nanotechnology in the agri-food sector (implications for the future) || front matter
TRANSCRIPT
Edited by
Lynn J. Frewer, Willem
Norde, Arnout Fischer, and
Frans Kampers
Nanotechnology in the Agri-Food Sector
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Edited by Lynn J. Frewer, Willem Norde, Arnout Fischer, and Frans Kampers
Nanotechnology in the Agri-Food Sector
Implications for the Future
The Editors
Prof. Dr. Lynn J. FrewerWageningen UniversityMarketing & Consumer B. GroupHollandseweg 16700 EW WageningenNiederlande
Prof. Dr. Willem NordeWageningen UniversityDept. Physical ChemistryPostbus 80386700 EK WageningenNiederlande
Arnout FischerWageningen UniversityMarketing & Consumer B. GroupHollandseweg 16700 EW WageningenNiederlande
Dr. Frans KampersUniversity of WageningenAgrotechnology & Food Sc. Gr.Dreijenplein 86703 HB WageningenNiederlande
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ISBN: 978-3-527-33060-7
V
List of Contributors XIII
Introduction 1
Lynn Frewer, Arnout Fischer, Willem Norde, and Frans Kampers
Part 1 Fundamentals 3
1 Intermolecular Interactions 5
Willem Norde
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Water 7
1.3 Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions 9
1.4 Dispersion Interaction 12
1.5 Electrostatic Interactions 13
1.5.1 Atoms and Small Molecules 13
1.5.2 Polymers, Particles, and Surfaces 14
1.6 Steric Interactions Involving Soluble Polymers 17
1.6.1 Depletion Aggregation of Particles by Non-adsorbing Polymers 17
1.6.2 Bridging Aggregation of Particles by Adsorbing Polymers 17
1.6.3 Stabilization of Dispersed Particles by Adsorbing Polymers 19
1.6.4 Polymer Brushes to Prevent Particle Aggregation and Particle Deposition at Surfaces 19
1.7 Epilog 21
Further Reading 22
2 Supramolecular Structures 23
Pieter Stroeve
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Self-Assembly 24
2.3 Plant Cells 27
Contents
VI Contents
2.4 Organized Self-Assembled Structures 28
2.4.1 Langmuir Layers 28
2.4.2 Lipid Bilayers 30
2.4.3 Solid-Supported Lipid Bilayers 31
2.4.4 Micelles 33
2.4.5 Vesicles 35
2.5 Summary 36
References 36
Part 2 Basic Applications 37
3 Nanotechnology in Food Production 39
Remko M. Boom
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Food Production 40
3.2.1 Food and New Ways of Food Production 40
3.2.2 Why Do We Need New Processing and Preparation Methods? 40
3.2.3 More Effi cient Fractionation of Crops 41
3.2.4 More Effi cient Product Structuring 41
3.2.5 Optimizing Nutritional Value 43
3.2.6 Nanotechnology for Food Production? 43
3.3 Nanotechnology and Food 44
3.3.1 What Is Nanotechnology? 44
3.3.2 Nanotechnology in Food Production 44
3.4 Applications of Nanotechnology in Foods 46
3.4.1 Sensing 46
3.4.2 Packaging 46
3.4.3 Encapsulation 47
3.4.4 Nano-Engineering Food Ingredients to Improve Bioavailability 48
3.4.4.1 Nanocrystalline Food Ingredients 48
3.4.4.2 Nano-Emulsions 49
3.4.4.3 Nano-Engineered Protein Fibrils as Ingredient Building Blocks 49
3.4.5 Preparation of Food Matrices 52
3.5 Concerns about Using Nanotechnology in Food Production 55
3.5.1 Risks of Nanotechnology 55
3.5.2 Rational Argumentation Versus Human Feelings 55
References 56
4 Packaging 59
Frans W.H. Kampers
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Reasons to Package Food Products 59
4.3 Physical Properties of Packaging Materials 60
Contents VII
4.3.1 Strength 60
4.3.2 Barrier Properties 61
4.3.3 Light Absorption 63
4.3.4 Structuring of Interior Surfaces 64
4.4 Antimicrobial Functionality 64
4.5 Visual Indicators 65
4.5.1 Quality Assessment 66
4.5.2 Food Safety Indication 67
