nanotechnology and its use in medicine

8/8/2019 Nanotechnology and Its Use in Medicine

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NANOTHECNOLOGY AND ITS USE IN MEDICINE

SHISHIR RAMKUMAR


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Praxis Business School

Nanotechnology and its use in medicine

A Report

Submitted to

Dr. Prithwis Mukherjee

In partial fulfillment of the course

Business Information System

On

7th

November 2010

By

Shishir Ramkumar


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Table of content

No. Contents Page No.

1. Abstract 4

2. Introduction 5

3. History of nanotechnology 54. Nanomedicine 6

5. Drug delivery 6

6. Protein and Peptide delivery 7

7. Uses of nanoparticles 8

8. Neuro-electronic interface in nanotechnology 11

9. How nanotechnology has revolutionized medicine 12

10. Conclusion and the way forward 15

11. References 15


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ABSTRACT

Nanotechnology is the science of the very small. There have been many developments in the recent past

taking this technology from the science fiction books to reality. This paper discusses the various aspects

of nanotechnology especially in medicine and how it is helping humans cure diseases that have plagued

us since time immorial. Also discussed here is the different technologies used and under development

which will aid the medical world for curing patients faster and in an easier manner


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INTRODUCTION

The use of Nanotechnology in medicine offers some exiting possibilities. Some of the techniques are only

imagined, where as others are in various stages of development or actually being used today.

Nanotechnology involves the use of nano particles, currently under development, as well as the use ofmanufactured nano robots for repairs at the cellular level

Whatever we can call it the use of nanotechnology in the field of medicine can revolutionize the way we

detect and treat damages in the human body and disease in the future, and many techniques only

imagined a few years ago are making remarkable progress towards becoming a reality

HISTORY OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Human have unwittingly used nanotechnology for thousands of years. For example in the production of

steel, vulcanized rubber or in painting. Each of these processes rely on the properties of stochastically

formed atomic ensembles mere nano meters in size. They are different from chemistry because these

particles do not rely on the properties of the individual molecules. The first mention of some of the

distinguishing concepts in nano technology was in 1867 by James Clerk Maxwell, when he proposed a

thought experiment, the use of a tiny entity known as the Maxwell Demon in handling individual molicules

The first observations and size measurements of the nano particle was made in the 1st

decade of the 20th

century. They are mostly associated with the German physicist Richard Adolf Zsigmondy who made a

detailed study of Gold Sols and other nano materials whose size was less than 10nm. He published his

book in 1914. He used the Ultramicroscope that employs the dark field method for seeing the particles

with sizes much lesser than the wavelength of light. He was also the first to use the nanometer explicitly

for the characterizing the size of the particle. He established it as 1/1000000th of a millimeter. He also

developed the first system of classification based on the size of the particle in the nanometer range.

There have been many significant developments during the 20th

century in characterizing nano material

and related phenomena belonging to the field of interface and collide science. In the 1920s Irving

Langmuir and Katherine B. Boldgett introduced the concept of monolayer, a layer of material one

molecule thick. Langmuir won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work.

The term Nanotechnology was first defined by Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo University in 1947. It is defined

as follows: Nanotechnology mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and

deformation of material by one atom or one molecule. Since that time the definition of nanotechnology

has be extended to include features as large as 100nm. Also the idea off nanotechnology accepts the

structures exhibiting quantum mechanical aspects such as quantum dots.

The topic of Nanotechnology was again touched upon by physicist Richard Feynman when he gave a talkon the topic There is plenty of room at the bottom on December 29th, 1959. In this talk he decribed a

process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one

set of precise tools to build and develop another smaller set, and so on down to the needed scale. In this

course he noted that scaling problems might arise from the changing magnitude of various physical

phenomena: Gravity would become less important and the Van der Waals attraction would become more

important, etc. Van der Waals attraction is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules


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other than those due to covalent bonds or to the electrostatic interaction of ions with one another or with

neutral molecules. These include:

y Force between two permanent dipoles

y Force between one permanent dipole and one induced dipole

y Force between 2 instantaneously induced dipoles.

