Naomi Benbassat, M.A. Naomi Benbassat, M.A. Beatriz Priel, Ph.D.Beatriz Priel, Ph.D.Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, IsraelIsrael

Adolescent Adjustment: Adolescent Adjustment: The Role of Parental Reflective The Role of Parental Reflective

Function and Behavior.Function and Behavior.

"Reflective Function" - "Reflective Function" - Definition:Definition:

A meta-cognitive ability to think about thoughts and A meta-cognitive ability to think about thoughts and feelings of both self and others in an attempt to feelings of both self and others in an attempt to understand the behavior of both self and other understand the behavior of both self and other people (Fonagy & Target, 1997) people (Fonagy & Target, 1997)

The capacity to take the perspective of the The capacity to take the perspective of the other and thus to see things from the vantage other and thus to see things from the vantage point of a child, friend, spouse, or even the point of a child, friend, spouse, or even the whole of humanity is a defining attribute of whole of humanity is a defining attribute of human beings (George Herbert Mead).human beings (George Herbert Mead).

Self-consciousnessSelf-consciousnessSelf-awareness Self-awareness Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligenceIntrospectionIntrospection Theory of mindTheory of mindSocial intelligenceSocial intelligenceEmpathyEmpathyPsychological MindednessPsychological Mindedness

Reflective Function – Reflective Function – Related termsRelated terms

Research on Parental Reflective Research on Parental Reflective FunctionFunction

The mothers' Reflective Function has been The mothers' Reflective Function has been shown to be related to children's early shown to be related to children's early attachment relationships (Fonagy et al, attachment relationships (Fonagy et al, 1991) and to children's understanding of 1991) and to children's understanding of emotions (Steele et al, 1999). emotions (Steele et al, 1999).

ObjectivesObjectives

Compare the mother's and father’s Reflective Compare the mother's and father’s Reflective Function, parenting behavior and involvement in Function, parenting behavior and involvement in parenting. parenting.

Look for a possible association between parental Look for a possible association between parental Reflective Function, parenting behavior and level of Reflective Function, parenting behavior and level of involvement. involvement.

Look for a possible relationship between parental Look for a possible relationship between parental Reflective Function, parenting behavior and level of Reflective Function, parenting behavior and level of involvement, and the adjustment of their adolescent involvement, and the adjustment of their adolescent children.children.

Participants and procedureParticipants and procedure

A convenience sample of 106 adolescents (41 boys and 65 A convenience sample of 106 adolescents (41 boys and 65 girls) aged 14-18 years and their mothers and fathers.girls) aged 14-18 years and their mothers and fathers.

Inclusion criteria: (a) intact families; (b) reasonable Inclusion criteria: (a) intact families; (b) reasonable proficiency in Hebrew; (c) parental education of 7 proficiency in Hebrew; (c) parental education of 7 grades or more, (d) agreement of both parents and grades or more, (d) agreement of both parents and adolescent to participate in the study.adolescent to participate in the study.

During home visits, fathers, mothers and adolescents During home visits, fathers, mothers and adolescents were interviewed separately by three interviewers and were interviewed separately by three interviewers and asked to complete questionnaires. The interviews were asked to complete questionnaires. The interviews were audiotaped, and later transcribed and coded. audiotaped, and later transcribed and coded.

Parental MeasuresParental Measures

Demographic dataDemographic data (age, education). (age, education).

Parenting behaviorParenting behavior: the : the Parental Bonding Instrument Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI; Parker et al, 1979).(PBI; Parker et al, 1979).

Level of parental involvement:Level of parental involvement: the the Child Care-giving Child Care-giving Involvement Scale (CCIS; Wood & Repetti, 2004)Involvement Scale (CCIS; Wood & Repetti, 2004). .

Parental Reflective Function:Parental Reflective Function: The Parent Development The Parent Development Interview (PDI; Aber et al, 1985) and Fonagy’s Reflective Interview (PDI; Aber et al, 1985) and Fonagy’s Reflective Function scoring system (Fonagy et al, 1998). Function scoring system (Fonagy et al, 1998).

Q: Has Sara changed during the last years? Q: Has Sara changed during the last years? A: No. What bothers me is that she gets mad all of a A: No. What bothers me is that she gets mad all of a

sudden. We have to be gentle with her, so we are sudden. We have to be gentle with her, so we are trying… trying…

Q: Does this happen more frequently during the last Q: Does this happen more frequently during the last years?years?

A: No, I think may be this is because she is a middle A: No, I think may be this is because she is a middle child, so… it is typical [behavior for a middle child], child, so… it is typical [behavior for a middle child], this is what I think. this is what I think.

Q: Did she change in her social relations or at school?Q: Did she change in her social relations or at school? A: No, she is very stable, she knows what is going on A: No, she is very stable, she knows what is going on

and she has good friends. and she has good friends.

