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Writers’ Resource

Name

Teacher

CKMS

S EC TI O N 1 GRAPH I C O R GA N IZ E R S F O R L IT E R A R Y A N ALYS I S SOAPSTONE GRAPHIC ORGANIZER FOR POETRY ANALYSIS .................................................4APPARTS GRAPHIC ORGANIZER .....................................................................................................5TPCASTT FOR ANALYSIS OF POETRY ...........................................................................................6DIDLS .....................................................................................................................................................7DIDLS EXAMPLES……………………………………………………………………………….…..8SIFT+D....................................................................................................................................................9AP-TWISTN ...........................................................................................................................................10AP TWISTIN GRAPHIC ORGANIZER RUBRIC……...………………………………………..….11FLITD .....................................................................................................................................................12LITERARY ANNOTATIONS RUBRIC…………………………………………………………..…..13

S EC TI O N 2 R E AD IN G L IT E R A T U R E CLOSE READING QUESTIONS..........................................................................................................16RECIPROCAL TEACHING STRATEGIES .........................................................................................17CRITICAL READING OF PROSE PASSAGES ..................................................................................18PLOT DIAGRAM ..................................................................................................................................20PLOT ELEMENTS………………………………………………………………………………….….21

S EC TI O N 3 LITERARY CONVERSATIONS SOCRATIC SEMINAR QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................24SOCRATIC SEMINAR: GUIDELINES & SCORING RUBRIC .........................................................25POWER LIT CIRCLE JOB DESCRIPTIONS .......................................................................................26DAILY GROUP RECORD SHEET………………………………………………………………...….29RUBRIC FOR POWER LIT CIRCLE DISCUSSIONS……………………………………...…......….30

S EC TI O N 4 N O T E- T A K IN G T I PS SUMMARIZE, PARAPHRASE, OR QUOTE? .....................................................................................325 METHODS OF NOTE-TAKING ........................................................................................................33IN-DEPTH NOTE-TAKING GUIDE ....................................................................................................36

S EC TI O N 5 S E N T E N C E W RITI N G & GR A M M A R TI PS PARTS OF SPEECH..............................................................................................................................40PARTS OF SENTENCES ......................................................................................................................41RUN –ON SENTENCES .......................................................................................................................43SENTENCE TYPES...............................................................................................................................44NINE SENTENCE PATTERNS ...........................................................................................................46

S EC TI O N 6 F O R M A L W R I TI N G FORMAL WRITING GUIDELINES ....................................................................................................50RHETORICAL MODES .......................................................................................................................51WRITERS' WORKSHOP……………………………………………………………………………...52A GENERAL SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE’S GREEK APPEALS……………………………….58SORTING OUT ETHOS, PATHOS AND LOGOS…………..……………………………………..59PERSUASIVE CHECKLIST…………………………………………………………………………..60PERSUASIVE WRITING……………………………………………………………………………...61CHECKLIST FOR WRITING TO EXPLAIN (EXPOSITORY WRITING)…………………………..63

S EC TI O N 7 ELABORATION TECHNIQUES METHODS OF ELABORATION…………………………………………………..…………………66PERSUASIVE ELABORATION……………………………………………………..……………….69ELABORATION -- WRITING TO EXPLAIN (EXPOSITORY)…………...……..…………………71

S EC TI O N 8 W RI T I N G R U B R I C S LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY RUBRIC...........................................................................................74PEER EDITING EVALUATION…………………………………………………………………….75

S EC TI O N 9 F O R M A T T I N G G U I DES F O R TY P E D W O RK EXPECTATIONS FOR TYPED TEXT..................................................................................................78SAMPLE INFORMATION BLOCK AND PAGINATION…………………………………………...79

S EC TI O N 10 C IT A TI O N G U I D E S MLA CITATIONS: THE BASICS ...........................................................................................................82FORMATTING QUOTATIONS..............................................................................................................86WORKS CITED AND CITATION EXAMPLES ...................................................................................88A FINAL WORKS CITED PAGE ...........................................................................................................93EVALUATING WEB SOURCES…………………………………………………………………….....94WHAT IS PLAGIARISM? .......................................................................................................................95

S EC TI O N 11 T E ST T A K IN G S TR A T E G I ES TEST-TAKING STRATEGIES ...............................................................................................................98SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS FOR ESSAY TESTS ..................................................................................99SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS FOR OBJECTIVE TESTS ..........................................................................100

S EC TI O N 12 V O C AB U LA R Y L I S T S BABY WORDS ........................................................................................................................................102OVER 300 WAYS TO SAY "SAID"....................................................................................................... 103TRANSITION WORDS & PHRASES .....................................................................................................105FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE ................................................................................................................... 106SENSORY DESCRIPTION WORDS ......................................................................................................107TONE/ATTITUDE WORDS ....................................................................................................................108SPELLING: COMMON WORDS THAT SOUND ALIKE.....................................................................109LITERARY DEFINITIONS EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW………………...……………………….112

Section 1Graphic Organizersfor Literary Analysis

31.

SOAPSTone Graphic OrganizerPoem Title:

Literal (Denotative) Interpretive (Connotative)

SUBJECTText-based evidence: Text-based evidence:

OCCASIONText-based evidence: Text-based evidence:

AUDIENCEText-based evidence: Text-based evidence:

PURPOSEText-based evidence: Text-based evidence:

SPEAKERText-based evidence: Text-based evidence:

TONEText-based evidence: Text-based evidence:

42.

APPA R TS Gra p hic O rg a ni z e r Author

Place &Time

PriorKnowledge

Audience

Reasons

The MainIdea

Significance

53.

Using TPC A STT f o r An a l y sis of P o etry

T Title What do the words of the title suggest to you? What denotations are presented in thetitle? What connotations or associations do the words posses?

P Paraphrase

Translate the poem in your own words. What is the poem about?

C Connotation

What meaning does the poem have beyond the literal meaning? Fill in the chart below.

Form Diction Imagery

Point of View Details Allusions

Symbolism Figurative Language Other Devices(antithesis, apostrophe, sound

devices, irony, oxymoron, paradox, pun, sarcasm,

understatement)

A Attitude What is the speaker’s attitude? How does the speaker feel about himself, about others,and about the subject? What is the author’s attitude? How does the author feel aboutthe speaker, about other characters, about the subject, and the reader?

S Shifts Where do the shifts in tone, setting, voice, etc. occur? Look for time and place, keywords, punctuation, stanza divisions, changes in length or rhyme, and sentencestructure. What is the purpose of each shift? How do they contribute to effect and meaning?

T Title Reanalyze the title on an interpretive level. What part does the title play in the overallinterpretation of the poem?

T Theme List the subjects and the abstract ideas in the poem. Then determine the overall theme.The theme must be written in a complete sentence.

64.

DIDLS: T h e key to to n e Title of Passage:_ Author:

Denotative—Quotes from theselection

Connotations

Diction --the connotation of the word choice

What words does the author choose? Consider his/her word choice compared to another. Why did the author choose that particular word?

Images --vivid appeals to understanding through the senses - concrete language

What images does the author use? What does he/she focus on in a sensory (sight, touch, taste, smell, etc.) way? The kinds of images the author puts in or leaves out reflect his/her style? Are they vibrant? Prominent? Plain? NOTE: Images differ from detail in the degree to which they appeal to the senses.

Details --facts that are included or those that are omitted

What details are does the author choose to include? What do they imply? What does the author choose to exclude? What are the connotations of their choiceof details? PLEASE NOTE: Details are facts or fact-lets. They differ from images in that they don't have a strong sensory appeal.

Language --the overall use of language, such as formal, clinical, jargon

What is the overall impression of the language the author uses? Does it reflect education? A particular profession? Intelligence? Is it plain? Ornate? Simple? Clear? Figurative? Poetic? Make sure you don't skip this step.

Syntax --

(Sentence Structure) - how structure affects the reader's attitude

What are the sentences like? Are they simple with one or two clauses? Do they have multiple phrases? Are they choppy? Flowing? Sinuous like a snake? Is there antithesis, chiasmus, parallel construction? What emotional impressiondo they leave? If we are talking about poetry, what is the meter? Is there a rhyme scheme?

Tone

75.

D.I.D.L.S Examples

DICTION:

Laugh: guffaw, chuckle, titter, giggle, cackle, snicker, roarSelf-confident: proud, conceited, egotistical, stuck-up, haughty, smug, condescendingHouse: home, hut, shack, mansion, cabin, home, residenceOld: mature, experienced, antique, relic, senior, ancientFat: obese, plump, corpulent, portly, porky, burly, husky, full-figured

IMAGES:

The use of vivid descriptions or figures of speech that appeal to sensory experiences helps to create the author's tone.

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun. (restrained)An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king. (somber, candid) He clasps the crag with crooked hands. (dramatic)Love sets you going like a fat gold watch. (fanciful)Smiling, the boy fell dead. (shocking)

DETAILS:Details are most commonly the facts given by the author or speaker as support for the attitude or tone.The speaker's perspective shapes what details are given and which are not.

LANGUAGE:

Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone.Consider language to be the entire body of words used in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction.For example, an invitation to a wedding might use formal language, while a biology text would use scientific and clinical language.

When I told Dad that I had goofed the exam, he blew his top. (slang) I had him on the ropes in the fourth and if one of my short rights had

connected, he'd have gone down for the count. (jargon) A close examination and correlation of the most reliable current economic

indexes justifies the conclusion that the next year will witness a continuation of the present, upward market trend. (turgid, pedantic)

SENTENCE STRUCTURE:

How a sentence is constructed affects what the audience understands.Parallel syntax (similarly styled phrases and sentences) creates interconnected emotions, feelings and ideas.Short sentences are punchy and intense. Long sentences are distancing, reflective and more abstract.Loose sentences point at the end. Periodic sentences point at the beginning, followed by modifiers and phrases.The inverted order of an interrogative sentence cues the reader to a question and creates tension between speaker and listener.Short sentences are often emphatic, passionate or flippant, whereas longer sentences suggest greater thought.Sentence structure affects tone.

SHIFT IN TONE:

Good authors are rarely monotone. A speaker's attitude can shift on a topic, or an author might have one attitude toward the audience and another toward the subject. The following are some clues to watch for shifts in tone:

key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although) punctuation (dashes, periods, colons) paragraph divisions changes in sentence length sharp contrasts in diction

TONE

Tone is defined as the writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject and the audience. Understanding tone in prose and poetry can be challenging because the reader doesn't have voice inflection to obscure or to carry meaning. To misinterpret tone, is to misinterpret meaning. Remember to look at the Tone / Attitude Word List in this book

86.

SIFT +D

Symbol

Examine the title and text for symbolism. How does the author convey meaningthrough symbolism?

Imagery

Identify imagers and sensory details. How does the author convey meaning throughimagery?

FigurativeLanguage

Analyze figurative language. How does the author convey meaning through FigurativeLanguage (other than symbolism)?

Tone andTheme

Discuss how all devices contribute to tone and theme. What is the tone and theme ofthis particular work?

Details

How do the details the author gives convey meaning?

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Name

AP TWISTn!Per

Audience: Consider the intended audience Whois it? How do you know?

Text-based evidence:

Purpose: What is the author’s purpose? Howdo you know?


Tone: How does the author’s tone convey theauthor’s meaning? Does the author’s tone shift throughout the piece? Why do you think it shifts? How does the shift convey meaning?

Use two examples of text-based evidence that demonstrate tone shift:

Diction (Word Choice): How do the author’schoice of words convey his / her intended meaning?


Imagery: Observe the images that come tomind from the detail the author gives. How is this effective in conveying the author’s point?


Style: Is the author’s style formal? Casual?Satirical? Sarcastic? etc…How does the author use style to convey meaning?


Theme: What are the common themes that runthrough the piece?


Additional thoughts

108.

APTwistin’ Graphic Organizer Rubric2Pts 1.5 1 .5-0

Literary Device: Entry clearly and accurately identifies the literary device.

Answers Questions: All questions are answered and all use complete sentences.

Text-based Evidence:Text based evidence is an excellent example of the literary device. The quote is properly in quotation marks and accurate.

Literary Device: Entry mostly identifies the literary device.

Answers Questions: Most questions are answered and most use complete sentences.

Text-based Evidence:Text based evidence is an acceptable example (although there are better examples) of the literary device. The quote is accurate and complete, but not in quotation marks.

Literary Device: Entry attempted to identify the literary device, but the student clearly misunderstands the meaning of the device.

Answers Questions: Not all questions are answered and some do not use complete sentences.

Text-based Evidence:The student tried, but the text based evidence is not an example of the literary device. The quote is not accurate or complete, or is not in quotation marks.

Literary Device: Minimal attempt to identify the literary device or, the student clearly misunderstands the meaning of the device, or left it blank.

Answers Questions: Most questions are not answered and most do not use complete sentences.

Text-based Evidence:The student gave a poor attempt, and the text based evidence is not an example of the literary device. The quote is not in quotation marks, is incomplete, or blank.

Figurative Language, Imagery ,Tone, and Diction

LITERARY DEVICE TEXT BASED EVIDENCEIdentify and e x plain in d e pth the LITERARY DEVICE and

answer the following in every box below: Why does theauthor emphasize that section? What purpose does it serve to the overall meaning of the poem?

In each box below, provide multiple specific references tothe text [quotes with line number(s)] that connect to theLITERARY DEVICE.

Figurative Language: What type of Figurative Language is used, and what does it represent?

Images: Identify images and sensory details

Tone: Discuss how the author reveals tone.

Diction: Consider the author’s word choice. What meaning is the author trying to convey to the reader by using particular words?

Name_________________ Per ___

Annotations Rubric

Covers entire text.

Factors / Greek appeals

and multiple literary devices are identified throughout the text.

Notes and summarization are extensively found throughout the text.

Thoughts, comments, definitions a n d QUALITY questions are also extensively present.

Covers nearly all of entire text. May be sparse in one place.


and multiple literary devices are identified in most places in the text.

Notes and summarization are found in the text.

Thoughts, comments, definitions a n d questions are present, but may not be thorough.

Covers some parts of the text. May be sparse in several places.

Factors / Greek appeals and literary devices are identified, but

are sparse.

Some notes and summarization are present, but are sparse and more is needed.

Some thoughts, comments, definitions or questions are present, but many more are needed.

Clearly unfinished; poor attempt was made.


and literary devices are poorly identified, far and few between.

Few notes and summarization; very poor effort.

Very few thoughts, comments, definitions or questions are present.

Too little work turned in forcredit.

10-9 8-8.5 7-7.5 6.5-5…>

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Section 2Reading/Literature

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Close Read i ng Question s

Answer the following questions and be prepared to discuss the selection

1. What is the main idea/theme of the selection?

2. In what ways does the author support his main idea/theme?

3. Is the support logical and consistent? Find examples.

4. What words are you unfamiliar with? What do you think they mean from their use in context? Look them up. How are they used connotatively?

5. What is the author’s style?

6. Find seven to ten examples of literary/language elements.

7. Summarize the selection in no more than five sentences.

8. What other selections (movies, poems, articles, paintings, plays, etc.) can you relate this passage to?

9. What allusions are used? Are they successful?

10. What is the attitude of the author? How is it similar or different from the narrator? How do you know?

11. What is the tone of the passage? What words does the author use to help convey this tone?

12. What is the intended and probable effect of the passage?

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Re c ipr o cal Teachi n g Str a tegies Be a better reader and discusser!

Prediction. Before you begin to read the selection, look at the main title, scan the pages to read the major headings, and look at any illustrations. Based on these clues, try to predict what the article or story is about.Now read the selection to see whether it turns out as you predicted! Stop at several points during your reading and ask yourself how closely the content of the actual story or article fit your initial prediction. How do the facts and informatio n that you have read change your prediction about what you will find in the rest of the story or article?

Clarifying. Sometimes in your reading you will run into words, phrases, or whole sentences that really don’tmake sense. Here are some ways that you can clarify the meaning of your reading before moving on:

Unknown words. If you come across a word whose meaning you do not know, read the sentences before and after it to see if they give you clues to the word’s meaning. If the word is still unclear, look it up in a dictionary.

Unclear phrases or sentences. Reread the phrase or sentence carefully and try to understand it. If it contains words such as ―them‖, ―it‖ or ―they‖, be sure that you know what nouns (persons, places, or things) to which these words refer.

Try a "fix up strategy" to restore meaning, for example:

Re-read. Use the context of the passage or word. Use a dictionary or thesaurus to check meaning. Using other reference materials such as an atlas, road map. If all else fails, ask another student or an adult to help you to clarify the meaning of a confusing word, phrase, or

sentence.It may be necessary to read the whole passage again, to understand the meaning.

Questioning. Look at the ideas that you have summarized as you read the passage. For each main idea listed, write down at least one question that the main idea will answer. Good questions should include words like ―who, ―where‖, ―when‖,―why‖, and ―what‖.