4.5.3 Product Properties 67
4.6 Information and Communication Technology 68
4.6.1 Sensors 68
4.6.2 Radiofrequency Identifi cation Technology 69
4.7 Discussion 70
4.7.1 Health Risks 70
4.7.2 Environmental Risks 71
4.7.3 Consumer and Societal Acceptance 72
References 72
5 Using Nanoparticles in Agricultural and Food Diagnostics 75
Geertruida A. Posthuma-Trumpie and Aart van Amerongen
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Biosensors 75
5.3 Transduction Principles 76
5.4 Examples of Biosensors in Which Nanoparticles Are Being Used 77
5.4.1 Lateral Flow (Immuno)assay 77
5.4.2 Nucleic Acid Lateral Flow (Immuno)assay 78
5.4.3 Flow-Through (Immuno)assays 79
5.4.4 Antibody Microarrays 80
5.4.5 Surface Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy 82
5.5 Future Prospects 82
References 82
Part 3 Food Applications 89
6 Nano-Functionalized Techniques in Crop and Livestock Production: Improving Food Productivity, Traceability, and Safety 91
Niall O’Brien and Enda Cummins
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 Sensors 93
6.3 Enzyme Biosensors and Diagnostics 96
6.4 DNA-Based Biosensors and Diagnostics 97
6.5 Radiofrequency Identifi cation (RFID) 99
6.6 Integrated Nanosensor Networks: Detection and Response 100
VIII Contents
6.7 Conclusions 102
References 103
7 Nanotechnologies for Improving Food Quality, Safety, and Security 107
Douglas K.R. Robinson and Mark Morrison
7.1 Introduction 107
7.2 Improving Quality, Safety, and Security of Agricultural Production 107
7.3 Improving Quality, Safety, and Security in Food Processing 112
7.4 Improving Quality, Safety, and Security in Packaging and Distribution 117
7.5 Wrapping Up 122
References 122
8 Food Functionality and the Physics of Bionanotechnology: Some Examples and Challenges 127
Erik van der Linden
8.1 Introduction: How Are Foods and Bionanotechnology Related? 127
8.2 Physics and Structures in Food Bionanotechnology 129
8.3 Fibrillar Structures 130
8.3.1 Protein-Based Fibrils 131
8.3.2 Extremely Low-Weight Gels Using Fibrils 132
8.3.3 Helix-Based Fibrils in Gelatin Gels 132
8.3.4 Fibrils in Oil 133
8.3.5 Fibril-Enforced Composite Structures 133
8.4 Plate-Like Structures 133
8.5 Spherically Symmetric Structures 135
8.5.1 Protein Fractal Structures in Water 135
8.5.2 Micelles 135
8.5.3 Spherically Symmetric Fractal Structures in Oil 136
8.6 Bicontinuous Structures in Protein–Polysaccharide Systems 136
8.7 Gastronomy and the Nanodomain: Molecular Gastronomy 137
8.7.1 Introduction 137
8.7.2 Recent Developments 140
8.7.2.1 Signatures of Creative Methods at El Bulli 141
8.7.3 A Structured and Scientifi c Approach to Molecular Gastronomy: Back to Nano 142
8.8 Conclusions 145
References 145
9 Products and Their Commercialization 149
Betty Bugusu, Ursula Vanesa Lay Ma, and John D. Floros
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Investment in Nanotechnology Research 150
Contents IX
9.3 Innovations in Food and Agriculture Nanotechnology 152
9.4 Nanotechnology Commercialization 155
9.4.1 The Path to Commercialization 156
9.4.1.1 Ideas and Concepts 156
9.4.1.2 Research and Product Development: Design, Modeling, and Simulation 156
9.4.1.3 Standardization 157
9.4.1.4 Safety Assessment and Regulatory Issues 157
9.4.1.5 Manufacturing – Scale-Up 158
9.4.1.6 Final Product Realization and Marketing 159
9.4.1.7 Intellectual Property 159
9.4.2 Challenges to Commercialization 160
9.4.2.1 Public Acceptance and Societal Implications 161
9.5 Current and Emerging Markets 162
9.5.1 Market Strategies for New Technology Products 165
9.5.1.1 Market Strategies for Evolutionary Technologies 165