Q: Has Sharon changed during the last years?A: I think the changes are more … she feels she should be

treated and respected as an older [child] … I guess that in a way she is right. We have to undergo changes as well, not only her. She is more assertive, she is more… let's say argumentative… I'm not sure if it is only for the sake of winning an argument. I mean it is possible that she is fighting for space … All of a sudden, her friends seem to be more important for her. Not that in the past they weren't, but friends were friends, and family was family. But today, she can go out at noon, and forget to come back home, that is,… her social life appears to be more important for her. Friends were always important to her, friends and games. … but now it seems to be in a total way, she appears to be fully committed and dedicated to her friends…. this wasn't before. At school, I think that there is no…. I don’t know if it is related to adolescence, however now she appears to be very busy, and she has to learn to organize her time….

Adolescents’ MeasuresAdolescents’ Measures

Adolescents' social competence and internalizing and Adolescents' social competence and internalizing and externalizing symptoms:externalizing symptoms: the the Youth Self - Report (YSR; Youth Self - Report (YSR; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001 ). ).

Self–perception:Self–perception: the the Adolescent Self-Perception Profile Adolescent Self-Perception Profile

((ASPP; Harter, 1988).ASPP; Harter, 1988).

Means and standard deviations of Means and standard deviations of variables in fathers and mothersvariables in fathers and mothers

MothersMothersMean (SD) Mean (SD)

FathersFathersMean (SD)Mean (SD)

F(1,105)F(1,105)

Reflective functionReflective function 4.26 (1.39)4.26 (1.39) 3.79 (1.46)3.79 (1.46)11.55 **11.55 **

Level of involvementLevel of involvement42.49 (4.64)42.49 (4.64)35.77 (6.38)35.77 (6.38)80.81 **80.81 **

Parenting behavior:Parenting behavior:

- warmth- warmth31.40 (4.64)31.40 (4.64)28.95 (5.36)28.95 (5.36)26.69 **26.69 **

- over controlling- over controlling 8.62 (5.26)8.62 (5.26) 7.62 (5.47)7.62 (5.47)5.26*5.26*

** p<0.01 * p<0.05** p<0.01 * p<0.05

Correlation coefficients between parental Correlation coefficients between parental Reflective Function and their involvement Reflective Function and their involvement

in parenting and parenting behaviorin parenting and parenting behavior

Involvement in parenting

WarmthOver controlling

MotherFatherMotherFatherMotherFather

RF - mothers

-.08.01-.01

RF - fathers

.02.02.05

Correlations between parental Reflective Function, Correlations between parental Reflective Function, involvement in parenting, parenting behavior, and involvement in parenting, parenting behavior, and

specific outcomes in their adolescent specific outcomes in their adolescent girlsgirls

Social Social CompetenceCompetence

Self-perception Self-perception socialsocial

Self-perceptionSelf-perceptionpersonalpersonal

InternalizingInternalizingsymptomssymptoms

ExternalizingExternalizing symptomssymptoms

Reflective FunctionReflective Function

MothersMothers.05.05.04.04-.12-.12.15.15.06.06

FathersFathers.32**.32**-.01-.01-.31*-.31*.39**.39**.12.12

Involvement in parentingInvolvement in parenting

MothersMothers.10 .10 .26*.26*.03.03-.24-.24-.09-.09

FathersFathers.07.07-.14-.14-.20-.20.16.16-.01-.01

Parental behavior – WarmthParental behavior – Warmth

MothersMothers.04 .04 .12.12.05.05-.19-.19-.25*-.25*

FathersFathers.14.14.04.04-.05-.05-.09-.09-.08-.08

Parental behavior – Over controllingParental behavior – Over controlling

MothersMothers-.07-.07.01.01-.16-.16.13.13.34**.34**

FathersFathers-.15-.15.01.01-.01-.01.02.02.47**.47** * *pp< .05 ** < .05 ** pp< .01 (two-tailed)< .01 (two-tailed)

Social Competence

Self-perception social

Self-perceptionpersonal

Internalizingsymptoms

Externalizing symptoms

Reflective Function

Mothers.03-.41**-.41**-.22.14.06

Fathers.02-.34*-.28.22.26

Involvement in parenting

Mothers-.10.19.04-.25-.24

Fathers.15.09-.05-.50**-.45**-.45**Parental behavior – Warmth

Mothers.22.48**.48**.28-.14-.26

Fathers.23.52**.52**.29-.38*-.50**-.50**Parental behavior – Over controlling

Mothers-.22-.40*-.47**-.47**.14.32*

Fathers-.16-.34*-.41**-.41**.16.30

* *pp< .05 ** < .05 ** pp< .01 (two-tailed)< .01 (two-tailed) . .

Correlations between parental Reflective Function, Correlations between parental Reflective Function, involvement in parenting, parenting behavior, and specific involvement in parenting, parenting behavior, and specific

outcomes in their adolescent outcomes in their adolescent boysboys

Summary of main findingsSummary of main findings

The father's reflective function, warmth, and involvement in The father's reflective function, warmth, and involvement in parenting were lower than those of the mother.parenting were lower than those of the mother.