These forces are weaker compared to the chemical bonds but play a very important role in

Nanotechnology. The basic idea put forward by Richard Feynman appears feasible and exponential

assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce useful quality of the end product. At the end of the

speech, Feynman proposed 2 challenges for which he offered $1000 each for solving. The first was to

build a nanomotor and the second to construct letters so small that the entire Encyclopedia Britannica

could be fitted onto a structure as small as a needle head. To his surprise the Nanomotor was built by

November 1960 by William McLellan. And the second challenge was successfully completed by Tom

Newman in 1985.

In 1965 Gordon Moore observed that the Silicon Transistors were undergoing a continual process ofscaling downwards. This observation was later codified as Moores Law. Since his observation the size

of Silicon Transistors have decreased from 10 micrometers to 65 nanometers. And the minimum feature

of a silicon transistor is 180 atoms.

NANOMEDICINE

Nano medicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. It ranges from the use of nano materials in

medical application to nanoelectric biosensors. Nanotechnology in medicine is now moving towards

Molecular Nanotechnology and its applications. Nanotechnology in medicine has been receiving funding

from the US government and the National Health Institute. In 2006 the journal Natural Materialsestimated that 130 nanotechnology based drugs and delivery systems were being developed worldwide.

The current problems with nanotechnology are issues related to toxicity and environmental impact that

the technology has.

DRUG DELIVERY

Nanomedical approach of drug delivery centers on developing nanoscale particles or molecules to

improve drug bioavailability. Bioavailability refers to the availability of drug molecules where they are

needed and where they would do most good in the human body. Drug delivery focuses on maximizing

bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This can be achieved

potentially by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices which is all about targeting damage

causing molecules and delivering the drugs to those cells with precision. But more than $65 billion are

wasted every year due to bad bioavailability. In Vivo imaging is another field where nano tools and

devices are being used. They are now using Nano-diamonds for more precision and high resolution

imaging. The new methods of nanoengineered materials maybe effective in treating fatal diseases such

as cancer and even AIDS. With the current rate at which inventions are made, no one knows what the

scientists and engineers in the field of Nanotechnology would come up with in the future. There are

predictions however that in the near future, nanoscientists would be able to create self assembling


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biocompatible nanodevices that will that will detect, evaluate, treat and report back to the clinical doctor

automatically about the disease for which they have been used.

Lipid or polymer based nanoparticles can be created to improve the therapeutic properties of drugs. The

strength of the drug delivery system is the ability to alter the bioavailability of the drug. Nanoparticles can

aid in this as they have unusual properties. As the nanoparticles are smaller than the cell itself, they are

accepted by the cell. Whereas larger particles are either rejected or are cleared by the body. There is alot of complex drug delivery system being developed to ensure that the particles have been taken through

the cell membrane right into the cytoplasm. This is very important because many diseases affect the

various processes within the cell and use them to spread across the body. These diseases can only be

impeded if the drugs are delivered right into the cell. One of the many ways of drug delivery is the

Triggered Response. In this the drugs are placed in the body and only activate when a particular signal is

given. This is illustrated in the following example. A drug which has a poor solubility can be replaced by a

drug delivery system which can exist in both a hydrophilic and hydrophobic environment. This will

increase the solubility of the drug and increase the efficiency of the delivery system. If the drug delivery is

not regulated it can cause tissue damage as too much of the drug is given to the patient. Regulated

release can solve the problem. There is also the problem of the drug being cleared quickly from the body.

This can happen because of wrong delivery of the drug or higher dosage of the drug. But with regulated

drug delivery system the dosage can be controlled and the bad side effects of high dosage can be

eliminated. This can be done by altering the pharmacokinetics of the Drug. Tissues can be damaged due

to poor biodistribution through widespread distribution of the drug. But the particulates from the drug

delivery system can solve this problem as they lower the volume of distribution and reduce the effect on

non target tissues.

One of the many major impacts of nanomedicine would be the invention and use of nanodrugs which will

have high success rate in curing diseases and low or no side effects. But this is still just a thought as it

has not been achieved yet. May nanoscientists and nanomedical experts are working towards making

materials which will have the above mentioned characteristics. If invented they could solve the age old

diseases that have plagued humanity since the beginning.