9.5.1.2 Market Strategies for Disruptive Technologies 165
9.6 Conclusions 166
References 167
Part 4 Nanotechnology and Society 171
10 Toxicology of Nanomaterials in Food 173
Bernadene A. Magnuson and Hans Bouwmeester
10.1 Introduction 173
10.2 What Makes Nanomaterials Special? 173
10.3 Characterization of Engineered Nanomaterials 174
10.3.1 Unique Issues for Characterization of Engineered Nanomaterials for Food Applications 175
10.4 Safety Assessment of Oral-Exposure Engineered Nanomaterials for Food Application 176
10.4.1 Experimental Design Considerations for Toxicology Studies 176
10.4.2 Toxicokinetics 178
10.4.2.1 Absorption 178
10.4.2.2 Distribution 180
10.4.2.3 Metabolism 180
10.4.2.4 Excretion 181
10.4.3 Toxicodynamics 181
10.4.3.1 In Vivo Toxicity 182
10.4.3.2 In Vitro Toxicity 182
10.4.3.3 Study Reliability 183
10.5 Conclusions 183
References 185
X Contents
11 Nanomaterials in Food and Food Contact Materials – Potential Implications for Consumer Safety and Regulatory Controls 191
Qasim Chaudhry, Laurence Castle, and Richard Watkins
11.1 Background 191
11.2 Nanomaterials Likely to be Used in Food and Related Applications 192
11.2.1 Inorganic Nanomaterials 192
11.2.2 Surface-Functionalized Nanomaterials 193
11.2.3 Organic Nanomaterials 193
11.3 Potential Consumer Safety Implications 194
11.4 Current and Projected Applications for Food 196
11.4.1 Processed Nanostructures in Foodstuffs 197
11.4.2 Nano-sized Food Additives 198
11.4.3 Applications for Food Packaging 199
11.4.4 Applications in Food Production 201
11.5 Implications for Regulatory Frameworks 202
11.6 Conclusions 204
References 205
12 Environmental Considerations of and Societal Reactions to Nanotechnology in the Food Sector 209
Michael Siegrist, Bernd Nowack, and Hans Kastenholz
12.1 Introduction 209
12.2 Life Cycle of Nanotechnology Food Products 210
12.2.1 Food 211
12.2.2 Packaging 211
12.2.3 Agriculture 212
12.2.4 Non-Food Sector 212
12.3 Occurrence of Engineered Nanoparticles in the Environment 213
12.3.1 Environmental Behavior of Nanoparticles 214
12.3.2 Toxicology of Nanoparticles 215
12.4 How Should Society Deal with Uncertainty? 216
12.4.1 Public Perception of Nanotechnology 217
12.4.2 Scientists and Industrial Perspective 219
12.5 Conclusions 219
References 220
13 Nanotechnology and Food Allergy 225
E.N. Clare Mills, Yuri Aleexev, and Alan R. Mackie
13.1 Introduction 225
13.2 Molecules in Foods Involved in Triggering Allergies 226
13.2.1 Plant Food Allergens 227
13.2.1.1 Prolamin Superfamily 227
13.2.1.2 Cupin Superfamily 228
13.2.1.3 Bet v 1 Family 228
Contents XI
13.2.1.4 Profi lins 228
13.2.2 Animal Food Allergens 228
13.2.2.1 Tropomyosins 228
13.2.2.2 Parvalbumins 229
13.2.2.3 Caseins 229
13.3 Food Structure, Processing, and Food Allergy 229
13.3.1 Molecular Effects of Food Processing on Allergenicity 230
13.3.2 Macroscopic Effects of Food Processing on Allergenicity 232
13.3.2.1 Natural Cellular Structures 232
13.3.2.2 Processed Food Structures 233
13.3.3 Molecular and Macroscopic Effects of Processing on Allergenicity of Foods 234
13.4 Impact of Nanoscale Structures on Allergenic Potential of Foods 235
13.5 Conclusions 236
Acknowledgments 237
References 237
14 Communication of Risks and Benefi ts of Nanotechnology: the Issue of Societal Acceptance of Emerging Technologies 243
Lynn J. Frewer, Arnout R.H. Fischer, and J.(Hans)C.M. van Trijp
14.1 Introduction 243
14.2 Science and Society: Lessons for Nanotechnology Applied to Food Production 246
14.3 A Short Introduction to the Psychology of Risk–Benefi t Perception 248
