers Lane, Port Matilda, PA16870, USA

David Slaughter Biological & Agric. Engineering, University of California,One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA

Jerry Stuth Dep. of RLEM, Animal Industries Bldg., Texas A&M Uni-versity, College Station, TX 77843-2126, USA

Trisha Townsend 74 Greendale Avenue, Avonhead, Christchurch 8004, NewZealand

Masami Ueno University of the Ruykyus, Okinawa 903 -0213, Japan

Terri Von Hoven USDA-ARS Southern Regional Res Ctr, 1100 Robert E. LeeBoulevard, 001, Rm. 3025, New Orleans, LA 70179-0687,USA

Mark Westerhaus Infrasoft International, 109 Sellers Lane, Port Matilda, PA16870, USA

Phil Williams PDK Grain, 365 Wildwood Park, Winnipeg, MB R3T 0E7,Canada

Jerome Workman Argose Inc., 230 Second Avenue, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

Charles M. Zapf McCormick & Company, Inc., Technical Center, 202 WightAvenue, Hunt Valley, MD 21031-1066, USA

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

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CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS xxi

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ion

Fac

tors

for

SI a

nd n

on-S

I U

nits

To c

onve

rt C

olum

n 1

To c

onve

rt C

olum

n 2

into

Col

umn

2,in

to C

olum

n 1,

mul

tiply

by

Col

umn

1 SI

Uni

tC

olum

n 2

non-

SI U

nits

mul

tiply

by

Tem

pera

ture

1.00

(K

−27

3)ke

lvin

, KC

elsi

us, °

C1.

00 (

°C +

273

)(9

/5 °

C)

+ 3

2C

elsi

us, °

CFa

hren

heit,

°F

5/9

(°F

−32

)

Ene

rgy,

Wor

k, Q

uant

ity

of H

eat

9.52

× 1

0−4jo

ule,

JB

ritis

h th

erm

al u

nit,

Btu

1.05

× 1

03

0.23

9jo

ule,

Jca

lori

e, c

al4.

1910

7jo

ule,

Jer

g10

−7

0.73

5jo

ule,

Jfo

ot-p

ound

1.36

2.38

7 ×

10−5

joul

e pe

r sq

uare

met

er, J

m−2

calo

rie

per

squa

re c

entim

eter

(la

ngle

y)4.

19 ×

104

105

new

ton,

Ndy

ne10

−5

1.43

× 1

0−3w

att p

er s

quar

e m

eter

, W m

−2ca

lori

e pe

r sq

uare

cen

timet

er69

8m

inut

e (i

rrad

ianc

e), c

al c

m−2

min

−1

Tra

nspi

rati

on a

nd P

hoto

synt

hesi

s

3.60

× 1

0−2m

illig

ram

per

squ

are

met

er s

econ

d,gr

am p

er s

quar

e de

cim

eter

hou

r,27

.8m

g m

−2s−1

g dm

−2h−1

5.56

× 1

0−3m

illig

ram

(H

2O)

per

squa

re m

eter

mic

rom

ole

(H2O

) pe

r sq

uare

cen

ti-18

0se

cond

, mg

m−2

s−1m

eter

sec

ond,

µm

ol c

m−2

s−1

10−4

mill

igra

m p

er s

quar

e m

eter

sec

ond,

mill

igra

m p

er s

quar

e ce

ntim

eter

104

mg

m−2

s−1se

cond

, mg

cm−2

s−1

35.9

7m

illig

ram

per

squ

are

met

er s

econ

d,m

illig

ram

per

squ

are

deci

met

er h

our,

2.78

× 1

0−2

mg

m−2

s−1m

g dm

−2h−1

Pla

ne A

ngle

57.3

radi

an, r

adde

gree

s (a

ngle

), °

1.75

× 1

0−2

xxii CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS

Ele

ctri

cal C

ondu

ctiv

ity,

Ele

ctri

city

, and

Mag

neti

sm

10si

emen

per

met

er, S

m−1

mill

imho

per

cen

timet

er, m

mho

cm

−10.

110

4te

sla,

Tga

uss,

G10

−4

Wat

er M

easu

rem

ent

9.73

× 1

0−3cu

bic

met

er, m

3ac

re-i

nch,

acr

e-in

102.

89.

81 ×

10−3

cubi

c m

eter

per

hou

r, m

3h−1

cubi

c fo

ot p

er s

econ

d, f

t3s−1

101.

94.

40cu

bic

met

er p

er h

our,

m3

h− 1U

.S. g

allo

n pe

r m

inut

e, g

al m

in−1

0.22

78.

11he

ctar

e m

eter

, ha

mac

re-f

oot,

acre

-ft

0.12

397

.28

hect

are

met

er, h

a m

acre

-inc

h, a

cre-

in1.

03 ×

10−2

8.1

× 1

0−2he

ctar

e ce

ntim

eter

, ha

cmac

re-f

oot,

acre

-ft

12.3

3

Con

cent

rati

ons

1ce

ntim

ole

per

kilo

gram

, cm

ol k

g−1m

illie

quiv

alen

t per

100

gra

ms,

meq

110

0 g−1

0.1

gram

per

kilo

gram

, g k

g−1pe

rcen

t, %

101

mill

igra

m p

er k

ilogr

am, m

g kg

−1pa

rts

per

mill

ion,

ppm

1

Rad

ioac

tivi

ty

2.7

× 1

0−11

becq

uere

l, B

qcu

rie,

Ci

3.7

× 1

010

2.7

× 1

0−2be

cque

rel p

er k

ilogr

am, B

q kg

−1pi

cocu

rie

per

gram

, pC

i g−1

3710

0gr

ay, G

y (a

bsor

bed

dose

)ra

d, r

d0.

0110

0si

ever

t, Sv

(eq

uiva

lent

dos

e)re

m (

roen

tgen

equ

ival

ent m

an)

0.01

Pla

nt N

utri

ent C

onve

rsio

n

Ele

men

tal

Oxi

de2.

29P

P 2O

50.

437

1.20

KK

2O0.

830

1.39

Ca

CaO

0.71

51.

66M

gM

gO0.

602

CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS xxiii