Name _____________________________________________________________________ Per________Test Date ________________

CHAPTER 1 –THEMES OF BIOLOGY, CHAPTER 2 – BASIC CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRYI. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY (pg. 16) Biology – the study of __________! Bio= life, logy = study of. Biology is rooted in the human spirit; people are attracted to life in its diverse forms. So, what makes something living? A. Characteristics of Life (pgs. 16 – 22) 1. Living things are made of _________.

a. Living organisms are grouped by the number of cells they contain. * ____________________ - single-celled organisms; ex. Bacteria, amoeba, paramecium

* ____________________ - organisms made up of more than one cell; ex. Humans, frogs, fish, insects, plants 2. Living things ___________________. a. If this did not occur, species would ________________. b. Two types of reproduction: * ___________________- in which two cells from different parents unite to produce the embryo. (exchange of genetic material) * ___________________- in which the new organism has a single parent. (no exchange of genetic material) 3. Living things ____________________________. a. Growth - all living things grow during at least part of their lives. Single celled organisms mostly grow by a simple increase in size. b. Development – describes _______________________ that take place during the lifetime of an organism.

4. Living things obtain and use __________________. a. Two main ways to obtain energy: *Some organisms obtain energy directly from the __________ and use it to make its own food, this process is called _______________________. ______________, some bacteria & protists use this process. *Other organisms have to obtain their energy fro the food they eat like, humans, other animals, and fungi use this process. b. One way to use energy: * All organisms use energy for ____________________ - the combination of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials as it carries out its life processes.

5. Living things ______________________________________. a. Organisms detect and respond to certain environmental cues or ____________. b. Two types of stimuli:

* ____________________ - come from the environment outside an organism (light and temperature). * ____________________ - come from within an organism (blood glucose level).

6. Living things maintain a __________________ internal environment. This is called _______________________ – “internal harmony”; maintaining a relatively stable internal environment.

7. Living things ____________________. As a group, however; any species can _________________, or change over time.

8. Living things contain a ______________________________ a. Deoxyribonucleic acid or _________ b. This genetic code determines the inherited traits of every organism on Earth.

B. Hierarchies of Organization – Life is highly organized into a hierarchy of structural levels, with each level building on the levels below it. As the hierarchy is explored, special qualities, called ________________________________ result from the structure at each level. 1. Biological Structure – Starting at the lowest level, ________________, the chemical building blocks of all matter, are ordered into complex biological ___________________. These biological molecules are arranged into minute structures called ____________, which are in turn the components of cells. The cell is the ______________________ of structure and function of all living things. In multicellular organisms, the order flows from cell ____________________ _____________________ _________________________ _______________________. 2. Cellular Organization – Cells can be organized as __________________________ (without a __________________ and membrane bound organelles), or _____________________________(with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles). 3. Kingdoms – Living things are organized by their structural complexity and placed into one of six kingdoms. Archaebacteria Eubacteria Protista _______________________________________________________________. 4. Biological Systems – There are levels of organization beyond the individual organism. For example… _________________________ ______________________ _______________________ _________________________ ___________________________ ________________________.

II. THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE (pp. 35-39) Organisms are composed of _______________, which is anything that takes up space and has mass. All matter is composed of elements, pure substances composed entirely of one type of atom and cannot be broken down by chemical reactions.

A. Elements 1. __________ naturally occurring elements in nature. 2. 4 make up approx. 96% of living matter: ___________________________________________. Sulfur and Phosphorus make up 3 %. These 6 elements are known as “SPONCH”. S – sulfur P – phosphorus O – oxygen N – nitrogen C – carbon H – hydrogen 3. Remaining 1% is composed of trace elements which are required by an organism in minute amounts. Ex. Iron (Fe), Iodine (I), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn)

B. Atoms

1. Nucleus a. center of atom b. ______________ which have a ____________ charge. c. ______________ which are _________________. d. overall charge of nucleus is _________

2. Electron cloud/orbital a. area surrounding nucleus b. __________________ are in constant motion in this space. c. electrons have a ___________________ charge; therefore attracted to the positively charged nucleus.