14.4 How do People Form Perceptions of New Technologies 250
14.5 Nanotechnology Communication in the Business Context 252
14.6 Conclusion 254
References 255
15 Public Engagement with Emerging Issues in Agri-Food Nanotechnology 257
Lynn J. Frewer, Arnout R.H. Fischer, and Gene Rowe
15.1 Introduction 257
15.2 What Is “Public Engagement”? 258
15.3 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Public and Stakeholder Engagement 260
15.4 Public Engagement Examples 262
15.5 Recommendations for Conducting Public Engagement and Public Consultation Exercises 264
Appendix 266
Glossary 266
References 268
XII Contents
16 Nano-Ethics 271
Roger Strand
16.1 Introduction: Historical Background 271
16.2 Identifying and Avoiding Unethical Nanotechnological Products 273
16.3 Ensuring Ethical Nanotechnological Research, Innovation, and Production 275
16.4 Nano-Ethics as the Question of the Good Nanotechnology Society 276
16.5 Conclusion: The Ethical Challenge Ahead for the Nano-Agri-Food Sector 278
Acknowledgments 279
References 280
17 Evolving Best Practice in Governance Policy – Developing Consumer Confi dence in Risk Analysis Applied to Emerging Technologies 283
Hans J.P. Marvin, Hans Bouwmeester, Gijs A. Kleter, Lynn J. Frewer, and
Meike T.A. Wentholt
17.1 Introduction 283
17.2 Introduction to Food Safety Governance 284
17.2.1 General Principles of Risk Analysis 284
17.2.1.1 Risk Assessment 284
17.2.1.2 Risk Management 285
17.2.1.3 Risk Communication 286
17.2.2 Risk Analysis in Europe – the European Commission’s Scientifi c Steering Committee Model 286
17.3 Potential Innovations to the Risk Analysis Framework as Proposed by SAFE FOODS 288
17.3.1 The SAFE FOODS Project 288
17.3.2 The SAFE FOODS Risk Analysis Framework 289
17.3.3 Stakeholders’ Views on the New Risk Analysis Framework 290
17.4 Risk Analysis and Nanotechnology 291
17.4.1 Background of Nanotechnology 292
17.4.2 Historic Picture of Nanoparticle Safety in Relation to Risk Analysis and Good Governance 293
17.4.2.1 Risk Assessment 294
17.5 Recommendations 295
Acknowledgments 296
References 297
Index 301
XIII
Yuri Aleexev Institute of Food Research Norwich Research Park, Colney Norwich NR4 7UA UK
Aart van Amerongen Wageningen University and Research Centre Food and Biobased Products Biomolecular Sensing and Diagnostics Bornse Weilanden 9 6708 WG Wageningen The Netherlands
Remko M. Boom Wageningen University and Research Centre Food Process Engineering Group Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Department P.O. Box 8129 6700 EV Wageningen The Netherlands
List of Contributors
Hans Bouwmeester Wageningen University and Research Centre RIKILT – Institute of Food Safety Akkermaalsbos 2 6708 WB Wageningen The Netherlands
Betty Bugusu Institute of Food Technologists 525 West Van Buren Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60607 USA
Laurence Castle The Food and Environment Research Agency Sand Hutton York YO41 1LZ UK
Qasim Chaudhry The Food and Environment Research Agency Sand Hutton York YO41 1LZ UK
XIV List of Contributors
Enda Cummins University College Dublin Biosystems Engineering UCD School of Agriculture Food Science and Veterinary Medicine Belfi eld Dublin 4 Ireland
Arnout R.H. Fischer Wageningen University and Research Centre Department of Social Sciences Marketing and Consumer Behaviour Group Hollandseweg 1 6706 KN Wageningen The Netherlands
John D. Floros The Pennsylvania State University Food Science Department Food Science Building University Park PA 16802 USA
Lynn J. Frewer Food and Society Centre for Rural Economy School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development Newcastle University Agriculture Building Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU UK