For example, if you are reading an article about the extinction of the dinosaurs, you might list the following main idea:―Most scientists now believe that the extinction of the dinosaurs was caused by a large meteor striking the earth.‖ Youcould then write this question: ―What event do most scientists now believe caused the mass extinction of the dinosaurs?‖

Three kinds of questions to ask:1. Right there - something you can point to

2. Think and search – information is there but in a couple different places3. Reader and Author –Things you wonder about because of the reading or Questions you might ask

the author.

Summarizing. Stop after each paragraph or major section of the passage. Construct one or two complete sentences that sum up only the most important idea(s) that appear in the section. (Good summary sentences include key concepts or events but leave out less important details!)

Write these summary (main idea) sentences down and continue reading.

Visualizing: Picture in Your Mind. After you have finished reading, draw a picture of what the passage or poem makes you see in your imagination.

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Critical Re a di n g of Pr o s e P a ssa g es If you are able to offer an informed opinion about the purpose and merits of a text, then you are on the road totrue literacy

The high school AP Exam in Language and Comp seeks to identify readers who can not only describe what happened, but also explain why and how it happened.

More specifically, as a critical reader you will: Summarize and outline complex material Critically examine a text’s reasoning Analyze the ways a text achieves its effects, especially through stylistic choice Evaluate a text, deciding whether it is accurate, authoritative, and convincing Determine a text’s significance Compare and contrast different text Synthesize information from one or more related text Apply concepts in one text to another

T h er e a r e six st r a te gies a cr itical r e a d e r c an emp loy w h e n re a d i n g p r o s e p assages 1. Get the facts straight

Preview Annotate Outline summarize

2. Analyze the argument What is the author’s thesis? What kinds of support are used? Fact VS opinion Is support sufficient and appropriate? Emotion VS reason Satisfactory conclusion?

3. Identify basic features of style Diction (word choice) Tone Sentence structure (syntax) Sentence types Verb choices

4. Explore your personal response Be certain you can account for the sources and causes of your response

5. Evaluate the text and determine its significance Era Social Intellectual

6. Compare and contrast related textsAs you analyze a work the following will help you organize your response.

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Genre1. Typically, the four purposes of academic nonfiction prose are:

Describe Explain Inform Persuade

2. Persuasion stems from three sources Ethos - an author may rely upon his own reputation to move an audience Pathos – an author may rely upon an audiences’ feelings Logos – an author uses reason to persuade an audience

3. Is the passage an excerpt from fiction? These passages tend to be a description of character or location, seldom a philosophical commentary

Organization1. If the passage is descriptive, is it organized spatially or by order of importance? What is the overall

effect?2. If the passage is narrative, is the chronological order of events interrupted by flashback, foreshadowing,

episodic events?3. If the passage is expository, are any of the following devices or methods used: definition, cause and

effect, comparison/contrast, classification, examples, analogy?4. If persuasion is used, what methods does the author use to bolster the argument? Does the author deal

with opposing evidence? Does the author fall into any logical fallacies?

Tone and Mood1. What is the mood (effect upon the reader)?2. What is the tone (author’s attitude)?

Language and Style1. What is the word choice? Is it colloquial, idiomatic, scientific, Latinate, formal, concrete, abstract,

scholarly, allusive?2. To what senses does the author appeal?3. What literary devices of sense does the author use (personification, metaphor, simile, allusion)? What

literary devices of sound does the author use (alliteration, assonance, consonance, repetition)?4. Does the language have rhythm?5. Are the sentences long or short? Where does the author use short sentences or fragments for special

emphasis? Where are there long sentences or run-ons for special effect?6. Are the sentences simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex? Where does the author use

sentence variety to emphasize an idea?7. What specialized sentence structure does the author use? Balanced, freight-train, inverted, parallel,

periodic? Anaphora, antithesis, asyndeton, chiasmus, negative-positive restatement, polysyndeton?8. Do any sentences begin or end with a significant word or phrase? Do any sentences have the main idea

hidden in the middle, in an interrupter, so as to create surprise or suspense?9. Does the author use colors to enhance moods or characterize someone?10. What are the best-worded phases or best chosen words?

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Pl o t Di a gram

E x p o s i t io n –setting, characters, main conflicts are introduced to the reader; this is the beginning of a novel or story and may be short or long, but is always flat (little action or emotion).

R i s i ng A c t i o n - the round characters are developed, the conflicts are increased and acted out in many ways, motives are introduced, things happen; generally, the major part of a novel or story. Include at least five major events from the story

C li m a x - the "high point" of a story in which the major conflicts erupt in some kind of final showdown (fight, argument, violent or physical action, very tense emotional moment...); at the end of the climax, the "winner" will be clear (there is not always a winner!). This is the point in the story where something CHANGES.

Fa lli ng Actio n - what events immediately follow the climax; a kind of "cleaning up."

R e s o l u t io n / D e n o u em ent - where everything ends; the reader may have some sense of "closure" or may be asked to think about what might come next; in fairy tales, the Happy Ending; in some novels, you will read about the characters many years later.

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Plot Ele me nts

1. Protagonist - the main character

What i s a Ch a rac t er? A person, or animal who takes part in the action

2. Antagonist - the protagonist struggles against this other major character in some works

What i s Char a c t er i z a t i o n ? A process of showing what a character is really like.

1. Direct characterization – the writer simply tells what the character is like. Such as ―Susie felt lonely and frightened.‖2. Indirect characterization – the writer shows what a character is like by describing what the character says or does, how

a character looks, or what other characters say about him or her.

1. Appearance – looks, clothing, etc2. Personality – way the character acts

E l e m en t s o f C h a rac t er

3. Background – where is the character from? School? Experiences?4. Motivation – Why do the character do what she does? What does he like or dislike? Goals, aspirations, dreams, and

needs?5. Relationships – Who is the character related to? How does the character relate to other people?6. Conflicts – Involved in a struggle? Internal or external? Why?7. Change – Does the character change, learn or grow during the work?

a. static character – does not change b. dynamic character – changes

It is the central message or insight into life.What i s T h e m e?

More than ―What is the story about,‖ it is what the work ME AN S . Not every story has a theme.Sometimes a good mystery is just for entertainment.

T he m es are e i t he r : 1. Stated directly – the ―meaning‖ of the story is said in the story2. Implied – a reader must decide what the message of the story is by looking at other elements such as plot outcomes.

To understand implied themes sometimes you must think about it a lot or read it several times.

Time and place in which action occurs.

Writers often tell more than date and location:

What i s S e t t i ng?

Weather, scenery, rooms, local customs, clothing, and dialects.

1. To create mood or atmosphere.

U s e s o f Se t ti n g

a. A log cabin nestled in a beautiful mountain canyon -- peaceful, happy mood. b. Wet, dark tunnel --scary mood

2. To inform readers about different ways of life.a. Details about clothing, customs, and speech patterns a reader can get a sense of what it is really like live in that story.

3. To make the action of a literary work seem more real.a. Vivid details can take readers to imaginary and far-away times and places.

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4. To Contribute to the conflict or struggle.a. Arctic settings may involve a character's struggle to survive in extreme weather.

5. To symbolize, or stand for, some idea that the writer wants to emphasize. a. A spring setting may symbolize hopeful beginnings and growth. b. Winter may symbolize death or loneliness.

What i s P l o t ? What happens & how it happens.

What a re t h e P a r t s o f a P l o t ? 1. Expos i t i on - introduces the reader to the setting and characters.2. I nc iti ng i nc i de n t - this event creates the central conflict or struggle.3. T he de v e l op m ent - part of the story where the struggle takes place.4. T he c l i m ax - the high point of interest and suspense in the story.5. T he r esoluti on - point at which the conflict is ended, or resolved.

What i s Co n f l i c t ? 1. Conflict is the struggle between opposing forces.

a. Man vs. Manb. Man vs. Himselfc. Man vs. Nature or Society

2. Central Conflict - main character must fight against some force or make an important decision.a. Internal conflict - take place inside a person's mind. Example - a character is torn between risking his life to

save someone else.b. External conflict - takes place when a person or group struggles against another person or group or against a

non-human force such as a storm or a car that won't start.

S p ec i a l P l ot T e chniq u es 1. Suspen s e - feeling of excitement or tension the reader experiences as the plot unfolds. Writers create suspense by

raising questions in the reader's mind.2. For e s h adow i ng - a hint or clue about an event that will occur later in the story.3. Fl a s h back - a section of the story that is interrupted to tell about an earlier event.4. Surpri se en di ng - an ending that catches the reader off guard with something unexpected.

The act of telling a story, or narrative.What i s Na r ra t i on?

The voice that tells the story is called the narrator.What i s P o i nt o f Vi e w ?

1. First person – example: Your grandmother telling you a story about her youth. First person pronouns like I, me, us, our. She is the character in her own story.

2. Third person – example: Your grandmother is telling you a fairy tale. Third person pronouns like she, he, his, them.She is telling the story from outside the action.

H o w t o T e l l Wh a t t h e P o i nt o f V i e w is? 1. Is the narrator a character in the story?

a. If they take part in the action – 1st person b. If they are outside – 3rd person

T ypes o f N a rr a t ors 1. Omniscient – ―all knowing‖ tells about other thoughts and feelings2. Limited – knows only what’s in the mind of one major or minor character3. Objective – does not discuss the thoughts or feelings of the characters but reports only what they DO.

Section 3 LITERARY CONVERSATIONS

So cratic Sem ina r Questio nsBefore you come to a Socratic Seminar class, please read the assigned text (novel section, poem, essay, article, etc.) and write at least one question in each of the following categories:

1. CLOSE-ENDED QUESTION: Write a question about the text that will help everyone in the class come to an agreement about events or characters in the text. This question usually has a "correct" answer and does not need discussion.

Example: Is it clear in the opening chapters who is leaving the gifts in the tree hole in the novel ToKill a Mockingbird?

2. WORLD CONNECTION QUESTION: Write a question connecting the text to the real world today.

3. OPEN-ENDED QUESTION: Write an insightful question about the text that will require proof and group discussion and "construction of logic" to discover or explore the answer to the question.

4. UNIVERSAL THEME QUESTION: When we say something is universal, we mean that it applies through all time and places. Write a question dealing with a theme(s) of the text that applies to all times and places (think mankind and world-wide) that will encourage group discussion about the universality of the text.

Example: Why has mankind felt it necessary to enslave different races throughout history?

5. LITERARY ANALYSIS QUESTION: Write a question dealing with HOW an author chose to compose a literary piece. How did the author manipulate point ofview, characterization, poetic form, figurative language or diction, for example?

Example: In the Outsiders, why is it important that the story is told through the use of a circular narrative?

So cratic Sem ina r: Guideli nes an d S coring Rub ricWhat is a Socratic seminar?A Socratic seminar is a conversation based on a difficult text in which the leader’s primary role is to askquestions. Socrates believed that enabling students to think for themselves was more important than filling their heads with facts. Here’s another way to put it: Socratic seminars explore ideas, issues and values in a text through thinking out loud. The goal is shared understanding through this exploration.

How does this work in the classroom? Students first read the text themselves, asking questions and making notes. They must complete this step before participating in the seminar. Next, students create their own Socratic questions based on the given text and following the model in the Pre-AP Handbook. Seminar participants sit facing each other, with their text, questions and notes before them. A participant asks an opening question, and other participants thoughtfully contribute to the dialogue, listening and building on each other’s comments.

Isn’t this like debate? No. A seminar is a dialogue, which is the opposite of debate. Dialogue is collaborative: multiple sides work toward shared understanding. Debate is oppositional: two opposing sides try proving the other wrong.

How is a Socratic seminar scored? In a scored discussion, participants receive points for the number of positive contributions to the discussion, the quality of comments, references to text based evidence, demonstrating ―Habits of Mind‖ (relating world-to-text or text-to- other text connections. Participants have points taken away for behavior such as interruption or disrespect of other participants.

GRADING RUBRIC FOR SOCRATIC SEMINAR:

Section Totals: A____ B____ C____= _____/60

Name of person being observed _________________________ Per ______

Name of person doing the observing _____________________________________Per________

Directions: Read the definition below of “Habits of Mind”; read and understand the rubric. Remain silent and listen carefully throughout the seminar. Jot tally marks below each category until the conclusion of the seminar. Tally marks will help you remember and accurately evaluate your peer’s performance at the end of the seminar today.

A: Number of Quality Comments:

No comments (0 pts); 3 Comment (5pts); 6 Comments (10 pts); 9 Comments (15 pts); 12 Comments (20 pts)

Tally marks:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

B: Text Reference:

No references (0 pts); 3 refs (5pts); 6 refs (10 pts); 9 refs (15 pts) 12 refs (20 pts)

Tally marks:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

C: Demonstrates Habits of Mind:

No at all (0 pts); Rarely (5 pts) Sometimes (10 pts); Often (15 pts); Frequently (20 pts)

Tally marks:

Definition of the Habits of Mind: listening with understanding; persisting; striving for accuracy, precision and clarity in verbal communication; using creativity, imagination and innovation to approach the discussion; questioning and problem solving; applying past knowledge to new situations; and thinking independently.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Power Lit Circle Job Descriptions

Discussion Leader / Project Coordinator: Your job is to keep the discussion going, to make sure there are no silences or gaps in the conversation and that all members are on task. You should come to the meeting with at least five "thinking" questions to ask in case the conversation slows down. These "thinking" questions should be designed to get people in your group thinking and talking about issues and topics in your reading. These should not be "recall" questions that askfor facts from the book, or questions whose answers are a simple ―yes / no. You are also in charge of keeping the discussion focused so that things don't wander too far from the main topic, which is the book. You are also responsible for filing all group reports.

Investigator: Your job is to dig up some historical background information on any topic related to your novel that will help your group understand the book better. You may use Internet sources to research or other print sources. You will provide: an explanation of the topic you chose to research, a printed document (if possible), a short written summary, and a proper MLA 7 citation. In addition to writing and presenting your research, you will need to bring a thinking question to the group,a question that prompts the others to think beyond the facts of the passage. This should not be a "recall" question that askfor facts from the book, or a question whose answer is a simple ―yes / no.‖

Summarizer: Your job is to write and then present a summary of the events that happened in the agreed upon section of the novel. Using your written summary as your guide, you will remind people in your group what the chapters were about. In addition to writing and presenting your summary, you will include a proper MLA 7 citation of the literary text. You will also need to bring a thinking question to the group, a question that prompts the others to think beyond the facts of the passage. This should not be a "recall" question that ask for facts from the book, or a question whose answer is a simple ―yes / no.‖

Lit Critic: Your task is to identify and analyze two short passages that you think reflect good writing and are important to the story. You will copy these and explain why these scenes are significant to the novel. For instance, answer: how the chapter/scene fits into the novel as a whole; how it develops three of the following: characters, plot, setting, themes or conflict; and how it shows a particular literary element or rhetorical strategy. You may want to use outside sources to help in your analysis. You will include a proper MLA 7 citation of the literary text. You will also need to bring a thinking question for each passage to the group, a question that prompts the others to think beyond the facts of the passage. This should not be a "recall" question that ask for facts from the book, ora question whose answer is a simple ―yes / no.

Word Smith: Your job is to find five words that are unfamiliar or interesting to you. You will also find three powerful verbs. You will need to define each word, tell the part of speech (choose the part of speech that is used in your passage), relay the origin of the word, and copy the passage from the book where the word occurs. You will include a proper MLA 7 citation of the literary text. You will then lead a discussion within your group about why you and the others think the author chose to use that particular word rather than another for that passage. You will also need to bring a thinking question to the group, a question that prompts the others to think beyond the facts of the passage. This should not be a "recall" question that ask for facts from the book, or a question whose answer is a simple ―yes / no.

Connector/ Illustrator: Your job is to find at least four specific connections between the book and the real world. This means connecting the reading to your own life, to happenings at school or in the community, to similar events at other times and places, to other people or problems that you are reminded of. You might also see connections between this book and other writings on the same topic, or by the same author. You also need illustrate (drawing, cartoon, collage, computer graphic) something about the story that interested you: a character, a setting, a problem, an exciting part, a surprise, a prediction of what will happen next, anything else that interests you from the story. You will also need to bring a thinking question to the group, a question that prompts the others to think beyond the facts of the passage. This should not be a "recall" question that ask for facts from the book, or a question whose answer is a simple ―yes / no.‖

INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION to be completed before each discussionWrite a b ou t a ha l f p a g e REFLECTION on the section that you’ve read for each discussion. This should NOT be a summary; it should be a reflection

on what you’ve learned and what you think about that section of the book. Below are some questions to help with the reflection. What information surprised you? How can you use this information in your life? What information do you question or think might not be correct?

How might you check it out? What is the most important thing you have learned? Why? What is the most interesting thing you read?

What techniques does the author use to make this information easy to understand?

What things would you like to know more about? Did you come across a problem in your reading that you had not

considered before? What was the problem? Could you solve it? How?

Group Record SheetYou’ll use this paper when YOU are the DISCUSSION DIRECTOR

Name: Book:

Discussion #_ Reading assignment:

Following the discussion, the Discussion Leader will complete this form with the help of the group members.

