Nation-Building in the Modern World

Placards

IndiaBritain had ruled India since 1877. In 1919, the British massacred unarmed Indians atAmritsar. This incident, more than any other single event, had marked the beginning of theend of British rule in India.

After the Amritsar Massacre, Gandhi knew the British had to go. It was during this time thatGandhi began numerous civil disobedience movements, beginning with the Great Salt Marchin 1930. It all began when the British taxed the Indians on salt, a season commonly used inIndian food. Gandhi felt taxing Indian salt was wrong because it was a gift of nature to India. As a means of non-violent protest, Gandhi marched 241 miles to the sea in 24 days to protestthe salt tax. While on the coast, Gandhi and his followers defied the British by making andusing their own salt. After the Salt March, the British started to show signs of giving in toGandhi’s demands. Gandhi’s movement of civil disobedience did not end with the Great SaltMarch. Gandhi persuaded millions of Indians to make “home-spun” cloth and not buy fromthe British. Millions of people began producing their own cloth and making their own clothes.Britain’s economy was hurt by this boycott. The British began to realize they needed to leaveIndia soon.

Before the British left India the Indian National Congress (INC) was formed. The INC wascreated to be the government after the British left India. It consisted of mostly Hindus. ManyMuslims were not happy with the Indian National Congress because it was made up of mostlyHindus. As a result, the Muslim League was formed to protect Muslim needs withMuhammad Ali Jinnah as it’s leader. Moreover, many Muslims did not like the idea of livingin a country that was made-up of mostly Hindus. Before long, many Muslims began callingfor a separate country.

The British finally announced that they were going to leave India in 1947. Gandhi asked TheMuslim League to keep Muslims a part of India. The Muslims refused. As a result, India splitinto two nations - India and Pakistan. Once the British left India, much violence betweenHindus and Muslims occurred. It is estimated that 1 million people died during this time.

Gandhi pleaded with Hindus and Muslims to live together peacefully. Riots engulfedCalcutta, one of the largest cities in India, and the Gandhi fasted (did not eat) until theviolence ended. On January 13, 1948, he undertook another successful fast in New Delhi tobring about peace. But on January 30, 12 days after the termination of that fast, as hewas on his way to his evening prayer meeting, he was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic whothought he was too supportive of Muslims. He was 79 years old.

Gandhi’s death was regarded as an international catastrophe. His place in humanity wasmeasured not in terms of the 20th century but in terms of history. A period of mourning was set aside in the United Nations General Assembly, and condolences to India were expressedby all countries. Religious violence soon diminished in India and Pakistan, and the teachingsof Gandhi came to inspire nonviolent movements elsewhere, notably in the U.S. under theCivil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr.

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India Side B

Pakistan, Bangladesh & Sri LankaPakistanAfter WWII Britain found itself with enormous war debts. Therefore, they were finallywilling to give up their colonial possessions. When India obtained their independence in1947, Muslims living in India were not willing to live under Hindu rule. They wanted tohave their own Muslim country. After many clashes between Hindus and Muslims the British government decided the best way to keep peace was to divide India and PakistanInto separate countries. The northwest and eastern regions of India, where most Muslimslived, would become the new nation of Pakistan. On July 16, 1947 two nations were born,India for the Hindus and Pakistan for the Muslims. As people scrambled to relocate,violence among the different religious groups erupted. Over 1 million people died due tothis conflict. Instability plagued Pakistan’s government after independence. First,Muhammad Ali Jinnah, their first governor-general died shortly after independence. Thisleft the nation without strong leadership, As a result, the country went through a series ofmilitary coups.

BangladeshFrom the beginning the two regions of Pakistan experienced strained relations. On March26, 1971, East Pakistan declared itself an independent nation called Bangladesh. A civilwar followed between Bangladesh and Pakistan. Eventually Indian forces stepped in andsided with Bangladesh. Eventually Pakistan surrendered. Over 1 million died in thecivil war. Pakistan lost about one-seventh of its area and about one-half of its population toBangladesh.

The war with Pakistan had ruined the economy of Bangladesh and destroyed thecommunication system. Sheik Mujibur Rahman became the nations first prime ministerand appeared more interested in strengthening his own power than rebuilding his country.He called for a one-party state and was assassinated by military leaders. AlthoughBangladesh has tried to create a more democratic government over the years, governmentcorruption and election fraud were common. In 2001, the government becamemore stable electing Begum Khaleda Zia as Prime Minister. Although Bangladesh is nowmore democratic it still has many problems. Because of it’s geography, the country oftensuffers from tidal waves and cyclones that regularly floods the land, ruins crops and takeslives. Bangladesh is also one of the poorest nations in the world.

