Native Americans: From Native Americans: From Before First Contact to Before First Contact to

the ‘Trail of Tears’the ‘Trail of Tears’

Human Population of the Human Population of the Americas in 1491Americas in 1491

How many people? We don’t know, How many people? We don’t know, but estimates have changed but estimates have changed dramatically.dramatically. James Mooney estimated 1 million in James Mooney estimated 1 million in

North America (published 1928)North America (published 1928) Alfred Kroeber estimated 8.4 million in Alfred Kroeber estimated 8.4 million in

the Americas (published in 1930s)the Americas (published in 1930s) By 1950s, some estimates much higherBy 1950s, some estimates much higher

Human Population of Human Population of the Americas in 1491 the Americas in 1491

(2)(2) Cook and Boorah estimate population Cook and Boorah estimate population

of central Mexican plateau was 25 of central Mexican plateau was 25 millionmillion

Dobyns estimates population of Dobyns estimates population of hemisphere was between 90 and 112 hemisphere was between 90 and 112 millionmillion More than in Europe in same periodMore than in Europe in same period

Numbers remain controversial, but Numbers remain controversial, but higher estimates gaining supporthigher estimates gaining support

Human Population of Human Population of the Americas in 1491 the Americas in 1491

(3)(3) If so many people, where did they If so many people, where did they

go?go? Disease (population believed to Disease (population believed to

have fallen by 90% within century have fallen by 90% within century of first contact)of first contact)

(From (From 1491: New Revelations of the 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before ColumbusAmericas Before Columbus, by Charles , by Charles Mann, 2005)Mann, 2005)

Northwest Ordinance of Northwest Ordinance of 17871787

Act of Congress of the ConfederationAct of Congress of the Confederation Created Northwest Territory as the Created Northwest Territory as the

11stst organized territory of the U.S. organized territory of the U.S. America would expand by adding America would expand by adding

new states, not by expanding new states, not by expanding existing statesexisting states

Population of 60,000 needed to Population of 60,000 needed to propose statehoodpropose statehood

Early Political PartiesEarly Political Parties FederalistFederalist

Favored strong national govtFavored strong national govt Expansion of industrial economy and national Expansion of industrial economy and national

bankbank Stronger ties with Great BritainStronger ties with Great Britain

Democratic-RepublicanDemocratic-Republican Favored states' rightsFavored states' rights Strict adherence to the ConstitutionStrict adherence to the Constitution Opposed national bank and wealthy, moneyed Opposed national bank and wealthy, moneyed

interests.interests. Favored agricultureFavored agriculture Stronger ties with FranceStronger ties with France

(First Presidents)(First Presidents) George Washington 1789-1797 George Washington 1789-1797

NO PARTYNO PARTY (John Adams VP)(John Adams VP)

John Adams 1797- 1801 John Adams 1797- 1801

FEDERALISTFEDERALIST (Thomas Jefferson VP)(Thomas Jefferson VP)

Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809 Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANDEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN (Aaron Burr/George Clinton VP)(Aaron Burr/George Clinton VP)

Presidents cont.Presidents cont.

James Madison 1809-1817 James Madison 1809-1817 (DEM-REP)(DEM-REP)

James Monroe 1817-1825James Monroe 1817-1825 (DEM-REP)(DEM-REP)

John Quincy Adams 1825-1829John Quincy Adams 1825-1829 (DEM-REP)(DEM-REP)

Andrew Jackson 1829-1837 Andrew Jackson 1829-1837 (DEMOCRATIC)(DEMOCRATIC)

Louisiana PurchaseLouisiana Purchase

Jefferson opposed development of a Jefferson opposed development of a strong national governmentstrong national government

However, he used power and $ of However, he used power and $ of national government boldly to national government boldly to expand west of the Appalachiansexpand west of the Appalachians

1803, sent James Monroe to Paris to 1803, sent James Monroe to Paris to buy city of New Orleans from Francebuy city of New Orleans from France

Napoleon sold all of Louisiana for Napoleon sold all of Louisiana for $15 mil$15 mil

About ¼ of the U.S. territory todayAbout ¼ of the U.S. territory today

1803 currency = less than 3 cents/acre 1803 currency = less than 3 cents/acre (58 cents/acre in today’s currency)(58 cents/acre in today’s currency)

Napoleon Bonaparte, upon completion Napoleon Bonaparte, upon completion of the agreement, stated, of the agreement, stated, "This "This accession of territory affirms forever accession of territory affirms forever the power of the United States, and I the power of the United States, and I have given England a maritime rival have given England a maritime rival who sooner or later will humble her who sooner or later will humble her pride."pride."