1. Two topics which generated the most discussion today were:

2. As a group, we agreed one of the most important or intriguing passages in this section was about:

3. Group Participation Today:

Member'sName

ThinkingQuestions

Paperwork MLA 7 Citation

Preparedness score and explanation

Use the rubric

Discussion score and explanation

Use the rubric

Members absent in discussion today:

Ind i v i du a l A s s e ssm e nt o f D i s c uss i o n : Each group member should write a quick (2-3 sentences) reflection on the quality of their discussion on the last page of the individual’s work for today’s discussion. Use the following three questions to guide your reflection:

o What was your best contribution today?o What was the biggest struggle in the discussion today?o Is the evaluation on the group record sheet accurate in your opinion? (your scores & classmates’ scores)

Staple Work in this order: Group Record Sheet, Discussion Leader, Investigator, Summarizer, Lit Critic, Wordsmith, Connector/Illustrator

STAPLE ALL GROUP WORK to the Group Record

Rubrics for Power Lit Circle Discussions

Categories Level Four (10-9) Level Three (8) Level Two (7) Level One (6-5) ZERO

Preparedness

Totally preparedfor discussion. Completed all the reading. All preparation work is c o m p le t e a n d d e t ai l ed .

Mostly preparedfor discussion. Completed all the reading. All preparation work, but may be brief or lack some depth in places.

Partially preparedfor discussion. Completed m o st of the reading. Mo s t preparation work is complete. Parts are complete, and parts are missing OR all work is brief.

Very littlepreparation for discussion. S o m e reading or s o m e preparation work are complete.

Not prepared fordiscussion. Did not do the reading or the preparation work.

Discussion

Stro ngparticipation in discussion. Helped keep the discussion going by listening, asking thoughtful questions, and responding thoughtfully to classmate’ questions/ comments. Attentive to group members at all times.

Participated indiscussion. Some attempt to keep the discussion going by asking questions or responding to classmates’questions. Listened to classmates and focused on discussion m o st of the time.

Some participationin discussion. May have struggled to stay on topic at times. Listened to classmates and focused on the discussion s o m e of the time. May have gotten group off topic once..

Very littleparticipation in discussion or had difficulty listening to classmates and responding appropriately. Continually disruptive to effective group discussion.

Did notparticipate in discussion.Did not listen to others.

Section 4Note-taking Tips

Summar ize , Paraphrase, or Q uote?A summary is a relatively brief, objective account, in your own words, of the main ideas in a source passage.

Summarize to: To condense the material. You may have to condense or to reduce the source material to draw out the

points that relate to your paper. To omit extras from the material. You may have to omit extra information from the source material to

focus on the author’s main points. To simplify the material. You may have to simplify the most important complex arguments, sentences, or

vocabulary in the source material.

A paraphrase is a restatement, in your own words, of a passage of text. Its structure reflects the structure of the source passage. Paraphrases are sometimes the same length as the source passage, sometimes shorter. In certain cases-- particularly if the source passage is difficult to read--the paraphrase may be even longer than the original. . . . Keep in mind that only an occasional word (but not whole phrases) from the original source appears in the paraphrase, and that a paraphrase's sentence structure does not reflect that of the source. Paraphrase to:

To change the organization of ideas for emphasis. You may have to change the organization of ideas in source material so that you can emphasize the points that are most related to your paper. You should remember to be faithful to the meaning of the source.

To simplify the material. You may have to simplify complex arguments, sentences, or vocabulary. To clarify the material. You may have to clarify technical passages or specialized information into

language that is appropriate for your audience.

A quotation uses the exact words of the original. Use Quotes to:1. Accuracy: You are unable to paraphrase or summarize the source material without changing the author’s

intent.2. Authority: You may want to use a quote to lend expert authority for your assertion or to provide source

material for analysis.3. Conciseness: Your attempts to paraphrase or summarize are awkward or much longer than the source

material.4. Unforgettable language: You believe that the words of the author are memorable or remarkable because

of their effectiveness or historical flavor. Additionally, the author may have used a unique phrase or sentence, and you want to comment on words or phrases themselves.

5 Metho ds o f No te -Tak ing The Cornell Method The Outline Method The Mapping Method The Charting Method The Sentence Method

The C o rnell Met h o d The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing notes without laborious recopying. Afterwriting the notes in the main space, use the left-hand space to label each idea and detail with a key word or "cue."

Method - Rule your paper with a 2 ½ inch margin on the left leaving a six-inch area on the right in which to make notes. During class, take down information in the six-inch area. When the instructor moves to a new point, skip a few lines. After class, complete phrases and sentences as much as possible. For every significant bit of information, write a cue in the left margin. To review, cover your notes with a card, leaving the cues exposed. Say the cue out loud, and then say as much as you can of the material underneath the card. When you have said as much as you can, move the card and see if what you said matches what is written. If you can say it, you know it.

Advantages - Organized and systematic for recording and reviewing notes. Easy format for pulling out major concept and ideas. Simple and efficient. Saves time and effort. "Do-it-right-in-the-first-place system."

Disadvantages - None

When to Use - In any lecture situation.

The O u tlining M e thod Dash or indented outlining is usually best except for some science classes such as physics or math.

1. The information which is most general begins at the left with each more specific group of facts indented with spaces to the right.

2. The relationships between the different parts are carried out through indenting.3. No numbers, letters, or Roman numerals are needs.

Method – Listening and then write in points in an organized pattern based on space indention. Place major points farthest to the left. Indent each more specific point to the right. Levels of importance will be indicated by distance away from the major point. Indention can be as simple as or as complex as labeling the indentations with Roman numerals or decimals. Markings are not necessary as space relationships will indicate the major/minor points.

Advantages – Well-organized system if done right. Outlining records content as well as relationships. It also reduces editing and is easy to review by turning main points into questions.

Disadvantages – Requires more thought in class for accurate organization. This system may not show relationships by sequence when needed. It doesn’t lend to diversity of a review attach for maximum learning and question application. This system cannot be used if the lecture is too fast.

When to Use – The outline format can be used if the lecture is presented in outline organization. This may be either deductive (regular outline) or inductive (reverse outline where minor points start building to a major point). Use this format when there is enough time in the lecture to think about and make organization decisions when they are needed.

This format can be most effective when your note taking skills are super and sharp and you can handle the outlining regardless of the note taking situation.

Example –Extrasensory perception

_ Definition: means of perceiving without use of sense organs._three kinds –

_telepathy: sending messages_clairvoyance: forecasting the future_psychokinesis: perceiving events external to situation

_current status –_no current research to support or refute_few psychologists say impossible

The Ma pping M e thod Mapping is a method that uses comprehension/concentration skills and evolves in a note taking form which relates each fact or idea to every other fact or idea. Mapping is a graphic representation of the content of a lecture. It is a method that maximizes active participation, affords immediate knowledge as to its understanding, and emphasizes critical thinking.

Advantages – This format helps you to visually track your lecture regardless of conditions. Little thinking is needed and relationships can easily be seen. It is also easy to edit your notes by adding numbers, marks, and color coding. Review will call for you to restructure thought processes which will force you to check understanding. Review by covering lines for memory drill and relationships. Main points can be written on flash or note cards and pieced together into a table or larger structure at a later date.

Disadvantages – You may not hear changes in content from major points to facts.

When to Use – Use when the lecture content is heavy and well-organized. May also be used effectively when you have a guest lecturer and have no idea how the lecture is going to be presented.

Example –

The Ch a rt i ng M e thod If the lecture format is distinct (such as chronological), you may set up your paper by drawing columns and labelingappropriate headings in a table.

Method – Determine the categories to be covered in lecture. Set up your paper in advance by columns headed by these categories. As you listen to the lecture, record information (words, phrases, main ideas, etc.) into the appropriate category.

Advantages – Helps you track conversation and dialogues where you would normally be confused and lose out on relevant content. Reduces amount of writing necessary. Provides easy review mechanism for both memorization of facts and study of comparisons and relationships.

Disadvantages – Few disadvantages except learning how to use the system and locating the appropriate categories. Youmust be able to understand what’s happening in the lecture.

When to Use – Test will focus on both facts and relationships. Content is heavy and presented fast. You want to reduce the amount of time you spend editing and reviewing at test time. You want to get an overview of the whole course on one big paper sequence.

Example – Chart format for a history class:

The Sen tence Met ho d

Method – Write every new thought, fact or topic on a separate line, numbering as you progress.

Advantages – Slightly more organized than the paragraph. Gets more or all of the information. Thinking to tract content is still limited.

Disadvantages – Can’t determine major/minor points from the numbered sequence. Difficult to edit without having torewrite by clustering points which are related. Difficult to review unless editing cleans up relationship.

When to Use – Use when the lecture is somewhat organized, but heavy with content which comes fast. You can hear the different points, but you don’t know how they fit together. The instructor tends to present in point fashion, but not in grouping such as ―three related points.‖

Example 1 –A revolution is any occurrence that affects other aspects of life, such as economic life, social life, and so forth. Therefore revolutions cause change. Sample Notes – Revolution – occurrence that affects other aspects of life: e.g., econ., socl. Etc. C.f. text, pp.

29-30

Example 2 –Melville did not try to represent life as it really was. The language of Ahab, Starbuck, and Ishmael, for instance, was not that of real life. Sample Notes – Mel didn’t repr. Life as was; e.g. lang. Of Ahab, etc. no of real life.

Example 3 –At first, Freud tried conventional, physical methods of treatment such as giving baths, massages, rest cures, and similar aids. But when these failed he tried techniques of hypnosis that he had seen used by Jean-Martin Charcot. Finally, he borrowed an idea from Jean Breuer and used direct verbal communication to get an un-hypnotized patient to reveal unconscious thoughts. Sample Notes – Freud 1st – used phys. trtment; e.g., baths, etc. This fld. 2nd – used hypnosis (fr. Charcot)

Finally – used vrb. commun. (fr. Breuer) – got unhpynop, patnt to reveal uncons. Thoughts.

Name____________________________________Per___

In-depth note-taking guide

Targets for quality work…

Annotate: ―Dialogue with yourself, the author, and the issues and ideas at stake. From start to finish, make your reading of any text thinking-intensive. Use a pen/pencil, not a highlighter. Annotations are WORDS or QUALITY QUESTIONS written on the text or on post-it notes that cover each of the following:

□ Ideas that occur to you

□ Notes about text or ideas that seem important

□ Definitions of unknown words

□ Connections with other ideas and sources

□ Questions that you have about the content or for the author.

Summarize: Summarize; take the information apart, look at its parts, and then try to put it back together again in written language that is meaningful to you.

□ Summarize the text in sentences and brief paragraphs. Shorter than the original text but a ll m a i n i d e a s should be present and clearly stated.

Analyze: Look beyond what the text says and begin to understand what it means. After you’veread, consider the following and write statements about these in your annotations:

□ Bias/Perspectiveo When was it written? Is it current information?o Does it represent both sides of the issue or only one side? How do you know?

□ Fact vs. Opiniono Are facts presented as facts? How do you know?o Are opinions presented as opinions? How do you know?

□ Connectionso What information does this source give you that relates to the topic?o Is this new information or is it similar to other sources? How?o How does it fit with the theme/era/unit that is being studied?

Based on “Interrogating Texts: Reading Habits to Develop in Your First Year at HarvardAnnotations

(A) 5□ Student has made a

(B) 4□ Ideas are present but more

(C-D) 3-2□ Ideas are present but are

(F) 1-0□ Few ideas are present; poor

/15

tremendous effort at quality annotations.□ Many notes and ideas about important aspects of the text;□ Many connections with other ideas and possibly other sources;□ Many defined unknown words.□ Many quality questions about the content or for the author are present.

are needed.□ Notes about important things are present but more are needed.□ Connections with other ideas and possibly other sources are present but more are needed.□ Several defined unknown words.□ Questions about the content or for the author are present but more are needed.

sparse.□ Notes about important things are present but are sparse.□ Connections with other ideas and possibly other sources are present but are sparse.□ Some defined unknown words.□ Questions about the content or for the author are present but more but are sparse.

effort was made.□ Few notes about important things are present; poor effort was made.□ Few connections with other ideas and/or sources are present; poor effort was made.□ Few defined unknown words.□ Few questions about the content or for the author are present; poor effort was made.

Summarization

(A) 5□ Great summarization of the text in sentences and paragraphs. Shorter than the original text but all main ideas are present and clearly stated.

(B) 4□ Good summarization of the text in sentences and paragraphs. Shorter than the original text but all main ideas are present and clearly stated. Student has made an effort at summarization, but more is needed.

(C-D) 3-2□ The summarization of the text in sentences and paragraphs lacks quality. The main ideas are not well represented and/or not clearly stated; a poor effort at summarization.

(F) 1-0□ The summarization of the text in sentences and paragraphs is very poor. The main ideas are missing; little to no effort exhibited.

Analysis

(A) 5□ Student makes great effort at addressing bias and perspective, and whether the argument represents both sides of the issue with indicated evidence to back up student’s claim. It is clear the student put great thought into his/her analysis.□ Student clearly distinguishes fact from opinion and backs up his/her claim with indicated evidence.□ Student makes several relevant connections to the topic as well as to other sources outside of the text.

(B) 4□ Student makes good effort at addressing bias and perspective, and whether the argument represents both sides of the issue with indicated evidence to back up student’s claim. It is clear the student put good thought into his/her analysis, but more is needed.□ Student distinguishes fact from opinion and backs up his/her claim with indicated evidence. It is clear the student put good thought into his/her analysis, but more is needed.□ Student makes relevant connections to the topic as well as to other sources outside of the text.

(C-D) 3-2□ Student makes fair to poor effort at addressing bias and perspective, and whether the argument represents both sides of the issue with indicated evidence to back up student’s claim. Student put some thought into his/her analysis, but much more is needed.□ Student attempts to distinguish fact from opinion and back up his/her claim with indicated evidence, but clarity is missing. The student may be confused on distinguishing fact from opinion.□ Student attempts but fails to make relevant connections to the topic or to other sources outside of the text.

(F) 1-0□ Student makes very poor effort addressing bias and perspective, and whether the argument represents both sides of the issue. No indicated evidence. Little to no thought into his/her analysis.□ Student makes very poor or no attempt to distinguish fact from opinion and back up his/her claim with indicated evidence. Student claim is completely unclear.□ Student did not make relevant connections to the topic or to other sources outside of the text.

Section 5Sentence Writing Tips & Grammar

Pa rts of Speech Revie wThree little words you often seeAre ARTICLES: a, an, and the.

A NOUN is the name of anything, As: school or garden, toy, or swing.

ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun,As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown.

VERBS tell of something being done:To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run.

How things are done the ADVERBS tell, As: slowly, quickly, badly, well.

CONJUNCTIONS join the words together, As: men and women, wind or weather.

The PREPOSITION stands beforeA noun as: in or through a door.

The INTERJECTION shows surpriseAs: Oh, how pretty! Ah! how wise!

The whole are called the PARTS of SPEECH, Which reading, writing, speaking teach.

"Definitions of Basic Sentence Parts." Word Functions and Usage Notes. Capital Community College Foundation, n.d. Web. 15 Aug.

2012. < h t t p: / / g r a m ma r . c c c . c o mm n e t . e du / g r a m ma r/ d e f i n i t i o n s . h t m >.

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/definitions.htm

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/definitions.htm

The Par t s of a S e nte n ce Sentence: a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Every sentence contains a subject and apredicate.

1. Subject: the noun or noun phrase that tells whom or what the sentence addresses.

—Roger decided to save more money.

—Almost all cats dislike water.

o Full or complete subject: the subject and all the words that modify it.

—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.

o Simple subject: the main noun of the complete subject.

—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.

o Compound subject: a complete subject with multiple simple subjects.

—Miguel and the young boy became friends.

2. Predicate: a verb or verb phrase telling what the subject does or is.

o Full or complete predicate: the verb of the sentence and all the words that modify it.

—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.

o Simple predicate: the main verb in the full predicate that indicates the action or state of being of the simple subject.

—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.

o Compound predicate: a complete predicate with multiple verbs.

—He thought of his lover and missed her dearly.

—The goose was looking straight ahead and running for the pond.

3. Clause: a part of a sentence that contains its own subject and predicate.

o Independent clause: a clause that could function as its own sentence.

—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.

o Dependent clause: a clause that cannot function as its own sentence. A dependent clause relies on an independent clause to complete its meaning.

A dependent clause can function as a noun,

—I realized that I owed Patrick fifty dollars.

as an adverb,

—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.

or as an adjective.

—The beef that I ate for dinner made me queasy.

o Elliptical clause: a type of dependent clause with a subject and verb that are implied rather than expressed.

—Though unhappy, she still smiled.

In the clause Though unhappy, the subject and verb she was are implied: Although (she was) unhappy.

4. Phrase: a group of related words without a subject or predicate.

o Noun phrase: a phrase that acts as a noun. A noun phrase can function as a subject,

—The snarling dog strained against its chain.

object,

—He gave her the book of poems.

prepositional object,

—The acrobat fell into the safety net.

gerund phrase,

—Dancing the tango is a popular activity in Argentina.

or infinitive phrase.