PROTEIN AND PEPTIDE DELIVERY

Protein and peptide exert multiple actions on the human body and have been shown to have great

promise in the treatment of various diseases and disorders. These macromolecules are called

biopharmaceuticals. Targeted delivery of these molecules using nanomaterials like nanoparticles and

Dendrimers is called nanobiopharmaceutics, and these particles are called nanobiopharmaceuticles.

DENDRIMERS

Dendrimers are a new class of polymeric materials which are highly branched. The structures of these

materials have a great impact on their physical and chemical properties. Due to this they have a very

useful role in biomedical application. A dendrimer is usually symmetrical around a core and has a

spherical 3 dimensional morphology. The name has been derived from the Greek word Dendron which


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mean tree. It is very similar to the dendrons that we find in the nerve cells. The difference is shown in the

figure below

Fig 1. Dendrimer and Dendron

VARIOUS USES OF NANOPARTICLES

1. CANCER DETECTION AND CURE

Due to the small size of the nanoparticles, they have various different uses in oncology or cancer

therapy. Quantum Dots (nanoparticles with quantum properties such as light emission), when

used with MRI (Magenetic Resonance Imaging), can produce high definition imaging of the tumor

site. This is because the particles are much brighter than organic dyes and they need only one

light source to get excited and start emitting light of their own. This could mean a lot of money

being saved as the quantum dots which are fluorescent produce higher contrast imaging that the

organic dyes. Plus the costs of the dyes are so high that higher quantities are required for goodresolution pictures but high quantity of the dyes can cause side effects in the body and cause

distress for the patient. But there is a down side to the use of quantum dots. They are usually

made out of toxic materials. There is work under way to make these quantum ddots out of

materials which a not harmful to the human body. Once that is available in the medical market,

the cure of cancer will become faster, cheaper and easier. This process of using quantum dots to

detect cancer is shown below


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Fig. 2: a diagram that shows nanoparticles or other cancer drugs might be able to treat cancer.

Due to the high surface area to volume ration, nanoparticles can be used to seek out and bind the cancer

cells. And also due to their small size they can be used to accumulate at the cancer site and surround thetumor cell. But at the current moment, these particles are just being used to detect the cells. There are a

host of different ideas being experimented on to enable these particles to do more than just detect the

tumor. Work is in progress in the development of nanoparticles that will detect and destroy the cancer

cells. This process is illustrated in Fig. 2. One of the many different ideas is to use is the Kanzius RF

therapy. In this the microscopic nanopraticles attach themselves to a cancer tumor and cook the tumor

by producing radio waves which heat only the nanoparticle and the cancer cell near it.


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Another use is to detect the cancer cells as early as possible. There can be sensor test chps with

thousands of micro wires which can detect the protein and other chemical biomarkers left behind the

cancer cells. This can help in detecting the cancer cells in the earliest stage when there are only a few

cells in the blood.

Another method which has been tested on mise is the use of gold coated nanoshells. In a research

conducted by Rice Universitys Prof. Jennifer West, 120 nm diameter nanoshells have been used to curecancer in mice. This nanoshell is coated with gold and is targeted to bond with the cancerous cells by

producing antibodies or peptides to the nanoshell surface. Once the nanoshell has bonded to the cancer

cell, a infrared laser is shot at the cell through the surface of the skin without burning it. The laser heats

the gold to a temperature high enough to kill the cancer cells.

Fig 3. Gold coated nanoshell synthesis.

Another scientist of Michigan University, James Baker has developed a technology by which accurate

efficient drug delivery is possible for cancer treatment. He has developed molecules called Dendrimers.

These molecules have numerous hooks. Few of the hooks are coated with folic acid ( it is a vitamin which

is naturally released by the body). The Dendrimers are then released into the area where the cancer is

located. As Cancer cells have a higher affinity towards folic acid, the hooks coated with them attaches

itself to the cancerous cell. It is then absorbed into the cancer cell. The other hooks are coated with drugs


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which cure cancer. Once inside the cancer cell the drugs take effect and kill the cells. This is a highly

effective way of delivering cancer curing drugs.

2. USES IN SURGURY

Again in the research stage, nanotechnology and nanoparticles can be used to fuse flesh

together. In an experiment conducted by the researches of Rice University, 2 pieces of chicken

flesh were placed together, touching each other. A greenish liquid which contains goald coated

nanoshells is trickled over the seam where the 2 pieces touch. Then an infra red laser is used to

trace the seam. This causes the two sides to weld together. This can solve the difficulties that

arise due to blood leaks, which occur during highly sensitive and complicated surgeries like a

heart transplant or a kindly transplant. The surgeon will have to cut the arteries during the

process and restitching thing again will cause the blood loss.