Sri LankaIn February of 1948 the small island nation of Sri Lanka just off the southeast coast ofIndia won it’s independence from Britain. This small country’s recent history has alsobeen one of turmoil. A militant group of Tamils has long fought an armed struggle for aseparate nation for it’s people. Since 1981 thousands of lives have been lost. Although theytried to reach an peace agreement by sending in Indian troops to help disarm the Tamilrebels, this effort was not successful and civil war continued.

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Pakistan, Bangladesh & Sri LankaSide B

PhilippinesThe Philippines gained independence immediately after World War II from

the United States in 1946. The immediate goals of the Filipinos after gaining

independence was to rebuild the economy and restore the capital of Manila.

The city had been badly damaged in World War II. In order to get $600

million that the U.S. promised, the Filipinos were required to approve the

Bell Act. The act would establish free trade between the U.S. and the

Philippines for 8 years. The Filipinos were worried that the U.S. would

exploit the resources and environment of the Philippines. However, they

eventually signed the Act in order to get the needed money.

In order for the U.S. to protect it’s interests in Asia, they maintained a

military presence in the Philippines, especially with the beginning of the

Cold War. Therefore the U.S. demanded a 99-year lease on its military and

naval bases in the Philippines. These bases became a great source of conflict

between the U.S. and the Philippines. In 1991 the U.S. will give up it’s bases.

In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos was elected president of the Philippines. Until the

end of his rule, the people suffered great hardship. Not only did Marcos

impose authoritarian rule, but he also stole millions of dollars. In 1986

Corazon Aquino won the election but Marcos refused to recognized Aquino

as the winner. The people forced Marcos to leave the Philippines for

good. In 1995 they were able to recover the millions of dollars stolen by

Marcos.

During Aquino’s presidency, the Philippine government ratified a new

constitution. In 1992, Fidel V. Ramos succeeded Aquino as president. The

presidents are now restricted to a 6-year term to prevent the abuse of power

that occurred during Marco’s 20-year-rule. The Filipinos suffered from

extreme poverty, having one of the lowest average yearly incomes.

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Philippines Side B

Burma (Myanmar)Burma, in Southeast Asia, had been pressing for independence fromBritain for decades. In 1948 it chose to become a independent nation.After Burma gained it’s freedom it suffered many problems. It’speople struggled with conflict between pro-democracy leaders andRepressive military governments.

During World War II the Japanese declared Burma an independentstate and both the Burmese and Japanese fought against British rule.At the end of the war, The Burmese nationalist army, led by AungSan helped the British forces defeat the Japanese. They succeeded indriving out the Japanese and were about to become independent. Then Aung San and most of his cabinet were killed by Burmesepolitical rivals.

Conflict among Communists and ethnic minorities disrupted the nation. In1962, General Ne Win set up a repressive military government, with thegoal of making Burma a socialist state. Even after Ne Win stepped downin 1988 the military continued to govern repressively.

In 1988 Aung San Suu Kyi, the daughter of Aung San, returned toBurma after many years aboard . Her goal was to bring democracy toBurma. She became active in the national League for Democracy. For herpro-democracy activities she was placed under house arrest for 6 years bythe government. She was not able to see children or other family members.The country’s military changed the name from Burma to Myanmar afterthe country’s failed democratic uprising in 1988. The West and oppositionfigures boycotted the name change because it came from an oppressivedictatorship.

In 1990 election, the first multi-party election in over 30 years – theNational League for Democracy won 80% of the seats. The militarygovernment refused to recognize the election, and kept Aung San SuuKyi under house arrest. She was finally released in 1995 though stillkept under surveillance. For her efforts to establish democracy inBurma, she won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Burma continuesto suffer from extreme poverty and military rule.

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Side BBurma (Myanmar)

(Burma)

Malaysia and SingaporeDuring World War II, the Japanese conquered the Malaya Peninsula in

Southeast Asia, formerly ruled by the British. The British returned to the

peninsula after the Japanese defeat in 1945. They tried, unsuccessfully, to

organize Malaya into one state. They also struggled to put down a communist

uprising. Ethnic groups resisted British efforts to unite their colonies on the

peninsula and in the northern part of the island of Borneo. Malays were a

slight majority on the peninsula, while Chinese were the largest group in

Singapore.