—To dream is to be human.

o Adjective phrase: a phrase that modifies nouns or pronouns. Participial phrases and many prepositional phrases are adjective phrases.

—The actor playing Puck left much to be desired.

o Adverb phrase: a phrase that begins with a preposition, and that functions as an adverb.

—The theater was crowded with the actor’s fans.

o Prepositional phrase: a phrase made up of a preposition, its object, and its modifiers.

—The roof of the old theater was leaking badly.

5. Modifier: a word or phrase that modifies or adds information to other parts of a sentence. Adjectives, adverbs, and many phrases and clauses are modifiers.

o Limiting modifier: a word or phrase that limits the scope or degree of an idea. Words like almost, only, or barely are modifiers.

—It was almost time for dinner.

o Restricting modifier: a phrase or clause that restricts the meaning of what it modifies and is necessary to the idea of its sentence.

—Any dog that has not had its shots should be taken to a veterinarian immediately.

o Nonrestricting modifier: a modifier that adds information but is not necessary to the sentence. Commas, dashes, or parentheses set apart nonrestricting modifiers.

—Seventeenth-century poets, many of whom were also devout Christians, wrote excellent poetry.

—We could hear the singing bird—a wren, perhaps, or a robin—throughout the forest.

Run – On S e ntences A RUN-ON SENTENCE (sometimes called a "fused sentence")at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected.

Run-ons can happen for a number of reasons:

o Sometimes two complete thoughts are not separated by any punctuation at all. It made her look really pale she wore it anyway.

o Sometimes a new thought is only separated by a comma and begins with a pronoun. (pronouns: it, she, he, they)

It made her look really pale, she wore it anyway.

o Sometimes a new thought is not separated by any punctuation and begins with a transitional phrase, like"however."

Melanie forgot to do her assignment however, the teacher didn't collect it.

o Sometimes many thoughts are connected by the word "and" without punctuation. Everybody was out for themselves and they couldn't care less about the other people around

them.o Sometimes an idea is difficult to express and the thoughts come out in a confusing order.

The employers rewarded their employees unlike today in many cases the employer justdoesn't care who he has working just as long as they are making him money.

There are FOUR easy ways to fix a run-on sentence:1. Separate the ideas into two sentences with a period.

o It made her look really pale. She wore it anyway.2. Separate the ideas with a semicolon.

o It made her look really pale; she wore it anyway.3. Create a compound sentence: separate the two ideas with a comma and add a coordinating conjunction.

o (coordinating conjunctions: and, but, so, yet, for, or, nor)o It made her look really pale, but she wore it anyway.

4. Create a complex sentence: add a subordinating conjunction to one of the ideas to turn it into a dependent clause.

o (subordinating conjunctions: because, although, if, when, after, while, until, before, since, as, unless, whereas)

o Although it made her look really pale, she wore it anyway.

Sentence Ty p es 1. Declarative – makes a statement.

The king is sick.

2. Imperative – gives a command.Cure the king!

3. Interrogative – asks a question.Is the king sick?

4. Exclamatory – provides emphasis or expresses STRONG emotion.The king is dead! Long live the king!

Sentence Patterns1. Simple – one independent clause

The singer bowed to her adoring audience.

2. Compound – contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon.The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores.

3. Complex – an independent clause and one or more subordinate clause.Because the singer was tired, she went straight to bed after the concert.

4. Compound-complex – contains two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sand no encores.

5. Loose or Cumulative – makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending. The modifying phrase in the sentence could be eliminated while maintaining the meaning of the sentence. We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors.

6. Periodic – makes sense fully only when the end of the sentence is reached.That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experience, we reached Edmonton.

7. Balanced – the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning or length.“We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, and weshall fight in the hills.” Winston Churchill

8. Natural order – subject comes before the predicate.Oranges grow in California

9. Inverse order (sentence inversion) – predicate comes before the subject. Typically used for emphasis or rhythmic effect.In California grow the oranges.

10. Juxtaposition – poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to each other, often creating an effect of surprise and wit.“The apparition of these faces in the crowd:Petals on wet, black bough.” (In Station of the Metro by Ezra Pound)

11. Parallel Structure – grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves the arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased.He loves swimming, running, and playing tennis.

12. Repetition – a device in which words, sounds, phrases, and ideas are used more than once to enhance the rhythm and to create emphasis.“…government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” (“Address at Gettysburg” byAbraham Lincoln)

13. Rhetorical Question – a question that requires no answer. Used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement.If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?

14. Rhetorical Fragment – a fragment used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create a desired effect.Something to consider.

SUBJECT + VERB ( , ) but SUBJECT + VERB ( . )oryetsoforandnor

SUBJECT + VERB ( ; ) therefore ( , ) SUBJECT + VERB ( . )howeverneverthelessconsequentlyfurthermorefor examplethus

If SUBJECT + VERB ( , ) SUBJECT + VERB ( . )BecauseSinceWhenWhileAlthoughAfterEven beforeAs long asWhenever

1

2

NINE S ent e nce P a tterns

SUBJECT + VERB ( . )My boss warned me about being late .

SUBJECT + VERB ( ; ) SUBJECT + VERB ( . )My boss warned me about being late ; he didn't fire me .

3.

My boss warned me about being late , but he didn't fire me .

4.

My boss warned me about being late ; however , he didn't fire me .

5.

Although my boss warned me about being late , he didn't fire me .

a. ―You’re fired,‖ he said.b. He said, ―You’re fired.‖c. ―You,‖ he said, ―are fired.‖d. Who said that you’re fired?e. Who said, ―You’re fired‖?f. Who said, ―Were you fired?‖

SUBJECT + VERB if SUBJECT + VERB ( . )becausesincewhenwhilealthoughaftereven beforeas long aswhenever

SUBJECT ( , ) a wealthy banker ( , ) VERB ( . )on the other handhis heart beating wildly

6.

My boss didn't fire me although he warned me about being late .

7.My boss , a compassionate person , didn't fire me .

8. SUBJECT + VERB ( : ) A, B, C, and D .My boss gave me some gifts: an alarm clock, a beeper, a watch, and a book .

9. DIALOGUE

Section 6Formal Writing

F o r m al Wri t ing Guideli n es

√ No contractions--Do not use words such as: don’t, weren’t, can’to It is okay to use possessive pronouns. Don’t confuse the two different uses of apostrophes.

√ No abbreviations unless explained.o This is okay: The United Nations (UN) did not support the forceful removal of Hussein. On Monday, the

UN discussed his poor leadership and failure to follow UN sanctions.o This is NOT okay: The UN (United Nations) or … The UN did not support…

√ No baby wordso Remove these words from your writing vocabulary: get, got, put, go, going, said, stuff, things, goes, putting,

etc. (See ―Baby Words‖ list)

√ Remove the following phrases (or anything like them): “I think that,” “I believe,” “I will tell you about,” “I thought,” “This paragraph is about”o You are the writer – Of course, you THINK! If you didn’t think it, you wouldn’t write it!

√ Avoid using questions in your writing.o This is usually by very young or very advanced writers. You only use questions IF they are well-crafted

rhetorical questions; generally avoid them if possible.

√ No first or second person!o ―I‖ is first person;―You‖ is second person…use only THIRD person in formal writing. ―The reader,‖ and

―one might think…‖ are third person.

√ Write out numbers that are less than ten, or numbers that start a sentence.o One, two, three, four, and so on are not hard to write. Spell them out! If a large number is starting a sentence

then you must spell it out completely. i.e. Two million, four hundred fifty two thousand, two hundred elevenrabbits were found on the field.

√ Do not END a sentence with a preposition: above, about, to, from, etc.

√ Avoid using parentheses in your text.o Parenthetical citations are expected, as well as parentheses used to explain an abbreviation.! They are what parentheses are used for in formal papers. Otherwise, unnecessary parenthesis in writing interrupts the thought process of the reader and detracts from the essay.

√ Correctly format and ATTACH your Works Cited page when in-text and / or parenthetical citations are used.

Rhetorica l Mo desFollowing are listed seven rhetorical modes of communication. Some of these you are no doubt familiar with. We will not specifically address each, but you are expected to be able torecognize the form. Please note that the following are not definitions. They are examples.

1. Narration "I was seven years old when I first became aware of the terrible power of guilt. For piling our toys into a box, Mother rewarded my brother and me with five shiny pennies. If I had ten pennies instead of five, I could have bought a gingerbread man with raisin eyes and sugar-frosted hair."

2. Description Never before had Pedro experienced such a depth of despair and such a sense of isolation. he began to avoid those nearest to him, returning their friendly greetings with rough and indifferent replies. Often he sat in his room staring vacantly into space with hollow eyes. His hands were cold and clammy most of the time; yet his forehead burned hot with a mysterious fever.

3. Example Seneca once said, "Every guilty person is his own hangman." The truth of this observation can be illustrated by the lives of countless villains. Once such is Macbeth, from Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name. At the instigation of his wife, Macbeth kills the king of Scotland and usurps his throne - an act of treachery for which Macbeth and his wife suffer torments of guilt.

4. Definition Guilt is the remorse that comes from an awareness of having done something wrong. The origin of guilt is psychological. From childhood, we have all been conditioned by family and society to act within defined standards of reasonableness and decency.

5. Comparison and Contrast Although the first two words may seem to share some connotations, guilt is not a synonym for blame. Guilt must be felt; blame must be assessed. Guilt implies self-reproach that comes from an internal consciousness of wrong. Blame hints at fault that has been externally assessed.

6. Division and Classification The Bible identifies three kinds of guilt: guilt of the unpardonable sin, redeemable guilt, and guilt of innocence. First, the guilt of the unpardonable sin...Second, redeemable guilt is guilt that can be erased...Finally, the guilt of innocence is the guilt that Jesus bore...

7. Causal Analysis Guilt is caused by the failure of the will. The human mind, according to Freudian theory, is delicately balanced between the drive for instant gratification that comes for the id, and the desire for regulation and postponement that originates in the superego, which is sometimes identified with what we call he conscience.

Writers’ W o r k sh o p I n t r odu c t i on s

Why bother writing a good introduction?

1. You never get a second chance to make a first impression. The opening paragraph of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions of your argument, your writing style, and the overall quality of your work. A concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will start your readers off thinking highly of you, your analytical skills, your writing, and your paper.

2. Your introduction is an important road map for the rest of your paper. Your introduction conveys a great deal of information to your readers. You should let them know what your topic is, why it is important, and how you plan to proceed with your discussion. Your introduction should contain a thesis that will assert your main arguments. Your intro will also, ideally, give the reader a sense of the kinds of information you will use to make those arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs and pages that will follow. After reading your introduction, your reader should not have any major surprises in store when reading your paper.

3. Ideally, your introduction will make your readers want to read your paper. The introduction should capture your readers' interest, making them want to read the rest of your paper. Opening with a fascinating quotation, an interesting question, or a stirring example can get your readers to see why this topic matters.

S t r a teg i e s f o r w r i t i n g an e f f e c t i v e i n t r odu c t i o n :

Start by thinking about the essay prompt. Your entire essay will be a response to the essay prompt, and your introduction is the first step toward that end. Your direct answer to the assigned prompt will be your thesis, and your thesis will be included in your introduction, so it is a good idea to use the prompt as a jumping off point for creating the thesis.

Don't be afraid to write a tentative introduction first and then change it later. Some people find that they need to write some kind of introduction in order to get the writing process started. That's fine, but, be sure to return to your initial introduction to make sure it is accurate for your paper, and rewrite the intro if necessary.

I n t r odu c t i o n T e c hn i que s

Introductions establish the direction your writing is going to take. A good introduction grabs your reader's attention and refuses to let go. But - what's a good way to begin writing? Here are some suggestions:

OPEN WITH A BOLD AND CHALLENGING STATEMENT: Contrary to what some people think, not all people in America had equal rights at the turn of the 20th century.

OPEN WITH A QUOTATION: "We have nothing to fear but fear itself" are the words Franklin D. Roosevelt uttered on Inauguration Day in 1932.

OPEN WITH HOW YOU FEEL: Two hundred years after Thomas Jefferson wrote them, his words still inspire 21st century teenagers, to rise to their better selves.

OPEN WITH HISTORIC BACKGROUND: In the middle of the 20th century, race was still a large factor in American life, particularly as it applied to school segregation policies

OPEN WITH A REACTION:Although many American male citizens were against women gaining the right to vote, Susan B. Anthony persevered, causing America's women to react by taking up her fight and winning the right to vote.

Things N O T to do in an introductory paragraph: Do not apologize. Never suggest that you don't know what you're writing about or that you're not enough

of an expert in this area that your opinion would matter. Your reader will quickly turn to something else. Avoid phrases like the following:

In my [humble] opinion . . .

I'm not sure about this, but . . .

Do not announce your intentions. Do not flatly announce what you are about to do in an essay.In this paper I will . . .The purpose of this essay is to . . .

Instead, do get into the topic and let your reader perceive your purpose in the topic sentence of your beginning paragraph.

Do not ask a silly questionHave you ever wondered about Abraham Lincoln?

What is a thesis?A t t r i bu tes o f a G oo d T he s i s

A thesis statement declares what you believe and what you intend to prove and will help you focus your paper. The thesis statement is typically located at the end of your opening paragraph. The introductory paragraph serves to set the context for your thesis.

Attributes of a good thesis: It should propose an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree; it takes a stand and justifies

the discussion you will present. It is specific and focused. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing “everything” about a subject. Instead

of “music,” think specifically, "American jazz in the 1930s" and your argument about it. It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on the text evidence you’ll present. Your thesis provides the reader with a map to guide him / her through your work. Your thesis should lead the

reader toward the topic sentences (literary devices). It uses definite language and avoids vague language like “It seems.” It avoids first and second person references (I, me, my, you, our, we, us).

Simple equations for a thesis might look something like this:Specific topic + Argument = ThesisWhat you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = ThesisTheme of pain and suffering + Literary Devices = Thesis

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Attributes of Body ParagraphsTopic Sentences:

The literary device should be present in the topic sentence.

Setting the Context: What was happening in history that is relevant to the text you’ll quote, or, what is happening in the text

just before the quote you’ll give?

Introducing Quotes: NEVER begin a sentence with a quote. Instead, introduce the quote this way (this serves as an in-text

citation AND an introduction to your quote!): In line four Dunbar writes, “With torn and bleeding hearts we smile.”

Integrate Quotes: Then, surround quotes with your own words like this: In line four Dunbar writes, “With torn and

bleeding hearts we smile,” giving the reader an excellent example of paradox.

Or, use a parenthetical citation, like this:Dunbar writes, “With torn and bleeding hearts we smile,” giving the reader an excellent example ofparadox (4).

Elaboration Methods: Most students don’t elaborate enough. Consider adding: Action verbs, adjectives/adverbs (describing

words), definitions examples/explanations, facts and figures, figurative language, reasons, or sensory images (descriptions that appeal to the senses) to your writing to fully elaborate. Remember, when done well, elaboration pushes your argument further; it never merely restates points you’ve already made.

Sentence Variety Methods: You want a variety of sentence beginnings. Check your sentences: if they begin similarly, change them. You also want a variety of sentence lengths – short, medium and long (but not r u n - o n sentences). Check

to make sure you have a variety of sentence lengths.

You should never have a quotation standing alone as a complete sentence in your writing. Be friendly to your quotes and introduce them.

The Introductory Phrase..

Introductory phrases with the proper punctuation are the most common signals to a reader that you are presenting another author's ideas.

T he r e are a t l ea st f ou r w a y s to i n t e gr a te quo t a t i on s .

1. Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and a colon. This is an easy rule to remember: if you use a complete sentence to introduce a quotation, you need a colon after the sentence.

Albert Einstein reminds us all to never waste our life being selfish: “On l y a li f e l i v e d f o r o thers is w o r th livin g "

2. Use an introductory or explanatory phrase, but not a complete sentence, separated from the quotation with a comma. You should use a comma to separate your own words from the quotation when your introductory or

http://en.thinkexist.com/quotation/Only_a_life_lived_for_others_is_worth/183432.html

explanatory phrase ends with a verb such as "said," "thinks," "believes," "pondered," "recalls," "questions," and "asks" etc.. You should also use a comma when you introduce a quotation with an attribution phrase such as "According to Mr. Ditch."

Homer Simpson shouted, "I am so s m a rt! I a m so s m a r t! S - M -R - T! I m ean, S - M - A - R -T!"

3. Make the quotation a part of your own sentence without any punctuation between your own words and the words you are quoting. Notice that the word "that" is used in examples. When it is used as it is in the example, “that" replaces the comma which would be necessary without "that" in the sentence. You usually have a choice, then, when you begin a sentence with a phrase such as "Thoreau says" -- You either can add a comma after "said," or you can add the word "that" with no comma.

Jerry Seinfield once said that there are “Four Levels of Comedy: make your friends laugh, make strangerslaugh, get paid to make strangers laugh and make people talk like you because it's so much fun."

Jerry Seinfield once said, there are “Four Levels of Comedy: make your friends laugh, make strangers laugh,get paid to make strangers laugh, and make people talk like you because it's so much fun."