Wageningen University and Research Centre Department of Social Sciences Marketing and Consumer Behaviour Group Hollandseweg 1 6706 KN Wageningen The Netherlands
Frans W.H. Kampers Wageningen University and Research Centre Wageningen Bionanotechnology Centre (BioNT) P.O. Box 8026 6700 EG Wageningen The Netherlands
Hans Kastenholz EMPA Environmental Risk Assessment and Management Group Lerchenfeldstrasse 5 9014 St. Gallen Switzerland
Gijs A. Kleter Wageningen University and Research Centre RIKILT – Institute of Food Safety Akkermaalsbos 2 6708 WB Wageningen The Netherlands
Ursula Vanesa Lay Ma The Pennsylvania State University Food Science Department Food Science Building University Park, PA 16802 USA
Erik van der Linden Wageningen University and Research Centre Food Physics Group Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Department Bomenweg 2 6703 HD Wageningen The Netherlands
List of Contributors XV
Alan R. Mackie Institute of Food Research Norwich Research Park Colney Norwich NR4 7UA UK
Bernadene A. Magnuson Cantox Health Sciences International 2233 Argentia Road Suite 308 Mississauga Ontario, L5N 2X7 Canada
Hans J.P. Marvin Wageningen University and Research Centre RIKILT – Institute of Food Safety Akkermaalsbos 2 6708 WB Wageningen The Netherlands
E.N. Clare Mills Institute of Food Research Norwich Research Park Colney Norwich NR4 7UA UK
Mark Morrison Institute of Nanotechnology Lord Hope Building 141 St James Road Glasgow G4 0LT UK
Willem Norde Wageningen University and Research Centre Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Colloid Science Chemistry Building, Dreijenplein 6 6703 HB Wageningen The Netherlands
University of Groningen University Medical Center Hanzeplein 1 9713 GZ Groningen The Netherlands University of Groningen Antonius Deusinglaan 1 9713 AV Groningen The Netherlands
Bernd Nowack EMPA Environmental Risk Assessment and Management Group Lerchenfeldstrasse 5 9014 St. Gallen Switzerland
Niall O ’ Brien University College Dublin Biosystems Engineering UCD School of Agriculture Food Science and Veterinary Medicine Belfi eld Dublin 4 Ireland
Geertruida A. Posthuma - Trumpie Wageningen University and Research Centre Food and Biobased Products Biomolecular Sensing and Diagnostics Bornse Weilanden 9 6708 WG Wageningen The Netherlands
XVI List of Contributors
Douglas K.R. Robinson Institute of Nanotechnology Lord Hope Building 141 St James Road Glasgow G4 0LT UK
Gene Rowe Wageningen University and Research Centre Department of Social Sciences Marketing and Consumer Behaviour Group Hollandseweg 1 6706 KN Wageningen The Netherlands
Michael Siegrist ETH Z ü rich Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED) Consumer Behavior Universit ä tstrasse 22 8092 Z ü rich Switzerland
Roger Strand University of Bergen Centre for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities P.O. Box 7805 N - 5020 Bergen Norway
Pieter Stroeve University of California Davis Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science 1 Shields Avenue Davis, CA 95616 USA
J.(Hans)C.M. van Trijp Wageningen University and Research Centre Department of Social Sciences Marketing and Consumer Behaviour Group Hollandseweg 1 6706 KN Wageningen The Netherlands
Richard Watkins The Food and Environment Research Agency Sand Hutton York YO41 1LZ UK
Meike T.A. Wentholt Wageningen University and Research Centre Department of Social Sciences Marketing and Consumer Behaviour Group Hollandseweg 1 6706 KN Wageningen The Netherlands