Navigating HispanicityNavigating HispanicityDiscrimination, Discrimination,

Representation, and the Representation, and the United State CensusUnited State Census

By Darcie Mulholland

Presentation’s PurposePresentation’s Purpose

The nature of Hispanic identity The nature of Hispanic identity will be examined by will be examined by documenting:documenting: How the United States census How the United States census

evolved into a political toolevolved into a political tool How the United States census How the United States census

influenced and was influenced by influenced and was influenced by race and ethnic groups.race and ethnic groups.

Key ConceptsKey Concepts Race and ethnicity is a social constructRace and ethnicity is a social construct Racial formation is a process of Racial formation is a process of

representation and organizationrepresentation and organization Racial projects connect what race means to Racial projects connect what race means to

ways social structures are racial organized.ways social structures are racial organized. Reactionary groups are formed from Reactionary groups are formed from

experienced discrimination and are able to experienced discrimination and are able to react against said discrimination. react against said discrimination.

Racial projects are manifested Racial projects are manifested in the United States Censusin the United States Census

Census History and US racial Census History and US racial FormationFormation

I will discuss US census history as it pertains to: I will discuss US census history as it pertains to: Original purpose of the CensusOriginal purpose of the Census Manipulation of data for political powerManipulation of data for political power Emphasis in social mappingEmphasis in social mapping

Hispancity gained membership in the context of the Civil Rights Movement.

“Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be

determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to

Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other

Persons.”

(United States Constitution, Section 2 Paragraph 3)

Creating political power Creating political power through social mapsthrough social maps

Creating political power Creating political power through social mapsthrough social maps

1790 census: taxes calculated by slaves 1790 census: taxes calculated by slaves per householdper household

1810 census: release of statistical reports 1810 census: release of statistical reports for policymaking and federal mandatesfor policymaking and federal mandates

1860 census: slave demographic and the 1860 census: slave demographic and the Civil War (1861-1865)Civil War (1861-1865)

Detailed enumeration meant that the policy makers could use social statistics for legitimizing federal laws and for the

implementation of those laws.

Immigration Quotas and Immigration Quotas and Racial ProjectsRacial Projects

Since 1840 national origin and immigration status recorded.Since 1840 national origin and immigration status recorded. Through the census, federal government saw immigrants as Through the census, federal government saw immigrants as

a problem.a problem. Immigration Act 1924: the federal government created Immigration Act 1924: the federal government created

national quotas for immigration based on the census national quotas for immigration based on the census tabulation of United States population’s national origin. tabulation of United States population’s national origin.

Northern and Western Europe gain 82% of the total annual Northern and Western Europe gain 82% of the total annual quotasquotas

Immigrants saw themselves in a hierarchy led by western-Immigrants saw themselves in a hierarchy led by western-origin European Americansorigin European Americans

From Dictatorship to Hegemony: From Dictatorship to Hegemony: The Civil Rights MovementThe Civil Rights Movement

Characteristics of a Racial State:Characteristics of a Racial State: Single race is considered normal or defaultSingle race is considered normal or default A color-line is formed at the basic societal levelA color-line is formed at the basic societal level The consolidation of distinct groups into a racial The consolidation of distinct groups into a racial

categorycategory Racial dictatorship: based on coercionRacial dictatorship: based on coercion Racial hegemony: based on subconscious acceptance Racial hegemony: based on subconscious acceptance

of racial categoriesof racial categories

It is in the process of racial formation that states move from a

dictatorship to hegemony.

A Reactionary StateA Reactionary State

Black Pride Movement (1960s): Black Pride Movement (1960s): Community reacted against Community reacted against

discriminatory laws on the local, state, discriminatory laws on the local, state, and federal level and federal level

each subsequent protest was each subsequent protest was strengthened by prior victoriesstrengthened by prior victories..

Representation by numbers and Representation by numbers and

the solidarity of those numbers means the solidarity of those numbers means

political voicepolitical voice

A Reactionary StateA Reactionary State

Voting Rights Act of 1965:Voting Rights Act of 1965: If a minority group could illustrate If a minority group could illustrate

that it had less opportunity in electing that it had less opportunity in electing representatives, redistricting could be representatives, redistricting could be challengedchallenged

Minority groups used the census Minority groups used the census for strengthening their for strengthening their

political agendas. political agendas.