4. Use short quotations--only a few words--as part of your own sentence. When you integrate quotations in this way, you do not use any special punctuation. Instead, you should punctuate the sentence just as you would if all of the words were your own.

An Irish saying reminds us that friends who “gossip with you” may also be friends who gossip about you.

Ab o u t C on cl u s i on s

The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to synthesize (bring together) your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment and where you can consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

S t r a teg i e s f o r w r i t i n g an e f f e c t i v e c on cl u s i o n

Synthesize, don't repeat: Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. The reader has read it. Show the reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together for a purpose.

Redirect your readers: Give your reader something new to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the"real" world. Think globally.

Create a new meaning: You don't have to give new information (and should not) to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.

Echoing the introduction: Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full- circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.

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Challenging the reader: By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.

Example

Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.

Looking to the future: Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.

A General Summary of Aristotle's Greek Appeals . . .

The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade your audience that your ideas are valid, or more valid than someone else's. The Greek philosopher, Aristotle, divided the means of persuasion, (appeals) into three categories--Ethos, Pathos, Logos.

Ethos (Credibility of the speaker or moral argument) means convincing another by using the character of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. One of the central problems of a persuasive argument is to convince the reader that you are someone worth listening to, in other words making yourself as author into an authority on the subject, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect. Ethos also means the ethical or moral point that the author makes in his or her argument.

Pathos (Emotional) means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. We can look at contemporary advertisements to see how pathos (emotional appeals) are used to persuade. Word choice (diction) affects the audience's emotional response, and emotional appeal can effectively be used to enhance an argument.

Logos (Logical) means persuading by the use of logical reasoning. This will be the most important technique we will study, and Aristotle's favorite. Giving logical reasons to persuade another person is the heart of persuasive argument.

In your 5 paragraph essay you must use the each of the three Greek Appeals --ethos, pathos and logos -- to make your argument.

Literary device + Greek appeal = Rhetorical Strategy

Example: diction (word choice) pathos (emotional response) rhetorical strategy author uses to argue

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Sorting Out Ethos Pathos and LogosEthos

The credibility of the speaker, or the ethical,

moral argument

Pathos

The appeal to the emotions

Logos

The appeal to logic

Language appropriate to audience and subject

Restrained, sincere, fair minded presentation

Appropriate level of vocabulary

Correct grammar

Author has credible background in the subject matter

Author uses a moral / ethical argument

Author uses reliable and appropriate support through accuracy of facts

Emotionally loaded language

Emotional examples

Emotional tone

Narratives (stories) of emotional events

Connotative meanings

Vivid descriptions

Figurative language

Theoretical, abstract language

Denotative (literal) meanings / reasons; Definitions

Literal and historical analogies

Factual data and statistics

Quotations

Citations from experts and authorities

Opinions informed by facts.

The Effect:

Demonstrates the author's reliability and competence;

demonstrates respect for the audience's ideas and

values.

Evokes an emotional response from the

audience.

Evokes a cognitive, logical, and rational response from the

audience.

Persuasive Checklist

Firm position Appeals to audience Rhetorical questions Persuasive word choices Consider opposing arguments Concession and rebuttal Causal chain reasoning Compromise solutions Problem solving Citing of writer/others as ―experts‖ Statistics as support Call to action Repetition used for effect (reoccurrence) Preponderance of evidence (more expository)

Please Note:

o These techniques strengthen persuasive writing.

o This is not a list of all possible persuasive techniques.

o These techniques often work together and/or overlap.

o Persuasive papers often are moreconcise (i.e., shorter) than expository responses.

Persuasiv e WritingG oal: Share your view with a reader willing to consider it. You will express your view clearly and vigorously. In the end you will help your reader see and understand one more view of reality.

You are writing a persuasive piece of writing in which you will state your opinion about a topic. In stating your opinion you are stating the truth as you see it, but remember to keep your reader’s/audience’s point of view in mind as well. To persuade your reader to see your viewpoint you need to learn how to organize a persuasive piece of writing.

I. Introduction Your opening statement must clearly state your position and the topic of the paper. Do not start by saying that your view is ABSOLUTELY right and is the only way. It is probably best to state what you think your reader thinks; as best you can infer it. You do not need to state the other side to flatter your reader; you do this so that you show your audience that you

are a well-rounded individual who realizes there are (at least) two sides to every issue.

II. The argument When trying to win over a reader who doesn’t share your view, you use argument. Not a loud disagreement. Three common types of argument: Editorial, thoughtful articles, and other persuasive statements. Argument is reasoning. Making statements that lead to a conclusion. To support your argument you need evidence – anything that demonstrates what you are trying to say.

Evidence includes: facts, statistics, expert opinions, illustrations and examples, reported evidence and published research.

Each piece of evidence must be cited correctly (in-text citations) and must be fully cited on the WorksCited page.

III. How to write an argument- you prove your thesis! You assert the views you are going to defend. This is called a proposition or thesis of your argument or claim. It is a statement of what you believe.

IV. Types of argument Rational appeal (Logic or Logos)

Conventional method of reasoning. Supplies the reader with figures, facts and other evidence.

Emotional appeal (Pathos) Writer may re-state what the reader already knows. Appeal to the writers feeling. Example: MLK Jr. did not share new information, but appealed to the emotional senses of the people.

Ethical appeal (Ethos) Impressing your reader that you are a well-informed person of goodwill, good sense and good moral

character, therefore believable. You make a good appeal because you reason carefully, write well and have a lot of evidence to support

your view. Quote respected authorities.

V. How to Reason T he C l a i m : Statement that is proven by evidence which supports some aspect of your thesis. A claim MUST be

connected to your thesis.

T he D a t a : or evidence to prove something. T he War r an t : the assumption or principle that connects the data to the claim. The discussion piece, which clearly

shows how, claims and date prove/support the thesis. A common flaw in many arguments is that the warrant is not clear. To be persuaded, a reader needs to understand your assumption and the thinking that follows from them.

VI. Organization At the beginning of your essay clearly state the proposition or claim you are going to defend. The last sentence of your introductory paragraphs will be your THESIS. It is ONE very clear sentence that is what

you intend to focus your ENTIRE paper around. If it does not connect to your thesis or support your thesis, itdoes NOT go in the paper.

For every point give evidence, facts, figures, examples, and/or expert opinions. This does not mean the paragraph is full of evidence only. The data supports your discussion. Make

sure there is much more to the paragraphs than data/evidence. If your paragraph has no discussion, no transitions between evidences you will FAIL the paper.

Of course the evidences are cited correctly in your paper, and the full citation will be found on theWorks Cited page.

Make sure statistics are up to date. Tackle the opposition at the end of your essay: reason with your opponents. In conclusion briefly re-state your claims. You do need to have a conversation that states your position and what you want to happen. Do not forget other types if writing you have learned that will aid in your argument.

Descriptive writing, compare and contrast, narrative.

VII. Common mistakes Warrant, claim, and data do not support thesis. Oversimplification. Either/or reasoning: giving only two solutions. No conversation in the text…only data. Argument from doubtful or unidentifiable authority: ―My Aunt Betty says…‖ Closing paragraph is very ―5 paraagraph essayish.‖ Argument against a person’s character: ―Mayor Bob is stealing money from the city’s funds. How can we listen

to his pleas for a new nursing home?‖ Arguing in a circle: ―I am going to college because it is the right thing to do. Going to college is the right thing to

do because it is expected of me. I am going to college to do the right thing.‖ Do not feel you have to use all the evidence you collected. You will put your reader to sleep. Use only the most

powerful and persuasive bits of information.

Checklist for Writing to Explain

My essay will explain successfully if I include thoughtful and specific content and organize my writing well. That means I should

follow the directions given in the writing prompt; narrow my topic; stay focused on the main ideas; elaborate by using reasons, well-chosen and specific details, examples, and/or anecdotes to

support my ideas; include information that is interesting, thoughtful, and necessary for my audience to know; organize my writing with an introduction, supporting paragraphs with main points and elaboration,

and an effective conclusion; organize my writing in paragraphs; use transitions to connect my ideas.

My essay will explain successfully if I demonstrate an effective style. That means I should

show that I care about my topic by writing in a voice appropriate for my audience and purpose, use language that is appropriate for my audience and purpose, use specific words and phrases that help the reader understand my ideas, use different types and lengths of sentences.

My essay will be more effective if I follow conventions in writing. That means I should

follow the rules of grammar and Standard English usage, spell words correctly, use correct capitalization, use correct punctuation, write complete sentences, show where new paragraphs begin.

Section 7

Elaboration Techniques

Meth o ds o f El a b o rati o n Mary Ellen Ledbetter

Ready-to-Use English Workshop Activities

1. Action Verbs – words that depict action in the physical world.

Pottery, that’s all it was / Pastelled with green, pink; / blotted with sunset and clear October mornings / I had never seen such beauty / A young woman / hair nested in a bun / clutching tight to her daughter (Lindsey Daugherty)giggled, buzzed, watching, bubbles, circles, yawn, flailed, writhes, peeks, wag

2. Adjectives/Adverbs – describing words.

You were bone skinny, legs the size of a supermodel’s arms, had dark tree-bark skin, two shades darker than mine. Your long, black hair was … Your pants were a pair of hundred-year-old-need-to-be-thrown- out-or-burned jeans. Your skinny feet were devoured by oversized working boots. (Sarah Mitchell)Walking through the wheat fields that looked solemnly down on me, I would lose myself in the beauty of the day. The thin wheat stalks swaying beneath the sky whispered gloriously in unison. (Amy Kirch)

3. Allusions – brief of slight mention of someone or something to emphasize your point. In Jewel’sSong ―Stand,‖ she uses allusion several times to refer to people in history.

Marvin Gaye, there's no brother, brother Woody Guthrie's land can't feed Mother While in the corner, King's dream dies

4. Analogies – A comparison between two things used to make a point or idea memorable: comparing lips to a rose or school to prison. They are often used in extended form in arguments. An argument based on analogy, for example, is as follows: advertising cigarettes is like manslaughter. Arguments by analogy are easily refuted since analogies can only hold so far.

5. Anecdotes - A short narrative account of an amusing, unusual, revealing, or interesting event.

I remember those days when I would just sit down on the bed and watch Daddy let black socls engulf his feet, squeeze his size-twelve feet into size-ten shoes, and I would be elated when he asked me to button his sleeves. When we walked out the door, he would always remind me, ―Remember, we’re not poor, so don’t let anyone say that to you. We just have financial problems.‖ (Jerrod Morgan)

6. Definitions – provide a definition of a term for explanation, for further description, to show the essential nature, to define boundaries, or to entertain.The doctor gasped as he pulled some scary-looking object -- almost a perfect oval –and placed it on the table. He studied the ―thing‖ as if he were a carrion-eating bird, a vulture swooping down on a freshly killed waterbuck, an antelope with a reddish-brown coat. The only apparent difference was that his coat was white. (Victoria Siegelman)According to Webster's Dictionary, a government is the authority that serves the people and acts on their behalf. How can the government know what the people want if the people do not vote? If we do not vote, the government may act on its own behalf instead of on the behalf of the people.

7. Descriptions – provide MORE information about your topic (usually with adjectives and/or adverbs)

He was an 83-year old, my-way-or-the-highway, beer-drinking, cigar-smoking, cowboy-hat- wearing man that just so happened to be my grandfather. (Jose Campos)

8. Dialogue – using quotations. It can be dialogue between people, internal dialogue, or even an example or what someone might say.We have all had ―fake‖ friendships, people who have talked about us or done something behind our backs or simply made fun of us. Lots of people gossip about others just to make themselves look good or to be the center of attention, but people don’t like liars. These ―fake‖ friends might lie and say something like “Did you ear that Bob likes Barbara so Barbara broke up with nick because she said she never really liked him in the first place?” Or “I hear she‟s anorexic. That‟s how she dropped all that weight.” OR “Did you know that Allison cheated on her science test? I saw her myself. You know she couldn‟t get those „A‟s‟ without cheating!” Rumors spread and rumors hurt. (Camille Malone)

9. Examples/Explanations/IllustrationsOut of all my friends in the seven continents of the world, beyond a shadow of a doubt, he was my best friend. We were like Batman and Robin, the dynamic duo. He helped me to be brave when I made a “69” on my report card, and I was afraid my mom would rip me into shreds like paper in a shredder. (Brian Fontenot)

10. Facts and Figures - Give specific facts and details to support your writing.

Statistics are often tossed around as if they could speak for themselves. For example, advertisers claim "Ivory soap is99% pure." (Pure what?) Or a researcher may claim that "the average American today watches 5.3 hours of TV per day." (What does "average" mean?) – These need MORE information!

We were going on a class trip to Moody Gardens, and I was bored with the subject. I mean, who cared about tropical fish or exotic butterflies, like the Morphinae or Dryuus butterfly? Definitely not me! (Merrit Drewery)

11. Figurative Language –simile--a comparison between two distinctly different things using "like" or "as" (My love's like a red, red rose)

metaphor--a figure of speech in which two unlike objects are implicitly compared without the use of "like" or "as." (Her eyes are jewels)

hyperbole--a very strong exaggeration. (Her smile is as wide as the ocean!)

personification--giving an inhuman thing human quality. (The diamonds are jealous of your beauty!)

12. Quotations – usually from a famous person in literature or history.

There I was perched precariously on a boulder, watching wildlife as it was meant to be. It was then I remembered Grandpa reading to me: “Stop this day and night with me and you shall possess the…/good of earth and sun…/there are millions of suns left.” He said that some guy named Walt Whitman wrote it, but I never understood it until right now (Greg Poston).Someone said – I think it was Shakespeare—that friendship comes and friendship goes, but love lasts forever. Whoever said this couldn’t have been more wrong. This is a true story of lasting friendship (Scott Smith).

13. Reasons – back up what you say with evidence or reasons.

One of the main reasons that girls are different than boys is their appearance. Girls are very picky about their apparel and how they look. It‟s a commonly known fact that girls carry the contents of a survival kit and everything including the kitchen sink in their purses (Kyle Christian).

14. Sensory Images – descriptions that appeal to the senses. Imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. Imagery is not limited to visual imagery; it also includes auditory (sound), tactile (touch), thermal (heat and cold), olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), and kinesthetic sensation (movement).Visual - a ginger cat, very tall and thin

streaked glass, flashing with sunlight

Auditory - strong melodious songscrackling splinters of glass and dried putty

Tactile - soft shapes . . . inside the hard bodies

Persuasiv e E la bo ratio nAlliteration: ―curse, kick, and even kill,‖ ―tongue twisted,‖ ―speech stammering.‖

Analogy: This tool is not limited to poets. Essay writers often use figures of speech or comparisons (simile, metaphor, personification) for desired emphasis.

Analogy: This tool is not limited to poets. Essay writers often use figures of speech or comparisons (simile, metaphor, personification) for desired emphasis.

Balanced Binaries: ―Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. . . Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly.‖

Bandwagon: trying to convince viewers that a pro d uct is good because "everyone" is buying it; encouraging people to "jump on the bandwagon"

Call on Authority: ―But though I was initially disappointed at being categorized as an extremist, as I continued to think about the matter I gradually gained a measure of satisfaction from the label. Was not Jesus an extremist for love. . .?‖

Card stacking: telling the facts for one side only

Definition of Important Terms: ―Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community which as constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the issue.‖

Direct Response: ―One of the basic points in your statement is that the action that I and my associates have takenin Birmingham is untimely.‖

Emotional Appeal: Writers may appeal to fear, anger or joy to sway their readers. They may also add climax or excitement. This technique is strongly connected to the essay's mood.

Establish Credibility: ―I have the honor of serving as president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, an organization operating in every southern state, with headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia.‖

Glittering Generality: exaggerating the merits of a product using general, unsupported and often meaningless statements; nice words

Humor: satire; amusing instances

Hyperbole: This is one of the more enjoyable persuasive techniques. It involves completely overstating and exaggerating your point for effect. (Like when your mom says, "I must have asked you a million times to clean your room!" Get it?)

Image Advertising: presenting a desirable situation or lifestyle in order to convince the viewers that if they use a product, they, too can have this lifestyle; beautiful people

Irony: Irony is present if the writer‘s words contain more than one meaning. This may be in the form of sarcasm, gentle irony, or a pun (play on words). It can be used to add humor or to emphasize an implied meaning under the surface. The writer's "voice" becomes important here.

Metaphor, Simile, Analogy: ―Let us all hope that the dark clouds of racial prejudice will soon pass away and thedeep fog of misunderstanding will be lifted from out fear-drenched communities.‖

Name Calling: describing bad aspects of a competitor's product so that the advertised product seems better

Parallelism: When an author creates a "balanced" sentence by re-using the same word structure, this is calledparallelism. Always strive for parallelism when using compound or complex sentences.

Plain Folk: using actors who represent "average" people to suggest that, because people in advertisements resemble friends and neighbors, the product they are using must be good

Repetition: Repeating an element within one advertisement so that viewers will remember the advertisement and will buy the product. Also refers to the repetition of the same advertisement. Overly repetitive writing can become tiresome. However, when used sparingly for effect, it can reinforce the writer's message and/or entertain the reader. Writers may repeat a word, a phrase or an entire sentence for emphasis.