3. Charge of Atoms a. Have equal # of protons & electrons which makes the atom neutral b. ________________ - # of _______________ that the element contains. Ex. Atomic # of carbon (C) = 6

C. Compounds 1. Any substance consisting of two or more ___________________ combined in a fixed ratio. 2. Held together by ____________________________. 3. The reactivity of an atom and the type of bond that it forms are determined by the number of valence electrons it has.

D. Chemical Bonds – Atoms with incomplete valence shells can interact with one another by either sharing or transferring valence electrons. The strongest kinds of chemical bonds are covalent and ionic.

1. Covalent Bonds a. Formed by the _____________________ of valence electrons of two atoms. b. Results in very stable compounds called ______________________. c. Ex: H2O, glucose, DNA

2. Ionic Bonds a. One or more electrons are ____________________________ from one atom to another. b. Results in two oppositely charged particles called _________________. * an atom that ___________ electrons has a __________________ charge. * an atom that _____________ electrons has a ________________ charge. * attraction between ______________________ charged ions forms ionic bonds. * Ex: NaCl or table salt

III. Water – “Where there’s life…….there’s water!!” (pp. 40-43) Water is the most essential and abundant substance on Earth. Cells are made up of mostly water and most cells are surrounded by water. The importance of water is largely due to its unique characteristics, which all directly relate to one very important property of water… Water is POLAR!!!!

A. Polarity 1. Definition of Polarity a. The ________________________ of ______________________ in molecules formed with covalent bonds. b. How this works: A closer look at a water molecule. 1. Oxygen has _____ protons in its nucleus & each hydrogen has _____ proton in its nucleus. 2. 10 shared electrons will be more attracted to the more positively charged ________ nucleus; thus ____________ around the ________________ end of the molecule just about all the time. 3. The ________________ end will have a slightly ________________ charge. 4. The ___________________ ends will have a slightly ___________________ charge. 5. These are not ________________________ because the electrons are not transferred; just shared unequally.

2. Hydrogen “Bonds” a. Not a _____________ bond; does not form a new compound. b. Weak attraction between two POLAR molecules; like water. c. ____________________ between slightly _______________ charged hydrogen end of one ____________ molecule and the slightly _______________ charged end of another ______________ molecule. d. In water, the hydrogen bond occurs between the positively charged _____end of one water molecule and the negatively charged ______end of another water molecule.

e. These H - bonds are critical to the structure of water and therefore determine the _______________________ of water.

3. Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic a. Polar molecules are attracted to other ______________ molecules, and is therefore described as ___________________ “Hydro” = water, “Philic” = loving Ex: salts, sugars b. Non-polar molecules are attracted to other _________________________ and therefore REPEL polar molecules such as water. These are referred to as being ___________________ “Hydro” = water, “Phobic” = fearing Ex: fats, oils

B. Properties – Polarity gives water some unique properties important in maintaining _____________________________.

1. Cohesion – “Co” = together or “like”, and “sion” = “stick”. This is the attraction between _______________________ substances (water molecules sticking together). Results in surface tension – measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the _____________________________ of a liquid. This gives lakes and ponds a smooth surface for insects to walk on.

2. Adhesion – “Ad” = “unlike”. Adhesion is the clinging of water to ______________ substances. Ex: water on a penny; meniscus

3. High Specific Heat – amount of heat needed to raise the _______________ of 1 gram of water 1 degree C*. Water has a very _______ specific heat – it takes a lot of energy to raise the temp of water. This is crucial in ______________________ in living systems so that they can maintain homeostasis.

4. Heat of vaporization - transformation of a liquid to a gas is called ________________, or ____________________. As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down. Ex. Evaporation of ____________________ by a human; evaporation of water from the leaves of plants helps keep the tissues in the leaves from becoming too warm. (transpiration) 5. Ice Floats - Water is ________________ as a solid than as a liquid – therefore, it floats. While other materials ________________ as they solidify, water ______________. As the temperature reaches 0 degrees C*, water molecules become locked into a crystalline lattice, with each water molecule bonded to the maximum of 4 other water molecules. The H bonds keep the molecules at “arms length,” far enough apart to make ice 10% less dense than liquid water.