3. NANOPARTICLETARGETING

Nanopartilce technology is a very promising tool in advancement of drug delivery medical imaging

and as diagnostic sensors. But biodistribution of these particles is not yet possible as we do not

have the technology to target specific organs in the body. This is different from targeting on

cancer cells because, there the target cells are easier to target because of the chemical

composition, which is different from that of its surrounding cells. But research is on and some

findings show the ability of gold composites to selectively target certain organs in the body

according to size and charge. The research used positively and negatively charged gold

nanoparticles. The positively charged nano particles were found entering the kidneys and the

negatively charged nanoparticles were found entering the liver and spleen. This showed that thepositively charged nanoparticle affected the liver and the excretory pathway. Even thought the

particles are very small about 5nm in size, they accumulate in the liver over time and can be toxic

to the body as they are made from highly toxic chemicals.

NEURO-ELECTRONIC INTERFACES IN NANOTECHNOLOGY

This is a visionary goal that deals with the building of nanodevices and nanomachines that will allow

computers to be linked to the nervous system. This will work when a molecular structure is built that can

permit the detection and control of the nervous impulses by an external computer. This computer will alsobe able to interpret, register and respond to the impulse given off by the body when it feels sensation.

This will be very helpful in curing many diseases because many diseases cause the decay of the nervous

system. Also many injuries and accidents that cause damage to the nervous system resulting in a

dysfunctional system and paraplegia. The molecules can help the computer and control the nervous

system through neuro-electric interface and can overcome the effects of the injuries. While selecting the

application, the power source has to be kept in mind. The power source and be either refuelable or non

refuelable. In a refulable application, the energy is continuously or periodically refilled with external sonic,

magnetic, chemical or electrical sources. A non refuelable application is that which will have its own fuel


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system but it wwill stop working when the fuel runs out. Thus these two strategies have to be adopted

while using the neuro-electronic interfaces.

There are a few limitations to this technology. One is the interference from electrical fields such has In

Vivo machines, and electromagnetic impulses. To prevent it from affecting the interface, additional

insulation is required. Also a thick wiring is required to conduct electrical charges without overheating.

The wiring of the structure is also very difficult because they have to be placed precisely with the nervoussystem to monitor and respond to the nervous impulse. For this to happen there has to be a structure built

that will hold it in position. But the structure then has to be compatible with the immune system of the

body so that it doesnt get rejected by the body as an external body. A lot of research is being done on

this but very little progress has been made so far. But the medical use of this and the economic value of

this invention is so great that researchers have not abandoned hope and continue researching and trying

to make it a reality that can be used by the common man.

HOW NANOTECHNOLOGY IS REVOLUTIONIZING MEDICINE

As science advances it makes it easier to make objects which are smaller and more complex than everbefore. These can be very helpful in various fields such as nanomedicine and nanoengineering. Also with

nanodevices being developed right now, they can enter the body and look around in ways that large

humans can only dream about. There are a few of these ways that have revolutionized medicine. Those

are

1. Nanobots: These are devices that have great potential in medical use. It is basically the

technology of creating machines or robots which are of the microscopic scale. Since they are

microscopic in size they are required in large numbers to perform tasks in the macro scale. This

technology is still largely science fiction but research is underway to robots which can replicate

itself when it comes in contact with the target disease cell. The other use of these nanobots could

be to build other nanobots making then really cost effective.

fig3 a nanobot


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2. Nanocomputers: this is a necessity as they will be used to direct nanobots in their work. These

special computers would have to be built parallel to the nanorbot development. Efforts to creat

nanocomputers are already underway and there is a movement towards quantum computing,

which is likely to continue to provide processes and possibilities for the science of medicine.

Fig 4 nanocomputers

3. Cell repair: as the cells are incredibly small, damage to the cells can be very difficult to repair.

But nanotechnology could and has provided ways by which the cells can be repaired without the

patient undergoing complex surgeries. This can be done by the use of nanobots. Small nanobots

can manipulate the structure of the molecules and atoms and can repair the cell from within the

body.