Manifest DestinyManifest DestinyTerm first used by journalist and political Term first used by journalist and political

commentator John O'Sullivan in 1839. commentator John O'Sullivan in 1839. "And that claim [to territory] is by right of "And that claim [to territory] is by right of

our manifest destiny to overspread and our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us."entrusted to us."

In 1846, Representative Robert Winthrop In 1846, Representative Robert Winthrop spoke against the concept: "I suppose the spoke against the concept: "I suppose the right of a manifest destiny to spread will right of a manifest destiny to spread will not be admitted to exist in any nation not be admitted to exist in any nation except the universal Yankee nation."except the universal Yankee nation."

U.S. Government and U.S. Government and Native AmericansNative Americans

Thomas Jefferson (U.S. President 1801-Thomas Jefferson (U.S. President 1801-09)09) Viewed Natives as ‘noble savages’Viewed Natives as ‘noble savages’

Gives them choice: Become farmers and Gives them choice: Become farmers and assimilate assimilate oror move beyond Mississippi move beyond Mississippi RiverRiver

Andrew Jackson (U.S. President 1829-37)Andrew Jackson (U.S. President 1829-37) Viewed natives as hostile, inferiorViewed natives as hostile, inferior

No choice (wanted Native Americans No choice (wanted Native Americans expelled beyond Mississippi)expelled beyond Mississippi)

G. Washington 1789-1797G. Washington 1789-1797 J. Adams 1797-1801J. Adams 1797-1801 T. Jefferson 1801-1809T. Jefferson 1801-1809 J. Madison 1809-1817J. Madison 1809-1817 J. Monroe 1817-1825J. Monroe 1817-1825 J. Q. Adams 1825-1829J. Q. Adams 1825-1829 A. Jackson 1829-1837A. Jackson 1829-1837

Andrew Jackson (1829-Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)1837)

““Old Hickory”Old Hickory” War of 1812War of 1812

11stst “common “common man” to become man” to become presidentpresident

Hero of Hero of Seminole Wars Seminole Wars

““Jacksonian Democracy”Jacksonian Democracy”

Democratic Republicans split into two Democratic Republicans split into two campscamps Jacksonian DemocratsJacksonian Democrats

Enhance power of the executive branchEnhance power of the executive branch Limited federal govt. – Jackson used his veto more Limited federal govt. – Jackson used his veto more

than all 6 previous presidents combinedthan all 6 previous presidents combined More power to common peopleMore power to common people

Natl. Republicans, then Whig Party (1830s-Natl. Republicans, then Whig Party (1830s-50s)50s) Modernization and economic protectionismModernization and economic protectionism Referred to Jackson as “King Andrew I”Referred to Jackson as “King Andrew I”

Supreme Court upholds right of Supreme Court upholds right of discovery (1823)discovery (1823)

Congress passes Indian Removal Congress passes Indian Removal Act (1830)Act (1830) Provided funds and land to negotiate Provided funds and land to negotiate

treatiestreaties

Indian Removal Act of Indian Removal Act of 18301830

Supreme Court upheld right of discovery Supreme Court upheld right of discovery (1823)(1823)

Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Seminole lived on fertile land in SC, GA, Seminole lived on fertile land in SC, GA, FL, AL, MS, and TNFL, AL, MS, and TN

Congress gave Jackson authority to offer Congress gave Jackson authority to offer Indians Louisiana Purchase Indians Louisiana Purchase landland and and moneymoney in return for their own land in return for their own land

100,000 Indians were forcibly relocated100,000 Indians were forcibly relocated For their 100 million acres of fertile land, For their 100 million acres of fertile land,

they received 32 million acres of prairie in they received 32 million acres of prairie in OKOK