Rise of HispanicityRise of Hispanicity Prior to 1970s Hispanics were regionalizedPrior to 1970s Hispanics were regionalized

Census identifiers used to map Hispanic Population from 1950 Census identifiers used to map Hispanic Population from 1950 to 1970.to 1970.

Perception of population sampledPerception of population sampled

IdentifierIdentifier 19501950 19601960 19701970

BirthplaceBirthplace 100%100% 25%25% 20%20%

Foreign Foreign ParentageParentage

20%20% 25%25% 15%15%

Mother TongueMother Tongue NANA 25%25% 15%15%

Spanish Spanish SurnameSurname

5% in the 5% in the

Southwestern Southwestern StatesStates

5% in the 5% in the

Southwestern Southwestern StatesStates

5% is the 5% is the

Southwestern Southwestern StatesStates

Spanish origin or Spanish origin or descentdescent

NA NA NANA 5%5%

Source: Bean and Tienda 1987: 41Source: Bean and Tienda 1987: 41

1970 and 1980 Hispanic 1970 and 1980 Hispanic NavigationNavigation

1970 and 1980 Census Questions for Identifying Spanish-descent 1970 and 1980 Census Questions for Identifying Spanish-descent (Source: Gauthier 2002)(Source: Gauthier 2002)

1970 Census 1970 Census [5% sample schedule][5% sample schedule]

13b. Is this person’s origin or descent– 13b. Is this person’s origin or descent– (Fill one circle)(Fill one circle)MexicanMexicanPuerto RicanPuerto RicanCubanCuban

Central or South AmericanCentral or South AmericanOther SpanishOther SpanishNo, none of theseNo, none of these

1980 Census1980 Census [100% sample schedule][100% sample schedule]

7. Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent?7. Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent?

Fill one circle.Fill one circle. No (not Spanish/Hispanic)No (not Spanish/Hispanic)Yes, Mexican, Mexican-Amer., Yes, Mexican, Mexican-Amer., ChicanoChicanoYes, Puerto RicanYes, Puerto RicanYes, CubanYes, CubanYes, other Spanish/HispanicYes, other Spanish/Hispanic

1970 and 1980 Hispanic 1970 and 1980 Hispanic NavigatingNavigating

Counting the Forgotten: The 1970 Census Counting the Forgotten: The 1970 Census Count of Person of Spanish-Speaking Count of Person of Spanish-Speaking Background in the United StatesBackground in the United States (1974) (1974) Census Bureau discriminated against Census Bureau discriminated against

HispanicsHispanics Compared Blacks to HispanicsCompared Blacks to Hispanics

Quantifying minorities equals civil rights issue

Undercounts and Publicity Undercounts and Publicity CampaignsCampaigns

Funds for civil rights programs were Funds for civil rights programs were apportioned via census data.apportioned via census data.Undercounting meant less federal funds.Undercounting meant less federal funds.Publicity campaigns tried to decreased Publicity campaigns tried to decreased the 1990 and 2000 census undercountsthe 1990 and 2000 census undercounts

Publicity campaigns sought to Publicity campaigns sought to legitimate and naturalize legitimate and naturalize

““HispanicHispanic””..

Hispanicity-a social constructHispanicity-a social construct

Census naturalized and prioritizedCensus naturalized and prioritized Civil Rights Movement legitimated and Civil Rights Movement legitimated and

empoweredempowered Hispanicity evolved from this environmentHispanicity evolved from this environment

Hispanics use their label to navigate US political discourse

ConclusionConclusion Census data manipulated for nation-Census data manipulated for nation-

state practicesstate practices Discrimination results in group Discrimination results in group

solidarity and mobilizationsolidarity and mobilization Collective identities react against the Collective identities react against the

dominatorsdominators Immigrants achieving political power Immigrants achieving political power

through mass numbers—through mass numbers— adopting homogenized labeladopting homogenized label

““We can never merge, We can never merge, we are going to be like other we are going to be like other

communities—different, communities—different, powerful but different. powerful but different.

We are going to be Latinos” We are going to be Latinos” (Itzigsohn 2004: 207)(Itzigsohn 2004: 207)

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