In 1957 Malaysia gained it’s independence from Britain. The Federation of

Malaya was created from Singapore, Malaya, Sarawak, and Sabah. The union,

however, was unstable due to distrust and ideological differences between

leaders of the State of Singapore and the federal government of Malaysia.

Such issues resulted in frequent disagreement within politics, economic,

financial and social policies. The conflict spread to the populace, resulting in

major racial riots in 1964 in Singapore. In 1965, Malaysian Prime Minister

Tunku Abdul Rahman decided upon the expulsion of Singapore from the

Federation, leading to the Independence of Singapore on August 9, 1965.

Singapore, extremely prosperous, was one of the busiest ports in the world.

Lee Kuan Yew ruled Singapore as prime minister from 1959-1990. Under his

guidance, Singapore emerged as a banking center as well as a trade center. It

has a standard of living far higher than any of its Southeast Asian neighbors.

In early 1997, the Geneva World Economic Forum listed the world’s

most competitive economies. Singapore topped the list. It was followed, in

order, by Hong Kong, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Switzerland,

and Great Britain.

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Malaysia and Singapore Side B

Indonesia

The Southeast Asian country of Indonesia will gain it’s independence in1949 from the Dutch with the help of the nationalist leader Sukarno.Sukarno (known only by his first name) lead Indonesia’s independencemovement after the Japanese were forced to leave after their defeat inWorld War II. The Dutch, with the help of Britain and the United States,tried to regain control.

Unlike the British colonists, who served their term in India and then returnedto England, the pre-war Dutch looked upon the East Indies as theirpermanent home. To keep it that way, the Dutch resisted native Indonesians’attempts to enter the civil service (government employment) or toacquire higher education. After the war, Indonesians refused to be mistreatedby the Dutch and formed a successful guerrilla army to fight against theDutch. After losing support from the United States and the United Nations,the Dutch agreed to grant independence to Indonesia in 1949.

Indonesia became the fourth most populated nation in the world. It consistedof more than 13,600 islands with 300 different ethnic groups, 250 languages,and most of the world’s major religions. It contained the world’s largestIslamic population. After independence, Sukarno tried to create a

democracy.Unfortunately this attempt failed.

In 1965, a group of junior army officers attempted to throw Sukarno out ofpower, however, the coup was stopped by a general named Suharto. He thentook power for himself. Conflict broke out and almost 1 million Indonesianswere killed.

Suharto was named president in 1967 and turned Indonesia into a policestate. Outside observers heavily criticized him for his annexation of EastTimor in 1976 and for human rights violations there. Bribery and corruptionbecame a commonplace. Only the rich enjoyed prosperity. Politicaland economic conditions worsened in the late 1990’s. In 1998 protestersforced Suharto, Asia’s longest ruling dictator, to resign.

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Indonesia Side B

Ghana

Ghana, formerly known as the Gold Coast in the continent of Africa will be

one of the first African nations to gain independence. The leader of the non-

violent, independence movement was Kwame Nkrumah who worked

throughout the 1940’s to help the Gold Coast to gain independence from

Britain. In 1957 the Gold Coast obtained independence from Britain and

renamed itself Ghana. This name honored a famous West African kingdom

of the past. Ghana became the first nation governed by black Africans to

join the British commonwealth.

Nkrumah became Ghana’s first prime minister and later its president-for

life. He began a program to revitalize the country by creating new roads,

schools and health facilities. But these projects will eventually prove to be

too costly and will cripple the economy. Nkrumah will be criticized for

spending to much money and focusing too much on Pan-African efforts. He

wanted to create a “United States of Africa”. He wanted an Africa ruled by

Africans. Nkrumah helped develop the Pan-African Congress held in

Machester, England in 1945. Later, in 1958, he hosted the first Pan-African

meeting held in Africa This led to the formation of the Organization of

African Unity (OAU) In 1963.

In 1966, while Nkrumah was in China, the army and police in Ghana took

power. Since then, the country has shifted back and forth between civilian

and military rule. At the same time, it has struggled for economic stability.

Jerry Rawlings, and Air Force pilot, seized power in 1979 and

again in 1981.

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Ghana Side B

KenyaBritain began to settle in Kenya to take over their prized farmland in the

northern highlands of Kenya in the African continent. They resisted any

attempts for independence. Eventually, the British were forced to accept

black self-government as a result of two developments. One was the strong

influence of the Kenyan nationalist leader, Jomo Kenyatta. Having been

educated in London, England he was able to unite the people to seek

independence. The second was the rise of a secret society called the Mau

Mau. This group was mostly working farmers forced out of their farms by the

British.