6. Water as a Solvent – water dissolves many substances due to its _______________. Water is known as a very _______________ solvent – other ____________________ substances dissolve very easily in water. This is important to living systems because many important compounds in cells are in solution.

pH Scale – tool used to measure the strength of an acid or a base, by measuring the concentration of H+ (hydrogen) ions and OH- (hydroxide ions.) - Acid – a substance that increases the _hydrogen ion (H + ) _ concentration of a solution. When acids are dissolved in water, they donate additional H+ to the solution. Ex. HCl H+ + Cl- - Base – a substance that __decreases__ the H+ concentration in a solution, thus increasing the _hydroxide_ion (OH - ) _ concentration. Ex. NaOH Na+ + OH-

IV. THE IMPORTANCE OF CARBON (pp. 44-45) Although a cell is composed of 70% to 95% _________________, most of the rest consists of _________________-based molecules. Carbon’s importance is due largely to the arrangement of its ________________.

A. Structure of Carbon 1. Atomic # 6; has 6 protons & 6 electrons; 2 in first shell & 4 in second 2. Has 4 _______________ electrons; so can make four ___________________ bonds. 3. Usually bonds with: __________________________________________________ 4. Can also form bonds with other ________________ atoms. 5. Compounds with carbon- carbon bonds are called _______________________; compounds not containing carbon are known as __________________________.

B. Biomolecules (also known as macromolecules) Organic molecules associated with living organisms 1. Polymers a. “poly” means ______________. b. polymer is a large molecule composed of ___________________ identical or similar building blocks.

2. Monomers a. “mono” means _____________. b. The sub- units, or ________________________ of polymers

3. Dehydration Synthesis (aka: Condensation Reaction) a. reaction that ______________________ bonds two or more molecules together. b. _____________ is released as a waste product.

4. Hydrolysis a. reaction that ___________________ the covalent bond between

two or more molecules. b. Requires the addition of __________________ .

5. Classes of biomolecules (macromolecules) are: a. _______________________ b. _____________________ c. _______________________ d. _____________________

V. CARBOHYDRATES (p. 45-46) A. Elements: contain the elements _______, ________, and ________. ; always in a 2:1 ratio of H atoms to O atoms (2H:1O) B. Monomer: monosaccharide C. Function: Carbohydrates are used for immediate and stored ____________________, as well as for _________________________. D. Food Source: ________________ & ___________________ E. Examples:

1. Monosaccharides “_______ - sugar” Simplest of all sugars. Although they vary in the number of ______ atoms that make up the molecule, the ratio of _____________ is always present.

a. 5-carbon monosaccharides – * ________________________ - found in ____________ * ________________________ - found in ______________.

b. 6-carbon monosaccharides – Examples are ____________________, ____________________, and __________________.

These three sugars all have the formula, _______________ and are known as _______________. Isomers have the same chemical formula, but the _____________ are arranged differently giving each molecule _______________________________.

1. Glucose – Preferred __________________ for most organisms, including humans. Made by plants; found in sports drinks. 2. Fructose - ________________________. Found in ___________________. 3. Galactose - _____________________________ of ____________________ sugar.

*Monosaccharides are the ______________ or building blocks for the more complex carbohydrates → ____________________* _____________________*

2. Disaccharides “______ sugars” a. ________ monosaccharides ______________________ bonded together through __________________________________. b. Examples: 1. Sucrose - ______________________. Composed of _________________________________ 2. Lactose - ______________________. Composed of _________________________________ 3. Maltose - ______________________.

Composed of _________________________________

3. Polysaccharides “_______ sugars” a. _____________ monosaccharides _________________________bonded together through dehydration synthesis. b. They are divided into two groups based on function: 1. Storage Polysaccharides – Long ________________ of ________________ broken down as needed for _______________ a. Glycogen – Storage form of _____________________ in __________________________. In humans, most glycogen is stored in _____________________ and _________________________ cells.

b. Starch – Storage form of _______________________ in ______________________. Humans are able to break down starch to its monomers of ___________________________ for energy.