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fig 5: nanobot repairing cells.

4. Cancer treatment: as discussed before nanotechnology has a high potential in cancer

treatment. This is because of the inherent properties of the nanodevices and nanoparticles which

can help in the treatment of the cancer cells. The current technology of chemotherapy destroys

the cells surrounding the cancer cells. But with advances in nanotechnology and also the drug

delivery mechanism of nanotechnology the cure of cancer can become less painfull and more

effective without side effects.

5. Aging: nanodevices can be used to erase some signs of aging. As mentioned before they are

being used in cell repair technology. Aging is the natural process in which the cells in the body

loose the ability to repair themselves over time. Thus with the application of nanotechnology in

items such as anti aging creams and in nanorobotics, aging can not only be slowed but also

stopped altogether. This does not mean that the humans can attain immortality. The application

of this technology is restricted to superficial usage. There is a lot of research going on in this field

for the cosmetic industry.

6. Heart diseases: some form of nanotechnology has been used already in curing heart diseases.

One of these are the pace makers being used. But nanotechnology can go further in curing many

heart related diseases. Nanobots again can be used o repair damaged heart cells and also beused to clean up major arteries which get clogged because of cholesterol deposition.

7. Virtual reality: virtual reality is now being used to explore the interiors of the human body. By

injecting nanobots which have the capability to transmit real time images from inside the human


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body. The doctors can control these nanobots and see what is happening inside the body with

really accurate cameras.

8. Gene Therapy: at the moment nanotechnology is creating particles which are of the cellular

level. It is possible to creat particles or even nanobots which are so small that they are smallerthan the human DNA. They can be used to alter the human genome. This has many medical

applications because it can cure hereditary diseases such as cancer, alzimers and diabetes. But

there is a major ethical question that has to be answered. Also the human genome is not yet fully

understood. Hence the research on this technology will gain momentum only if the two above

mentioned problems are solved.

9. Medical monitoring: nanotechnology can increase the ability of the body to monitor its own

bodily functions. Also it will give us a clear idea about each part functions and how they can be

controlled. This can be done by implanting small nanochips which can monitor the bodily

functions and send data to a computer or any other device such as cell phones and laptops.

People can get alerts about their bodily functions when they wish to. Major heart atta cs can be

prevented by this technology.

10. Prenatal diagnosis: there are a number of ways nanotechnology can help in prenatal detection

and cure. Being able to get inside the uterus and even inside the fetus without causing trauma an

really be helpful in diagnosis. The parents can know whether their child is healthy or has some

disease which can be fatal for the child as he or she grows up. In care of accidents where the

uterus and the child inside can be harmed, nanotechnology can be used to repair it and prevent

the loss of the child and the mother. Also in case of infertility, the nanobots can be used to detect

the problem and cure it increasing the ability of the mother to have children

CONCLUSION AND THE WAY FORWARD

There are many uses of nanotechnology in medicine as discusses above. Many of these technologies are

still in the research stage or in the stage of the researchers mind ie. In the form of an Idea. A lot of

research is going into developing this technology. Not only for medicine, but in physics, chemistry,

defense, and day to day use, nanotechnology is being used. It has left the realms of science fiction books

and movies and has now become a reality. There is a lot of objection from various communities about the

misuse of this technology. But like the nuclear technology can be used both, for our benefit or for making

the nuclear bomb, nanotechnology can be used for both good and the bad. Thus regulated usage is amust for most of these technologies as in the wrong hands and used in the wrong way, they can cause

more damage than good for our society

REFERENCES

www.understandingnano.com


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http://files.nanobio-raise.org/Downloads/Nanomedicine-fullweb.pdf

http://www.foresight.org/COnferences/MNT11/Abstracts/Sullivan/index.html

http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/en/Online-discussions/Blogs/Nano-Rights-and-Peace/Regulatory-

challenges-of-nanomedicine

www.physorg.com/news144350075.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrimer

http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/SlideShow/slides/contents/gold.html

http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://www.coe.drexel.edu/ret/personalsites/2006/Stanisz/na

nobots1.jpg&imgrefurl/

http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://www.jordansparks.com/cellRepairRobot.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.jordansparks.com/

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