Rhetorical Question: Sometimes a writer will ask a question to which no answer is required. The writer implies that the answer is obvious; the reader has no choice but to agree with the writer's point.

Specific Examples: ―When you have seen vicious mobs lynch your mothers and fathers at whim. . . when you take a cross-country drive and find it necessary to sleep night after night in the uncomfortable corners of your automobile because no motel will accept you. . .when you are humiliated day in day out by nagging signs reading ‗white‘ and‗colored. . . .‘‖

Snob Appeal: This technique suggests that you can be like the expensively dressed, perfectly shaped people who use this product.

Testimonial: someone will testify that the advertised product did indeed help them or is a good one to buy because they tried it, and it worked

Transfer: a message attached to a symbol

Word Choice (Diction): Is a person "slim" or "skinny"? Is an oil spill an "incident" or an "accident"? Is a government expenditure an "investment" or a "waste"? Writers tend to reinforce their arguments by choosing words which will influence their reader's perception of an item or issue. Diction may also help to establish a writer's "Voice" or "Tone".

Elaboration -- Writing to Explain

Definition and Forms of Elaboration

Elaboration is the process of developing ideas by providing supporting details. These details may take the form of facts, sensory details, definitions, examples, anecdotes, scenarios, description, quotations—to name a few. A writer elaborates on his or her ideas so that a reader will understand more clearly what he or she is saying. Thoughtful elaboration is guided by the purpose for the writing and the needs of the audience.

Types of Elaboration

Whatever the form of elaboration (facts, anecdotes, examples, etc.), a writer may choose to include it in extensions, lists, or in a more developed layered approach. Although most sentences have extensions and lists can be used to elaborate, for example in presenting an overview of a community at the beginning of an essay, the most effective writing usually has some multiple layers of relevant elaboration—the type of elaboration determined, of course, by the designated audience for, and purpose of, the piece of writing.

What is extension? This means minor detail(s) added to the kernel sentence (mostly phrases and clauses) which move the idea slightly forward. For example, “...there is a 1977 Corvette in it and it is orange with racing suspension...” The extensions here are orange and the brief phrase with racing suspension.

What is listed support/elaboration? It is a list that supports the idea or reason. This list can be reordered without confusing the meaning of the text. For example, “One thing I would put in the box are footballs. Well one reason why I would do that is because it shows what my favorite sport was at the time. Another is it tells what I did every weekend with friends. It also shows what I always dreamed of doing for a job...becoming a football star.”

What is layered elaboration? This refers to the sentence-to-sentence progression of ideas (explanation) that further develops the main idea (and supporting ideas) by digging deeper through the use of specific examples, anecdotes, details, etc. In this case, a hypothetical re-ordering of the support will harm the connection between ideas as those ideas build from one to the next. For example, “The weather here can be warm and sunny one day, but the next day it can pour down rain. It would almost be unpredictable if we didn’t have the weather channel or the news. On warm, dry days people try to do as much as they can. So when it’s a rainy day they can stay inside and keep warm.‖ Here is another example: “Every kid loves candy and you can pass out candy! For example: make a chart with all of your students' names on it. Then, on every Friday check which people turned in their homework! However many X’s or checks they have is how many pieces of candy they get.”

What is causal elaboration? This refers to a cause/effect relationship which sometimes might be in a chain of events where one action leads to the next (snowball or domino effect). For example, “Once you’ve got used to this and you’re in 4th quarter of the school year you still have to work hard. If you don’t then your grade drops and that lowers your semester grade. So do all of the homework because you don’t want to get bad grades on those because usually they are 50% of your grade and these could most definitely lower your grade in class.”

Section 8Writing Rubrics

Literary Analysis Essay Rubric(100%) SCORE SIX - A six paper is superior. It does ALL OR MOST of the following:

Focuses and develops ideas in a sustained and compelling manner, showing creativity and insight. Makes clear, and convincing defendable inferential connections to the text with important and relevant evidence. Commentary shows a

deep understanding of the piece of literature as a whole. Effectively organizes ideas in a clear, logical, detailed, and coherent manner using appropriate structures to enhance the central idea. Demonstrates involvement with the text and speaks purposefully to the audience in an appropriate, individualistic, and engaging manner. Uses multiple sentence structures and word choices effectively and with a sense of control for stylistic effect. Commits few, if any, errors in Standard English rules for grammar/usage and mechanics.

(90-99%) SCORE FIVE -A five paper is distinctly above average. It does ALL OR MOST of the following: Focuses and develops ideas in an effective and detailed manner. Makes clear, defendable inferential connections to the text with important and relevant evidence. Commentary is provided to explain the

connections to the whole piece of literature. Organizes ideas clearly and coherently using structures appropriate to purposes. Communicates a sense of commitment to the topic and to the audience's involvement. Uses varied sentence structure and word choice effectively. Commits few errors in Standard English grammar/usage and mechanics.

(80-89%) SCORE FOUR - A four paper is adequate. It exhibits ALL OR MOST of the following characteristics: Adequately focuses and develops ideas with detail. Defends inferential connections with support and clarity, using relevant evidence. Commentary explains inferential connections. Organizes ideas in a satisfactory manner with adequate coherence and logic. Uses a voice that is appropriate to audience and purpose. Uses a variety of sentence structures and word choice, but occasionally displays some wordiness or ineffective diction; sentences may be

predictable. Commits some errors in Standard English grammar/usage and mechanics that do not impede meaning; indicates basic understanding of

conventions.

(70-79%) SCORE THREE -A three paper is inadequate. It is clearly flawed in SOME OR ALL of the following ways: Focuses, but may not display mature or well-developed content. Attempts inferential claims but position is unclear and/or evidence is brief, tangential or based solely on personal opinion. Commentary

may be present but does not always connect to the claim or evidence. Displays minimal organization; contains irrelevancies, digresses, rambles, or lacks logic. Lacks sincerity of purpose in the writer’s attempt to involve the audience appropriately. Uses sentence structure and word choice that are somewhat limited, simplistic, mundane, or otherwise inappropriate. Contains flaws in Standard English rules of grammar/usage and mechanics that do not impede meaning; indicates some consistent

misunderstanding of the conventions.

(60-69%) SCORE TWO - A two paper is very weak. It reveals serious and persistent problems in communications. It compounds the weaknesses of the 3 paper in SOME OR ALL of the following ways:

Lacks focus and development; may list items with little or no supporting detail. Inferential claim is unclear or absent; evidence is vague or missing. Commentary may be provided but does not connect to claims or

evidence. Contains serious flaws in structure, organization and coherence. Attempts, but fails in the writer’s attempt to involve the audience appropriately. Uses sentence structure and word choices that are highly limited, simplistic, or otherwise inappropriate. Displays consistent violations in Standard English rules of grammar/usage and mechanics that impede understanding.

(50-59 %) SCORE ONE - A one paper is extremely weak. It has few redeeming qualities. It at least mentions the topic, but generally fails to communicate with the reader. It does SOME OR ALL of the following:

Simply repeats the topic or fails to provide adequate development. Fails to establish inferential claims; evidence is not apparent. Commentary is absent. Shows almost no structure, organization or coherence. Does not address the audience appropriately. Uses limited and/or immature sentence structure and word choice. Overwhelms the reader with serious violations of Standard English rules grammar/usage and mechanics.

Name Peer Editing Evaluation Your tasks:.

1. Use a copy machine to copy and print this page, or recreate it on notebook paper.2. Evaluate” your peer editors. Using the rubric below, score each person who peer edited your essay, and

provide an explanation for the score. Keep in mind, if your essay is really good, it may be hard for people to find much to improve upon.

3. Revise your essay using the suggestions your peers provided, and revise/edit anything else that you see. It might be a good time to review the essay grading rubric!

Evaluate Your Evaluator Rubric4

Provided specific, quality feedback to improve the essay. Included at least two positive comments, and three or more specific suggestions for improvement.

3Provided some quality feedback. There were two positive comments and three suggestions for improvement.

2Provided feedback. Comments may be all negative. Suggestions for improvement may be too vague to really help.

1Provided little to no feedback. The comments are not specific or don’t follow the directions of the forum.

Peer Evaluator’s Name Score Explanation for Score

Section 9Formatting RulesFor Typed Work

Exp ectatio ns Fo r Typ ed TextPaper: on one side of Standard 8 ½‖ x 11‖ paper

Line spacing: Always double spaced (without any extra spaces between paragraphs)

Margins: 1‖ on all sides

Font: Size 12 font, Times New Roman

o Plain print font (no ALL CAPS, script, bold, or italics)

Font Style: Use Italics for book titles and plays such as Romeo and Juliet. Use quotation marks for poems, songs, speeches and shorter works. Do not Bold

Heading: On the first page only in the upper left hand corner:

o First and Last Nameo Teacher Name / Periodo Class Title / Assignment Nameo Due dateo Essay Focus

Header: Last name and page number in upper right header position on all pages including Works Cited andWorks Consulted.

Pagination: Last name and page number in the top right corner (using a header)

Works Cited: All Works Cited citations on a separate page at the end of the final draft. All Works Consulted citations on one page behind the Works Cited page. Use MLA 7 format. Do not include URLs List in Alphabetical Order. Using hanging indents.

Galler 1

Brittany Galler

Mrs. Mygatt – 3rd Period

Magnet LA

Synthesis Essay

Due: 2/18/16Focus: Sentence fluency

Cell Phones Off the Road

When a cell phone goes off in a classroom or at a concert, we are irritated, but at least our lives are not

endangered. When we are on the road, however, irresponsible cell phone users are more than irritating: They

are putting our lives at risk. Some of us have witnessed drivers so distracted by dialing and chatting that they

resemble drunk drivers weaving, for example, or they nearly run down pedestrians in crosswalks. Regulation is

needed because drivers using cell phones are seriously impaired and because laws on negligent and reckless

driving are not sufficient to punish offenders.

A recent Time magazine article reports on an unscientific survey of its readers. It states that over two

million people responded to their survey reporting actual collisions or ―near misses‖ because of the use of cell

phones (Walker 39). But scientific research also confirms the dangers of using phones while on the road. In

1997, an important study appeared in the ―New England Journal of Medicine.‖ The author, Donald Redelmeier,

studied 699 volunteers who made their cell phone bills available in order to confirm the times when they had

placed calls. The participants reported any nonfatal collision in which they were involved. By comparing the

time of a collision with the phone records, the researchers assessed the results:

We found that using a cellular telephone was associated with a risk of having a motor vehicle

collision that was about four times as high as that among the same drivers when they were not

using their cellular phones. This relative risk is similarto the hazard associated with driving

with a blood alcohol level at the legal limit. (456)

Section 10Citation Guides

MLA Cita tio ns: Th e Basi csThanks to The Purdue OWL Writing Lab for much of the MLA information:Russell, Tony, Allen Brizee, Elizabeth Angeli, and Russell Keck. "MLA Formatting and Style Guide." Online Writing Lab

(OWL). Purdue University, 16 Nov. 2010. Web. 23 Aug. 2011. <h ttp :/ /o wl. en gli sh .pu rdu e.ed u/o wl/ resou rce/747 /0 1/>.

Guidelines for referring to the works of others in your text using MLA style is covered in the MLA Handbook and the MLA Style Manual. Both books provide extensive examples, so it's a good idea to consult them if you want to become even more familiar with MLA guidelines or if you have a particular reference question.

Writers who properly use MLA also build their credibility by demonstrating accountability to their source material. Most impo rtantly, the use of MLA style can protect writers from accusations of plagiarism, which is the purposeful or accidental uncredited use of source material by other writers.

Basic Citation RulesIn MLA style, referring to the works of others in your text is done by using what is known as parenthetical citation. This method involves placing relevant source information in parentheses after a quote or a paraphrase.

General Guidelines The source information required in a parenthetical citation depends

1. Upon the source medium (e.g. Print, Web, DVD) and2. Upon the source’s entry on the Works Cited (bibliography) page.

Any source information that you provide in-text must correspond to the source information on the Works Cited page. More specifically, whatever signal word or phrase you provide to your readers in the text, must be the f i rst t h i ng that appears on the left-hand margin of the corresponding entry in the Works Cited List.

According to MLA style, you must have a Works Cited page at the end of your research paper. All entries in the Works Cited page must correspond to the works cited in your main text.

Basic Rules for Works Cited

Begin your Works Cited page on a separate page at the end of your research paper. It should have the same one-inch margins and last name, page number header as the rest of your paper.

Label the page Works Cited (do not italicize the words Works Cited or put them in quotation marks) and center the words WorksCited at the top of the page.

Double space all citations, but do not skip spaces between entries. Indent the second and subsequent lines of citations five spaces so that you create a hanging indent. List page numbers of sources efficiently, when needed. If you refer to a journal article that appeared on pages 225 through 2

50, list the page numbers on your Works Cited page as 225-50.

Additional Basic Rules New to MLA 2009 For every entry, you must determine the Medium of Publication. Most entries will likely be listed as Print or Web sources,

but other possibilities may include Film, CD-ROM, or DVD. Writers are no longer required to provide URLs for Web entries. However, if your instructor or publisher insists on them,

include them in angle brackets after the entry and end with a period. For long URLs, break lines only at slashes. If you're citing an article or a publication that was originally issued in print form but that you retrieved from an online

database, you should type the online database name in italics. You do not need to provide subscription information in addition to the database name.

Capitalization and Punctuation Capitalize each word in the titles of articles, books, etc, but do not capitalize articles (the, an), prepositions, or conjun

ctions unless one is the first word of the title or subtitle: Gone with the Wind, The Art of War, There Is Nothing Left to Lose. New to MLA 2009: Use italics (instead of underlining) for titles of larger works (books, magazines) and quotation marks for

titles of shorter works (“poems”, “articles”)

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/

In-Text Citations: Author-Page StyleMLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your Work s Cited page. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses following the quotation or paraphras e, but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of your sentence. For example:

Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (263). Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263). Wordsworth extensively explored the role of emotion in the creative process (263).

Both citations in the examples above, (263) and (Wordsworth 263), tell readers that the information in the sentence can be lo cated on page 263 of a work by an author named Wordsworth. If readers want more information about this sour ce, they can turn to the Works Cited page, where, under the name of Wordsworth, they would find the following information:

Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. London: Oxford U.P., 1967. Print.

In-text Citations for Print Sources with Known AuthorFor Print sources like books, magazines, scholarly journal articles, and newspapers, provide a signal word or phrase (usually the author’s last name) and a page number. If you provide the signal word/phrase in the sentence, you do not need to include it i n the parenthetical citation.

Human beings have been described by Kenneth Burke as "symbol-using animals" (3). Human beings have been described as"symbol-using animals" (Burke 3).

These examples must correspond to an entry that begins with Burke, which will be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of an entry in the Works Cited:

Burke, Kenneth. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. Berkeley: U of California P, 1966. Print.

In-text Citations for Print Sources with No Known AuthorWhen a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work instead of an author name. Place the title in quotation marks if it's a short work (e.g. articles) or italicize it if it's a longer work (e.g. plays, books, television shows, entire websites) and provide a page number.

We see so many global warming hotspots in North America likely because this region has ―more readily accessible climaticdata and more comprehensive programs to monitor and study environmental change. . .‖ (―Impact of Global Warming‖ 6).

In this example, since the reader does not know the author of the article, an abbreviated title of the article appears in the parenthetical citation which corresponds to the full name of the article which appears first at the left-hand margin of its respective entry in the Works Cited. Thus, the writer includes the title in quotation marks as the signal phrase in the parenthetical ci tation in order to lead the reader directly to the source on the Works Cited page. The Works Cited entry appears as follows:

―The Impact of Global Warming in North America.‖ GLOBAL WARMING: Early Signs. 1999. Web. 23 Mar. 2009.

Citing Multiple Works by the Same AuthorIf you cite more than one work by a particular author, include a shortened title for the particular work from which you are quoting to distinguish it from the others. Put short titles of books in italics and short titles of articles in quotation marks.

Citing two articles by the same author:Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children ("Too Soon" 38), though he has acknowledged elsewhere that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development in a child's second andthird year ("Hand-Eye Development" 17).

Citing two books by the same author:

Murray states that writing is "a process" that "varies with our thinking style" (Write to Learn 6). Additionally, Murray argues that the purpose of writing is to "carry ideas and information from the mind of one person into the mind of another" (A Writer Teaches Writing 3).

Additionally, if the author's name is not mentioned in the sentence, you would format your citation with the author's name fo llowed by a comma, followed by a shortened title of the work, followed, when appropriate, by page numbers:

Visual studies, because it is such a new discipline, may be "too easy" (Elkins, "Visual Studies" 63).

Citing Indirect SourcesSometimes you may have to use an indirect source. An indirect source is a source cited in another source. For such indirect quotations, use "qtd. in" to indicate the source you actually consulted. For example:

Ravitch argues that high schools are pressured to act as "social service centers, and they don't do that well" (qtd. in Weism an259).