2. Structural Polysaccharides – Used as a _________________________________________________ in many organisms a. Cellulose – Major component of _______________________________. Composed of monomers of ________________ covalently bonded together. The bonds between the glucose monomers in cellulose are arranged differently than those found in starch; therefore, humans cannot break down cellulose for __________________. It is still important to our diet as a source of _____________________.

b. Chitin – Major component of ________________ cell walls and the __________________ of insects and other arthropods.

VI. LIPIDS (pp. 46-47) Very diverse group of ______________________ molecules defined by their _______________________ in water. (waxy, fatty, or oily)

A. Elements: ________, __________, and __________, but lipids do not have the _______________ratio found in carbohydrates. B. Monomer: doesn’t really have oneC. Function: Our bodies need lipids for ________________________________________________________________________. D. Where found in the body: cell membrane, innermost layer of skin, surrounding some organsE. Food Source: butter, shortening, olive oil, etc.F. Examples: 1. Fats & Oils

a. Made up of ____________________________________________, joined together by _____________________ synthesis. b. Referred to as ___________ if lipid is solid at room temperature c. Referred to as ___________ if lipid is liquid at room temperature. d. Classified as ____________________________ if structure contains no carbon-carbon double bonds. e. Classified as ____________________________ if structure contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond. f. _____________________ fats have been linked to heart disease. Saturated fat Unsaturated fat

2.

Phospholipids Phospholipid a. Unique lipid because one end of the molecule is polar, but the other end is _________________. b. Primary component of all ____________________________.

3. Steroids a. Differ from other lipids in that they lack _____________________. b. Used for _____________________ production. c. An important example is ____________________________, which is found in the _______________________________ of animal cells.

VII. PROTEINS (pp. 47-53) A. Elements: _______________ B. Monomer: __________________ 1. Only ______ different amino acids combine in different __________________, ____________________, & _______________ 2. All 20 amino acids are _______________ except for a portion called the _____________________. 3. Proteins ______________ is important to its ___________________ & is determined by the interactions between R groups

C. Function: support, structure, protection, _____________________, _______________________, _____________________, cell identification & communication. D. Where found in the body: muscles, hair, skin, enzymes E. Food source: meats, peanuts, eggs F. Examples: 1. Enzymes a. biological _____________________ b. A catalyst ____________________ a chemical reaction without being __________________________. c. Could not maintain _________________________ without them. d. An enzyme works by lowering the ________________ energy, that is the energy required to get the reaction_____________. e. Enzymes share _______ common features:

1. Enzymes work best within a narrow ___________ and _______________ range. Ex: pepsin in stomach; pH = 2 2. Enzymes do not make a reaction happen that couldn’t happen on its own; they simply make the reaction occur much ___________________. 3. Enzymes are not _________________________________. The same enzyme may be used over and over again. 4. Enzymes are ____________________________. A substrate is the ________________. Enzymes are substrate -specific because of their _______________. The substrate fits into a portion of the enzyme called the __________________. This fit between the active site of the enzyme and the substrate allows enzymes to be specific for a certain type of reaction.

THE ENZYME SUBSTRATE COMPLEX

VIII. NUCLEIC ACIDS (pp. 47) Nucleotide

A. Elements: _______________________

B. Monomer: _______________________

1. Nucleotides Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a. ___________________________ b. ___________________________ c. ___________________________

C. Function: genetic instructions and usable energy

D. Where found in the body: mostly nucleus of cells (DNA, RNA), or cytosol (ATP)

E. Food source: none

F. Examples: 1. DNA a. Deoxyribonucleic Acid b. Composed of 2 ____________ of nucleotides covalently bonded together through dehydration synthesis. c. Twisted together to form a _____________________ structure. d. Contains the ____________________________________ for the cell.

2. RNA a. Ribonucleic Acid b. ______________ strand of nucleotides. c. ____________________________ the instructions in DNA.

3. ATP a. Adenosine Tri-Phosphate b. ________________ nucleotide.

WORD BANK:Active siteEnzymeSubstrateCovalent bondGlucoseFructose

c. Provides _________________ energy for the cell.