There was no association between parental reflective function There was no association between parental reflective function and other parenting measures.and other parenting measures.

Parental behavior and involvement in parenting were Parental behavior and involvement in parenting were

associated with positive outcomes, especially among boys.associated with positive outcomes, especially among boys.

Parental reflective function was associated with both positive Parental reflective function was associated with both positive and negative outcomes.and negative outcomes.

Fathers' parental measures were Fathers' parental measures were lower than those of the motherslower than those of the mothers Father-adolescent relationships were more distant Father-adolescent relationships were more distant

and less intensive than mother-adolescent and less intensive than mother-adolescent relationships (Noller & Callan, 1990). relationships (Noller & Callan, 1990).

Fathers were more avoidant and less emotionally Fathers were more avoidant and less emotionally involved with their families (Hosley & involved with their families (Hosley & Montemayor, 1997). Montemayor, 1997).

Fathers assume less responsibility for their Fathers assume less responsibility for their children's care, even when mothers are employed children's care, even when mothers are employed full-time (Pleck & Pleck, 1997). full-time (Pleck & Pleck, 1997).

Women were more aware than men of emotions in Women were more aware than men of emotions in both themselves and others (Barrett et al, 2000).both themselves and others (Barrett et al, 2000).

Lack of association between Lack of association between parental reflective function and parental reflective function and other parenting variablesother parenting variables

The construct "reflective function" captures a The construct "reflective function" captures a distinct feature, which is different from the other distinct feature, which is different from the other parental characteristics. parental characteristics.

Parent-adolescent relationships were more predictive of Parent-adolescent relationships were more predictive of psychosocial maturity in boys than in girls (Bomar & psychosocial maturity in boys than in girls (Bomar & Sabatelli, 1996).Sabatelli, 1996).

Adolescent boys' self esteem was more strongly related Adolescent boys' self esteem was more strongly related to family relations compared to that of girls (Bush, to family relations compared to that of girls (Bush, 2000). 2000).

A warm, involved and not over A warm, involved and not over controlling parent improves adolescent controlling parent improves adolescent

adjustment, especially among boys. adjustment, especially among boys.

Possible reasons for greater parental Possible reasons for greater parental influence on boysinfluence on boys

When compared with boys, adolescent girls have When compared with boys, adolescent girls have closer relationships outside of the family closer relationships outside of the family (Bukowsky et al, 1994), and are more likely to seek (Bukowsky et al, 1994), and are more likely to seek support and express their emotions with peers support and express their emotions with peers (Rose & Rudolph, 2006) . (Rose & Rudolph, 2006) .

Adolescent girls have greater need for autonomy, Adolescent girls have greater need for autonomy, since parents grant more autonomy to boys since parents grant more autonomy to boys (Bulcroft et al,(Bulcroft et al, 1996).1996).

Adolescent girls have been found to score higher Adolescent girls have been found to score higher

than boys on a psychosocial maturity scale (Bomar than boys on a psychosocial maturity scale (Bomar & Sabatelli, 1996), and in ego development (Cohn, & Sabatelli, 1996), and in ego development (Cohn, 1991). 1991).

Parental Reflective Function was Parental Reflective Function was associated with both positive and associated with both positive and

negative adolescentnegative adolescent outcomes outcomes

On the positive side, there was a correlation between fathers' reflective function and daughters' social competence.

This finding is consistent with previous studies showing that an understanding of the minds of others (Theory of Mind - TOM) is related to social skills and moral sensibility in pre-school children (Dunn et al, 2000).

On the negative side, fathers' reflective function was associated with more internalizing symptoms and lower self perception in girls, and the reflective function of both parents was associated with lower self-perception in boys.

Children with higher TOM scores have been shown to be more sensitive and more likely to rate themselves poorly following failure (Cutting & Dunn, 2002).

There is an inverse relationship between self-consciousness and self-esteem in adolescents ( Yee & Flanagan, 1985).

Self-awareness is a risk factor for internalizing and externalizing symptoms in 10 - 17 years old children (Steinhausen & Winkler-Metzke, 2001).

Psychological mindedness is associated with lower self-esteem, increased self criticism and feelings of anxiety (Farber, 1989).

"Accurate self perception involves both "Accurate self perception involves both costs and benefits. Removing the rose-costs and benefits. Removing the rose-colored coating from one's looking glass is colored coating from one's looking glass is unlikely to enhance self-confidence and unlikely to enhance self-confidence and optimism. The interpersonal benefits of optimism. The interpersonal benefits of accurate self-perception may, however, be accurate self-perception may, however, be substantial" (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999, p. substantial" (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999, p. 299).299).

ConclusionsConclusions

Parental reflective function has Parental reflective function has costs and benefits. costs and benefits.

Adolescent boys need a warm and Adolescent boys need a warm and involved parent, especially father. involved parent, especially father.