Note that, in most cases, a responsible researcher will attempt to find the original source, rather than citing an indirect source.

General Guidelines for Electronic SourcesWith more and more scholarly work being posted on the Internet, you may have to cite research you have completed in virtual environments. While many sources on the Internet should not be used for scholarly work some Web sources are perfectly acceptable for research.

Sometimes writers are confused with how to craft parenthetical citations for electronic sources because of the absence of page numbers, but often, these sorts of entries do not require any sort of parenthetical citation at all. For electronic a nd Internet sources, follow the following guidelines:

Include in the text the first item that appears in the Work Cited entry that corresponds to the citation (e.g. author name, article name, website name, film name).

You d o no t need to give paragraph numbers or page numbers based on your Web browser’s print preview function. Unless you must list the website name in the signal phrase in order to get the reader to the appropriate entry, d o no t

include URLs in-text. If necessary, only provide part of the URL such as when the name of the site includes, for example, a domain name, like CNN or Forbes.

Citing Non-Print or Sources from the Internet

Parenthetical citation needed:One online film critic stated that Fitzcarraldo is "...a beautiful and terrifying critique of obsession and colonialism" (Garcia,―Herzog: a Life‖).

The Purdue OWL is accessed by millions of users every year. Its ―MLA Formatting and Style Guide‖ is one of the most popularresources (Stolley et al.).

In the first example, the writer has chosen not to include the author name in-text; however, two entries from the same author appear in the Works Cited. Thus, the writer includes both the author’s last name and the article title in the parenthetical c itation in order to lead the reader to the appropriate entry on the Works Cited page (see below). In the second example, “Stolley et al.” in the parenthetical citation gives the reader an author name followed by the abbreviation “et al.,” meaning, “and others,” for the article “MLA Formatting and Style Guide.” Both corresponding Works Cited entries are as follows:

Garcia, Elizabeth. "Herzog: a Life." Online Film Critics Corner. The Film School of New Hampshire, 2 May 2002. Web. 8 Jan.

2009. Stolley, Karl. "MLA Formatting and Style Guide." The OWL at Purdue. 10 May 2006. Purdue University Writing Lab. 12 May

2006 . No parenthetical citation needed:

Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo stars Herzog's long-time film partner, Klaus Kinski. During the shooting of Fitzcarraldo, Herzog and Kinski were often at odds, but their explosive relationship fostered a memorable and influential film.

During the presentation, Jane Yates stated that invention and pre-writing are areas of rhetoric that need more attention.

In the two examples above “Herzog” from the first entry and “Yates” from the second lead the reader to the first item each citation’s respective entry on the Works Cited page. Notice that no parenthetical citation is necessary because the citation information is provided in the sentence:

Herzog, Werner, dir. Fitzcarraldo. Perf. Klaus Kinski. Filmverlag der Autoren, 1982. Film.

Yates, Jane. "Invention in Rhetoric and Composition." Gaps Addressed: Future Work in Rhetoric and Composition, CCCC, Palmer

House Hilton, 2002. Presentation.

Multiple CitationsTo cite multiple sources in the same parenthetical reference, separate the citations by a semi-colon:

. . . as has been discussed elsewhere (Burke 3; Dewey 21).

When a Citation Is Not NeededCommon sense and ethics should determine your need for documenting sources. You do not need to give sources for familiar proverbs, well-known quotations or common knowledge. Remember, this is a rhetorical choice, based on audience. If you're writing for an expert audience of a scholarly journal, for example, they'll have different expectations of what constitutes common knowledge.

Fo rmat ting Quo ta tio nsWhen you directly quote the works of others in your paper, you will format quotations differently depending on their length. Below are some basic guidelines for incorporating quotations into your paper. Please note that all pages in MLA should be double-spaced.

Short Quotations (fewer than four typed lines of prose or three lines of verse)

To indicate short quotations in your text, enclose the quotation within double quotation marks. Provide the author and specific page citation (in the case of verse, provide line numbers) in the text, and include a complete reference on the Works Cited page. Punctuation marks such as periods, commas, and semicolons should appear after the parenthetical citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if they are a part of the quoted passage but after the parentheti cal citation if they are a part of your text. For example:

According to some, dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184), though others

disagree. According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (184).

Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184)?

Short Quotations POETRY

Mark breaks in short quotations of verse with a slash, /, at the end of each line of verse: (a space should precede and follo w the slash)

Cullen concludes, "Of all the things that happened there / That's all I remember" (11-12).

Long Quotations (more than four typed lines of prose or three lines of verse)

For quotations that extend to more than four lines of verse or prose: place quotations in a free -standing block of text and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, with the entire quote indented one inch from the left margin; maintain double- spacing. Only indent the first line of the quotation by a half inch if you are citing multiple paragraphs. Your parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark. When quoting verse, maintain original line breaks. (You should maintain double- spacing throughout your essay.) For example:

Nelly Dean treats Heathcliff poorly and dehumanizes him throughout her narration:They entirely refused to have it in bed with them, or even in their room, and I had no more sense, so, I put it on the landing of the stairs, hoping it would be gone on the morrow. By chance, or else attracted by hearing his voice, it crept to Mr. Earnshaw's door, and there he found it on quitting his chamber. Inquiries were made as to how it got there; I was obliged to confess, and inrecompense for my cowardice and inhumanity was sent out of the house. (Bronte 78)

When citing two or more paragraphs, use block quotation format, even if the passage from the paragraphs is less than four lines. Indent the first line of each quoted paragraph an extra quarter inch:

In "American Origins of the Writing-across-the-Curriculum Movement," David Russell argues:Writing has been an issue in American secondary and higher education since papers and examinations came into wide

use in the 1870s, eventually driving out formal recitation and oral examination. . . .From its birth in the late nineteenth century, progressive education has wrestled with the conflict within industrial society

between pressure to increase specialization of knowledge and of professional work (upholding disciplinary standards) and pressure to integrate more fully an ever-widening number of citizens into intellectually meaningful activity within mass society (promoting social equity). . . . (3)

Long Quotations POETRY

When citing long sections of poetry, keep formatting as close to the original as possible:

In his poem "My Papa's Waltz," Theodore Roethke explores his childhood with his father: The whiskey on your breathCould make a small boy dizzy;But I hung on like death: Such waltzing was not easy. We Romped until the pans Slid from the kitchen shelf; My mother's countenanceCould not unfrown itself. (quoted in Shrodes, Finestone, Shugrue 202)

Adding or Omitting Words in Quotations

If you add a word or words in a quotation, you should put brackets around the words to indicate that they are not part of the original text.

Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states: "some individuals [who retell urban legends] make a point of learning every rumor or tale" (78).

If you omit a word or words from a quotation, you should indicate the deleted word or words by using ellipsis marks, which ar e three periods called ellipses ( . . . ) preceded and followed by a space. For example:

In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that "some individuals make a point of learning every recent rumor or tale . . . and in a short time a lively exchange of details occurs" (78).

Works Cited a nd Cit a tion E x amples This shows how to format the Works Cited entry for different types of sources. The citation style shows how you cite that sou rce atthe end of the sentence it refers to. Compare the author or organization’s name to the citation.

Books –Here are only three examples. There are many ways to cite books in the MLA handbook.

Book with one author:Gleick, James. Chaos: Making a New Science. New York: Penguin, 1987. Print.Parenthetical citation: (Gleick 43)

Book with two authors:Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Boston: Allyn, 2000. Print.Parenthetical citation: (Gillespie and Lerner 109)

Anthology:Burns, Robert. "Red, Red Rose." 100 Best-Loved Poems. Ed. Philip Smith. New York: Dover, 1995. 26. Print.Parenthetical citation: (Burns 26)

Other Printed Materials

Article in a Reference Book (e.g. Encyclopedias, Dictionaries):For entries in encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference works, cite the piece as you would any other work in a collection but do not include the publisher information. Also, if the reference book is organized alphabetically, as most are, do not list t he volume or the page number of the article or item.

"Ideology." The American Heritage Dictionary. 3rd ed. 1997. Print.Parenthetical citation: (―Ideology‖)

Magazine article:Poniewozik, James. "TV Makes a Too-Close Call." Time 20 Nov. 2000: 70-71. Print.Parenthetical citation: (Poniewozik 70)

Printed Newspaper article:Krugman, Andrew. "Fear of Eating." New York Times 21 May 2007 late ed.: A1. Print.Parenthetical citation: (Krugman A1)

If the newspaper is a less well-known or local publication, include the city name and state in brackets after the title of the newspaper.

Behre, Robert. "Presidential Hopefuls Get Final Crack at Core of S.C. Democrats." Post and Courier [Charleston, SC] 29 Apr.2007: A11. Print.

Parenthetical citation: (Behre A11)

Miscellaneous common sources:Speeches, Lectures, or Other Oral Presentations:Provide the speaker’s name. Then, give the title of the speech (if any) in quotation marks. Follow with the name of the meeti ng and organization, the location of the occasion, and the date. Use the descriptor that appropriately express es the type of presentation (e.g., Address, Lecture, Reading, Keynote Speech, Guest Lecture, Conference Presentation). Remember to use the abbreviation n.p. if the publisher is not known; use n.d. if the date is not known.

Stein, Bob. Computers and Writing Conference. Purdue University. Union Club Hotel, West Lafayette, IN. 23 May 2003.Keynote Address.

Parenthetical citation: (Stein)

Personal Interviews:Personal interviews refer to those interviews that you conduct yourself. List the interview by the name of the interviewee. Include the descriptor Personal interview and the date of the interview.

Purdue, Pete. Personal interview. 1 Dec. 2000.Parenthetical citation: (Purdue)

Published Interviews (Print or Broadcast):List the interview by the name of the interviewee. Note: If the interview from which you quote does not feature a title, add the descriptor Interview (unformatted) after the interviewee’s name. You may also use the descriptor Interview by to add the name of the interview to the entry if it is relevant to your paper.

Gaitskill, Mary. Interview with Charles Bock. Mississippi Review 27.3 (1999): 129-50. Print.Parenthetical citation: (Gaitskill)

Amis, Kingsley. “Mimic and Moralist.” Interviews with Britain’s Angry Young Men. By Dale Salwak. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo, 1984. Print.

Parenthetical citation: (Amis)

Films or Movies:List films by their title. Include the name of the director, the distributor, and the release year. If relevant, list performer names after the director’s name. Use the abbreviation perf. to head the list. End the entry with the appropriate medium of publication (e.g. Film, DVD, Web).

Ed Wood. Dir. Tim Burton. Perf. Johnny Depp, Martin Landau, Sarah Jessica Parker, Patricia Arquette. Touchstone, 1994.DVD.

Parenthetical citation: (Ed Wood)

Electronic Sources:Important Note on the Use of URLs in MLA

MLA no longer requires the use of URLs in MLA citations. Because Web addresses are not static (i.e., they change often) and because documents sometimes appear in multiple places on the Web (e.g., on multiple databases), MLA explains that most readers can fi nd electronic sources via title or author searches in Internet Search Engines.

For instructors or editors who still wish to require the use of URLs, MLA suggests that the URL appear in angle brackets after the date of access. Break URLs only after slashes.

Basic Style for Citations of Electronic Sources (Including Online Databases)Here are some common features you should try and find before citing electronic sources in MLA style. Not every Web page will provide all of the following information. However, collect as much of the following information as possible both for your cit ations and for your research notes:

Author and/or editor names (if available) Article name in quotation marks Title of the Website, project, or book in italics. (Remember that some Print publications have Web publications with slightly

different names. They may, for example, include the additional information or otherwise modified information, like domain names [e.g. .com or .net].)

Any version numbers available, including revisions, posting dates, volumes, or issue numbers. Publisher information, including the publisher name and publishing date.

Take note of any page numbers (if available). Medium of publication. Date you accessed the material. URL (if required, or for your own personal reference).

Citing an Entire Web SiteIt is necessary to list your date of access because web postings are often updated, and information available on one date may no longer be available later. Be sure to include the complete address for the site.

Use n.p. if no publisher name is available and n.d. if no publishing date is given.Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). Name of Site. Version number. Name of institution/organization affiliated

with the site (sponsor or publisher), date of resource creation (if available). Medium of publication. Date of access.

The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2008. Web. 23 Apr. 2008.Parenthetical citation: (The Purdue OWL)

A Page on a Web SiteFor an individual page on a Web site, list the author or alias if known, followed by the information covered above for entire Web sites. Remember to use n.p. if no publisher name is available and n.d. if no publishing date is given.

"How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow.com. eHow, n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 20Parenthetical citation: (―How to Make Vegetarian Chili‖)

Smith, Barney. "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow.com. eHow, n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 20Parenthetical citation: (Smith)

An Image (Including a Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph)Provide the artist's name, the work of art italicized, the date of creation, the institution and city where the work is housed. Follow this initial entry with the name of the Website in italics, the medium of publication, and the date of access.

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800. Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. Museo National del Prado. Web. 22May 2006.

Parenthetical citation: (Goya)

Klee, Paul. Twittering Machine. 1922. Museum of Modern Art, New York. The Artchive. Web. 22 May 2006.Parenthetical citation: (Klee)

If the work is cited on the web only, then provide the name of the artist, the title of the work, the medium of the work, and then follow the citation format for a website. If the work is posted via a username, use that username for the author.

brandychloe. "Great Horned Owl Family." Photograph. Webshots. American Greetings, 22 May 2006. Web. 5 Nov. 2009.Parenthetical citation: (brandychloe)

An Article in a Web MagazineProvide the author name, article name in quotation marks, title of the Web magazine in italics, publisher name, publication date, medium of publication, and the date of access. Remember to use n.p. if no publisher name is available and n.d. if not publish ing date is given.

Bernstein, Mark. "10 Tips on Writing the Living Web." A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites. A List Apart Mag., 16Aug. 2002. Web. 4 May 2009.

Parenthetical citation: (Bernstein)

An Article in an Online Scholarly JournalFor all online scholarly journals, provide the author(s) name(s), the name of the article in quotation marks, the title of th e publication in italics, all volume and issue numbers, and the year of publication.

Article in an Online-only Scholarly JournalMLA requires a page range for articles that appear in Scholarly Journals. If the journal you are citing appears exclusively i n an online format (i.e. there is no corresponding print publication) that does not make use of page numbers, use the abbreviation n. pag . to denote that there is no pagination for the publication.

Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The International Online-Only Journal 6.2 (2008): n. pag. Web. 20 May 2009.

Parenthetical citation: (Dolby)

Article in an Online Scholarly Journal That Also Appears in PrintCite articles in online scholarly journals that also appear in print as you would a scholarly journal in print, including the page range of the article. Provide the medium of publication that you used (in this case, Web) and the date of access.

Wheelis, Mark. "Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin WeaponsConvention." Emerging Infectious Diseases 6.6 (2000): 595-600. Web. 8 Feb. 2009.

Parenthetical citation: (Wheelis)

An Article from an Online Database (or Other Electronic Subscription Service)Cite articles from online databases (e.g. LexisNexis, ProQuest, JSTOR, ScienceDirect) and other subscription services just as you would print sources. Since these articles usually come from periodicals, be sure to consult the appropriate sections of the Works Cited: Periodicals page, which you can access via its link at the bottom of this page. In addition to this information, provi de the title of the database italicized, the medium of publication, and the date of access.

Junge, Wolfgang, and Nathan Nelson. “Nature's Rotary Electromotors.” Science 29 Apr. 2005: 642-44. Science Online. Web.5 Mar. 2009.

Parenthetical citation: (Junge)

Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal 50.1 (2007): 173-96.ProQuest. Web. 27 May 2009.

Parenthetical citation: (Langhamer)E-mail (including E-mail Interviews)Give the author of the message, followed by the subject line in quotation marks. State to whom to message was sent, the date the message was sent, and the medium of publication.

Kunka, Andrew. "Re: Modernist Literature." Message to the author. 15 Nov. 2000. E-mail.Parenthetical citation: (Kunka)

Neyhart, David. "Re: Online Tutoring." Message to Joe Barbato. 1 Dec. 2000. E-mail.Parenthetical citation: (Neyhart)

Digital Files (PDFs, MP3s, JPEGs)Determine the type of work to cite (e.g., article, image, sound recording) and cite appropriately. End the entry with the name of the digital format (e.g., PDF, JPEG file, Microsoft Word file, MP3). If the work does not follow traditional parameters for citation, give the author’s name, the name of the work, the date of creation, and the medium of publication. Use Digital file when the medium cannot be determined.

Beethoven, Ludwig van. Moonlight Sonata. Crownstar, 2006. MP3.Parenthetical citation: (Beethoven)

Smith, George. “Pax Americana: Strife in a Time of Peace.” 2005. Microsoft Word file.Parenthetical citation: (Smith)

Bentley, Phyllis. “Yorkshire and the Novelist.” The Kenyon Review 30.4 (1968): 509-22. JSTOR. PDF file. Parenthetical citation: (Bentley 512)

A Fin al Wo rks Cited P ag eHere is an example of a properly formatted, alphabetized Works Cited page using a wide variety of sources. Be precise in your formatting! List only the sources you actually refer to in your paper (this should match or exceed the minimum requirement for sources)!