The goal of the Mau Mau was to frighten the British into leaving the farms

rather than engaging in war. Kenyatta did not condemn the actions of the

Mau Mau and therefore was imprisoned by the British. The imprisonment

will lead to conflict. More than 10,000 black Kenyans and 100 white

Kenyans were killed in the fighting. The British finally granted

independence to Kenya in 1963.

Kenyatta became president of the new nation. He worked hard to unite the

various ethnic and language groups in the country. Nairobi, the capital, grew

into a major business center of East Africa. When Kenyatta died in 1978, his

successor, Daniel arap Moi, was less successful in governing the country.

Moi faced more and more opposition to his one-party rule. While he was

leader many students protested and as a result they were killed. These

demonstrations put pressure on Moi to make the country more democratic.

In the early 1990’s, Kenya’s economy suffered a severe reversal. Adding to

the nation’s problems, were corruption in Moi’s government and ethnic

conflicts that killed hundreds and left thousands homeless.

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Kenya Side B

The CongoOf all the European possessions, the Congo in Africa was the most exploited.

Belgium had taken much of the colony’s natural resources of rubber and

copper and employed a system of forced labor. Not only did Belgium drain

the wealth of this colony, it never provided social services or prepare the

Belgium people for independence.

When Belgium finally granted independence to the Congo in 1960 chaos

erupted. Patrice Lumumba became the nation’s first prime minister. He

ruled a divided country. In the mineral-rich southeastern province of

Katanga, a local leader name Moise Tshombe declared that region’s

independence. This was a serious threat, especially since copper from

Katanga’s mines was the nation’s primary export.

During the first years of independence, outside influence was a major

problem. Tshombe was backed by Belgian mining interests. Lumumba, with

Communist connections, first asked the United Nations for help in putting

down Tshombe’s rebellion. He then turned to the Soviet Union for aid. At

this point, a coup led by an army officer, Colonel Joseph Mobutu, later

known as Mobutu Sese Seko, overthrew Lumumba and turned him over to

his enemy, Tshombe. Lumumbas was murdered while in Tshombe’s custody.

Tshombe himself ruled briefly until he was overthrown by Mobutu, who

Seized power in a bloodless coup in 1965. From 1965-1997 the country will

change it’s name to Zaire.

In 1997 Laurent Kabila overthrew Mobutu and had himself sworn in as

president of the country. The rebels met little opposition as they

crossed the country. The New York Times called the Zaire government

“a house that had been eaten by termites. The rebels came along and

pushed it over.” That is, the corruption of Mobutu’s rule had

undermined his support among the people. The name of the country

was changed from Zaire to the Congo. Mobutu died in 1997.

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The Congo Side B

AlgeriaThe French colony of Algeria in Africa will be successful in gaining it’sindependence in 1962. At first, the French offered full citizenship rights to itscolonial subjects rather than independence. It desperately wanted to hold on to thisprized possession. Over a million French colonists were living in Algeria in 1945.They had been living there for generations and were unwilling to give up their land.But, the Algerian’s refused to share political power.

After World War II a conflict arose between the French and the Algerian nationalistswhen the French troops fired on Algerian protestors. Before peace was establishedthousands of Muslims and about 100 Europeans were killed. Although the Frenchtried to appease the Algerians with reforms, the nationalists were not satisfied andpushed for independence.

In 1954, the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) announced its intention tofight for independence. The FLN would use guerrilla tactics at home and diplomatictactics internationally.

The French sent over half a million troops into Algeria to fight the FLN. Both sidesCommitted atrocities. European settlers in Algeria began requesting that Charles DGaulle return as president of France and restore order in the French colony.

In 1958 De Gaulle returned to power and decided that Algeria should not longer beheld by force. France also let go of most of its other possessions in Africa. AfterFrance planned to transfer power to Algeria in March of 1962, 750,000 Frenchsettlers fled Algeria. Independence came in July of 1962.

The new prime minister will be Ahmed Ben Bella, leader of the FLN. Hereestablished national order, began land reforms, and developed new plans for education. In 1965, he was overthrown by his chief of staff.

From 1965-1988. Algerians tried to modernize and industrialize. Their efforts wereslowed when oil prices plunged in 1985. Unemployment and the unfulfilledpromises of the revolution contributed to an Islamic revival. Riots in 1988 againstthe government left hundreds dead. The chief Islamic party, the Islamic SalvationFront (FIS), won elections in the early 1990’s. However, the ruling governmentrefused to accept the election results. Eventually, a civil war broke out betweenIslamic militants and the government which claimed thousands of lives.

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Algeria Side B