Indian Removal Act of Indian Removal Act of 18301830

Jackson argued it was “not only Jackson argued it was “not only liberal, but generous”liberal, but generous”

Arguments based on rights of states Arguments based on rights of states to govern within their own bordersto govern within their own borders

1831 – He ordered troops to forcibly 1831 – He ordered troops to forcibly remove the Sauk and Fox from IL and remove the Sauk and Fox from IL and MSMS

1832 – Forced Chickasaw to leave 1832 – Forced Chickasaw to leave their lands in AL and MStheir lands in AL and MS

Cherokee Nation v. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)Georgia (1831)

Georgia moves to expel Native AmericansGeorgia moves to expel Native Americans Disbanded tribal legislatures and courtDisbanded tribal legislatures and court

Cherokee appealed to U.S. Supreme Cherokee appealed to U.S. Supreme CourtCourt Tribe argued the Supreme Court should have Tribe argued the Supreme Court should have

jurisdiction because they were “foreign jurisdiction because they were “foreign nations”nations”

Court refused to hear the case, but…Court refused to hear the case, but… Ruled that tribes were “domestic dependant Ruled that tribes were “domestic dependant

nations”nations”

Worcester v. Georgia Worcester v. Georgia (1832)(1832)

1832, Cherokees brought their case to the 1832, Cherokees brought their case to the Supreme Court through a missionary from Supreme Court through a missionary from Vermont, Samuel WorcesterVermont, Samuel Worcester Needed a Georgia State permit to enter the rez.Needed a Georgia State permit to enter the rez.

Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Georgia had no authority over Cherokee Georgia had no authority over Cherokee territoryterritory

Distinct Political Community, a Sovereign Distinct Political Community, a Sovereign Nation of people independent of the StateNation of people independent of the State (Like a state)(Like a state)

Georgia ignored the rulingGeorgia ignored the ruling

President Jackson refused to abide President Jackson refused to abide by the Supreme Court decision, by the Supreme Court decision, saying:saying:

““John Marshall has made his John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it.”decision; now let him enforce it.”

U.S. Government and U.S. Government and Native AmericansNative Americans

Worcester v. Georgia (1832) – Marshall Worcester v. Georgia (1832) – Marshall court ruled only federal gov’t (not states) court ruled only federal gov’t (not states) had jurisdiction over tribes and also had had jurisdiction over tribes and also had obligation to protect their welfareobligation to protect their welfare

U.S. gov’t negotiates treaty (1835) with U.S. gov’t negotiates treaty (1835) with minority faction of Cherokee who ceded minority faction of Cherokee who ceded lands for $5 million and land in Westlands for $5 million and land in West

Most Cherokee refuse deal, but army sent Most Cherokee refuse deal, but army sent to expel them, resulting in “Trail of to expel them, resulting in “Trail of Tears”Tears”

Trail of TearsTrail of Tears

In 1838, under President Martin Van In 1838, under President Martin Van Buren, the U.S. Army rounded up more Buren, the U.S. Army rounded up more than 15,000 Cherokeethan 15,000 Cherokee

Men, women, and children, mostly on foot, Men, women, and children, mostly on foot, traveled for 116 days to Indian Territorytraveled for 116 days to Indian Territory 800 mile trip800 mile trip

Each family issued 1 blanketEach family issued 1 blanket ¼ Cherokees died of cold or disease¼ Cherokees died of cold or disease

James K. Polk and James K. Polk and Manifest Destiny Realized Manifest Destiny Realized

(1845-1849)(1845-1849) Polk won the Democratic Party Polk won the Democratic Party

nomination for president in 1844 nomination for president in 1844 because of his support for because of his support for expansion.expansion. Party’s platform stated: “the re-Party’s platform stated: “the re-

occupation of Oregon and the re-occupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest annexation of Texas at the earliest practical period are great American practical period are great American measures.”measures.”

James Polk and Manifest James Polk and Manifest DestinyDestiny

Pride and Shame?Pride and Shame?

Alexander HamiltonAlexander Hamilton