Robinson 8

Works Cited

"Blueprint Lays Out Clear Path for Climate Action." Environmental Defense Fund. Environmental

Defense Fund, 8 May 2007. Web. 24 May 2009.

<h t tp :// a p p s . ed f. o r g /art i c l e . c fm ?co n t en tID = 582 8 >.

Clinton, Bill. Interview by Andrew C. Revkin. “Clinton on Climate Change.” New York Times. New

York Times, May 2007. Web. 25 May 2009.

<h t tp :// v i de o . n yt i m es . co m/vi de o /2007/05/17/ wo r ld /ame r i c a s /1194817109438/ c li n to

n-on-climate-change.html>

Dean, Cornelia. "Executive on a Mission: Saving the Planet." New York Times. New York Times, 22

May 2007. Web. 25 May 2009.

<h t tp :// www . n yt i m es . co m/200 7 /05/22/ s c i en c e / e ar t h /22a n de r. h t ml? p ag e w a n t e d= al l >.

Ebert, Roger. "An Inconvenient Truth." Rev. of An Inconvenient Truth, dir. Davis Guggenheim.

Rogerebert.com. Sun-Times News Group, 2 June 2006. Web. 24 May 2009. <

http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060601/REVIEWS/6051

7002>.

Gowdy, John. "Avoiding Self-organized Extinction: Toward a Co-evolutionary Economics of

Sustainability." International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology

14.1 (2007): 27-36. Print.

An Inconvenient Truth. Dir. Davis Guggenheim. Perf. Al Gore, Billy West. Paramount, 2006. DVD.

Leroux, Marcel. Global Warming: Myth Or Reality?: The Erring Ways of Climatology. New York:

Springer, 2005. Print.

Milken, Michael, Gary Becker, Myron Scholes, and Daniel Kahneman. "On Global Warming and

Financial Imbalances." New Perspectives Quarterly 23.4 (2006): 63. Print

Nordhaus, William D. "After Kyoto: Alternative Mechanisms to Control Global Warming."

American Economic Review 96.2 (2006): 31-34. Print.

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/22/science/earth/22ander.html?pagewanted=all

http://video.nytimes.com/video/2007/05/17/world/americas/1194817109438/clinto

http://apps.edf.org/article.cfm?contentID=5828

Eva lu a ting Web S o urces Evaluation Criteria

I. AuthorityIs there an author? Is the page signed?Is the author qualified? An expert? Who is the sponsor?Is the sponsor of the page reputable? How

reputable?Is there a link to information about the author or

the sponsor?If the page includes neither a signature nor

indicates a sponsor, is there any other way to determine its origin?

Look for a header or footer showing affiliation.

Look at the URL. h t t p : / / w w w.f b i .g ov Look at the domain. .edu, .com, .ac.uk, .org,

.netRationale Anyone can publish anything on the web. It is often hard to determine a web page's

authorship. Even if a page is signed, qualifications are not

usually provided. Sponsorship is not always indicated.

III. ObjectivityDoes the information show a minimum of bias?Is the page designed to sway opinion? Is there any advertising on the page?

Rationale Frequently the goals of the sponsors/authors are

not clearly stated. Often the Web serves as a virtual "Hyde Park

Corner", a soapbox.

IV. CurrencyIs the page dated?If so, when was the last update?How current are the links? Have some expired or

moved?Rationale

Publication or revision dates are not always provided.

If a date is provided, it may have various meanings. For example,

It may indicate when the material was first written

It may indicate when the material was first placed on the Web

It may indicate when the material was last revised

II. AccuracyIs the information reliable and error-free?Is there an editor or someone who

verifies/checks the information? Rationale See number 1 above Unlike traditional print resources, web resources

rarely have editors or fact-checkers. Currently, no web standards exist to ensure

accuracy.

V. CoverageWhat topics are covered?What does this page offer that is not found

elsewhere?What is its intrinsic value?

How in-depth is the material? Rationale

Web coverage often differs from print coverage. Frequently, it's difficult to determine the extent of

coverage of a topic from a web page. The page may or may not include links to other web pagesor print references.

Sometimes web information is "just for fun", a hoax, someone's personal expression that may be of interest to no one, or even outright silliness.

Beck, Susan. “Evaluation Criteria” 17 Aug 2005. Institute for Technology-Assisted Learning at the New Mexico State University. 25Aug 2005. <h t tp : / /lib .nm s u . e du /i n s tr u ctio n / ev a l crit. h tm l >.

http://lib.nmsu.edu/instruction/evalcrit.html

http://www.fbi.gov/

Wh a t is p l a giaris m ? Many people think of plagiarism as copying another's work, or borrowing someone else's original ideas. Butterms like "copying" and "borrowing" can disguise the seriousness of the offense:According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, to "plagiarize" means:

1. to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own2. to use (another’s production) without crediting the source3. to commit literary theft4. to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source.

In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work and lying about it afterward.

But can words and ideas really be stolen?According to U.S. law, the answer is yes. The expression oforiginal ideas is considered intellectual property, and is protectedby copyright laws, just like original inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under copyright protection as long as they are recorded in some way (such as a book or a computer file).

All of the following are considered plagiarism: turning in someone else's work as your own copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit failing to put a quotation in quotation marks giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without

giving credit copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the

majority of your work, whether you give credit or not (see our section on "fair use" rules)

Plagiarism in student writing is often unintentional. You have probably done a report or research paper at some time in your education in whichyou chose a topic, checked out several sources, and copied several sentences or paragraphs form each source. You might have been unaware that you were committing plagiarism. However, as a high school student writing an essay or research paper, you must be aware that anytime you use someone else’s thought, words, or phraseology without giving him or her

The penalties for plagiarism can be surprisingly severe, ranging from failure of classes and expulsion from academic institutions to heavy fines and jail time!

Believe it or not…

Changing the words of an original source is not sufficient to prevent plagiarism. If you have retained the essential idea of an original source, and have not cited it, then no matter how drastically you may have altered its context or presentation, you have still plagiarized.

credit in your paper constitutes plagiarism. Your paper will be credible only if you thoroughly document your sources.

Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources.Simply acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed, and providing your audience with the information necessary to find that source, is usually enough to prevent plagiarism.(R esea r c h R e s o u r c e s . 2005. iParadigms.1 Apr.2005 <h tt p ://ww w . p l a g ia r i s m . or g / p l a g _ a r ticle _ w h at _ i s _p la g ia r is m . h t m l >.)

http://www.plagiarism.org/plag_article_what_is_plagiarism.html

Section 11

Test Taking Strategies

Tes t -ta k ing S t rate g ies General Suggestions for All TestsRule 1:

Arrive early instead of barely on time, so as to be organized and ready instead of in a panic. Try to go into the test alert and calm instead of tense and anxious.

Rule 2:

Regard a lapse of memory as perfectly normal; do not let it throw you into a panic. If you block on answering one question, leave it for awhile and return to it later.

Rule 3:

Make certain that you fully understand the test directions before attempting to solve any problems or answer any questions.

Rule 4:

Plan how you will use your time during the exam. Quickly look over the entire test and divide up your available time as appropriate to the number and type of questions that you find. Then be careful not to mismanage your time so that you find yourself with insufficient time to answer all the questions.

Rule 5:

Read each question carefully and completely before marking or writing your answer. Re-read if you are at all confused.

Rule 6:

Ask your instructor for help in interpreting a test questions that is unclear or ambiguous to you. He will probably want to clear up the misunderstanding for everybody if the question really is misleading or confusing.

Rule 7:

Be careful not to give any impression of cheating.

Rule 8:

Do not be disturbed about other students finishing before you do. Take your time, don't panic, and you will do much better on the test.

Rule 9:

If you have any time left over, edit, check, and proofread your answers. Use all the time available to eliminate careless errors and to improve your answers as much as possible.

Specia l S ug gestion s fo r E ssay Tests Read all the questions through rapidly, jotting down beside each question any pertinent facts

or ideas which occur to you. The best way to ensure that your answers do not overlap each other is to survey the entire test before answering any of the questions.

Estimate the time that you will have for each question according to the relative difficulty and importance of all questions. Then keep track of your time so that you don't spend too much time on any one question.

Answer the easiest questions first and concentrate on answering one question at a time.Getting down to work on something you can handle is the surest way to reduce your test anxiety.

Decide what kind of answer the question requires before you begin writing. Action verbs such as "illustrate", "list", "define", "compare", "trace", "explain", and "identify" require different approaches to answering.

Before you start writing, make a brief, logical outline for your answer to ensure good organization and prevent careless omissions. It's not how much you say but what you say and how well you say it that counts.

Get down to business in your first paragraph and avoid long-winded introductions. Your aim in answering most essay questions is to get down the maximum amount of point-earning information in the shortest possible time.

Where appropriate, include factual details to support your answer. These impress your instructor by giving evidence that you really know what you are talking about.

Write legible, complete sentences and paragraphs.

Leave space after each question for additional information which may occur to you later.

Re-read your answers -- do they say what you intended? Correct all grammar and spelling errors.

If you run out of time, outline the remaining information.

Specia l S ug gestio ns fo r O bjective Te st s Answer all questions in order without skipping or jumping around. Identify doubtful answers by

marking in the margin and recheck these as time permits after all questions have been answered.

Do not linger too long on any one question. Mark your best guess and move on, returning later if you have sufficient time.

Reread all questions containing negative wording such as "not" or "least". Be especially alert for the use of double or even triple negatives within a sentence, as these must be read very carefully to assure full understanding.

Check for qualifying words such as "all-most-some-none", "always-usually-seldom-never", "best-worst", or "smallest-largest". When you see one of these qualifiers, test for truth by substituting the other members of the series. If your substitution makes a better statement, the question is false; if your substitution does not make a better statement, the question is true.

Watch for modifying or limiting phrases inserted into the true/false questions. Instructors often use inserted names, dates, places, or other details to make a statement inaccurate.

Be alert for multiple ideas or concepts within the same true/false statement. All parts of the statement must be true or the entire statement is false.

Be alert for grammatical inconsistencies between the question stem and the answer choiceson multiple-choice questions. A choice is almost always wrong if it and the stem do not make a grammatically correct sentence.

Be cautious about changing your answer to a true-false or multiple-choice question without a good reason. Your first "guess" is more likely to be correct than are subsequent "guesses", so be sure to have a sound reason for changing our answer.

Apply the same approach to answering both true/false and multiple-choice questions. The same techniques will work equally well for both, since multiple-choice questions are basically true/false questions arranged in groups.

On matching exercises, work with only one column at a time. Match each item in that column against all items in the second column until you find a proper match, marking through matches about which you are certain, so that it will be easier to match out the rest about which you are unsure.

Section 12Vocabulary Lists

Baby WordsWords which may be used in notes, informal discussion, informal writing, but not in formal writing.

absolutely all cause or other abbreviated words and

slang. completely definitely got get just kind of like (meaning for example—it is

acceptable to use “like” if it is part of a simile)

(a) little

Put quite really so sort of stuff “that is” or “is that” thing, things, thingy, thingy-mubbober,

or any other related word totally very well as in “well, I went to the store…” would

Also avoid:

“In my essay, I will…” or “I will show that…” or “I think” or “I believe” or anything thatremotely resembles any of the previous phrases.

contractions: Do not use words such as don’t, weren’t, can’t. abbreviations unless explained questions anything in parentheses

Over 30 0 Way s to Say "Sa id"abjured accused acknowledged added addressed admitted admonished advised advocated affirmed agreedalleged allowed alluded announced answered apologized appealed appeased approved argued articulated asked assented asserted asseverated assumed assured attested averted avouched avowed babbled baited bantered bargained barked bawled

began begged believed

belittled bellowed berated beseeched besought bleated blew up blubbered blurted blustered boomed bragged breathed broke inbrought forth cackled cajoled calculated calledcaroled cautioned challenged chanted charged chatted chattered cheered chided chipped in chirped choked chortled cited claimed clamored coaxed comfortedcommanded commented

communicated complained

conceded concluded concurred confessed confided confirmed confuted consented consoled contended condescended consulted contested continued contradicted contributed cooed counseled countered coughed crabbed crackedcraved cried criticized croaked cried criticized croaked croonedcross-examined debateddecided declared decreed defended delivered demanded demurred denied denounced

103

described determined dictated directed disclaimed disclosed discussed disrupted divulged drawled droned echoed elaborated emphasized enjoined enjoyed entreated enumerated enunciated equivocated estimated exaggerated exclaimed exhorted expatiated explained exploded expounded expostulated expressed extended extolled faltered fibbed foretold fumedfussed gagged gabbed gasped granted

greeted grinned groaned growled grumbled grunted guaranteed guessed guffawed gulped gurgled gushed haggled harpedhastened to add

hastened to say hedgedheldhemmed and hawed hesitatedhinted hissed hollered hooted howled imitated imparted imported implied implored indicated inferred informed inquired insinuated insis

ted instructed insulted interjected interposed interpreted

103

interrogated interrupted intimated intimidated intoned introduced itemized jabbered jeeredjested joked joshed judged lamented laughed lectured liedlisped listedmade known magnified maintained marveled mentioned mimicked moaned mocked mourned mouthed mumbled murmured mused muttered nagged narrated nodded noted

notified ragedrailed rambled tled off

read rebuffed recaed recited reckonedrecommended reconciled recorded recounted recriminated referred refused reiterated pondered poutedpraised prayed preached predicted prevaricated proceeded proclaimed prodded professed promised prompted pronounced prophesied proposed protested purred quacked qualified quarreled

quavered questioned quibbled quipped quoted remarked reminded repeated replied

reported reputed requested responded restated retorted roared scoffed scolded screamed screeched shouted shrieked slurred snapped snarled snickered snorted sobbed specified sputtered squawked stated

stuttered suggested sung taunted tattled teased testified thanked told twanged twittered uttered validated ventured verbalized verified voiced wangled

warbled

wailed

wept whined whispered whooped wished yakked yapped yelled yelped

104

Transit i on W o rds & P h rases Sequence:

again, also, and, and then, besides, finally, first...second...third, furthermore,last, moreover, next, still, too

Time:after a bit, after a few days, after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length,at that time, before, earlier, immediately, in the meantime, in the past, lately, later,meanwhile, now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, then, thereafter, until, when

Comparison:again, also, in the same way, likewise, once more, similarly

Contrast:although, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the one hand...on the other hand, regardless, still, though, yet

Examples:after all, even, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, of course, specifically, such as, thefollowing example, to illustrate

Cause and Effect:accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, hence, so, then, therefore,thereupon, thus, to this end

Place:above, adjacent to, below, beyond, closer to, elsewhere, far, farther on, here, near, nearby,opposite to, there, to the left, to the right

Concession:although it is true that, granted that, it may appear that, naturally, of course

Summary, Repetition, or Conclusion:as a result, as has been noted, as we have seen, as mentioned earlier, in any event, inconclusion, in other words, in short, on the whole, therefore, to summarize

105

FIGURA T I VE L A NG U AGE

1. Alliteration: Repetition of a beginning consonant soundPeter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

2. Assonance: Repetition of a vowel soundThe sound of the hound was bound to make me crazy.

3. Hyperbole: ExaggerationI am so hungry; I could eat a horse.

4. Personification: Giving human qualities to something that is not humanThe trees danced in the wind.

5. Metaphor: A comparison that does not use like or asHer face is an open book.

6. Simile: A comparison that uses like or asHer face is like an open book.

7. Onomatopoeia: A word that sounds like what it meansCrack! Boom! Blam!

8. Symbolism: Something that represents or stands for something else.

A dove is a symbol of peace.

9. Irony: Something that is unexpectedYou want your brother to get in trouble, but you get in trouble instead.

106

SENSORY DESCRIPTION WORDS

SEE HEAR TOUCH SMELL TASTE

clear transparent translucent opaque shiny sparkly fuzzyround square triangular ovalflat bumpy light dark colorful holey

soft loud crunchyhigh pitched low pitched jerky screeching clicking babbling cooing tapping clattering scratchyclinky shrill musical rattling

prickly grainy soft slippery slimy sticky rough sharp bumpy smooth coarse finesilky mushy scaly sandy fuzzy cold hotvelvety flexible

salty flowery vinegary aromatic odorless acidic sweet perfumey medicinal pungent burning rotten decaying strong weak grassy lemony

sweet sour revolting bitter tangy salty sugary crunchy coldhot chewy fizzy bubbly bland tartspicy hot effervescent

107

Amiable Content Elated Friendly Loving ReverentAmused Dreamy Elevated Happy Optimistic RomanticAppreciative Ecstatic Encouraging Hopeful Passionate SoothingAuthoritative Cheerful Energetic Impassioned Peaceful SurprisedBenevolent Cheery Enthusiastic Jovial Playful SweetBrave Compassionate Excited Joyful Pleasant SympatheticCalm Complimentary Exuberant Jubilant Proud VibrantConsoling Confident Fanciful Lighthearted Relaxed Whimsical

Accusing Belligerent Condemnatory Disinterested Indignant SmoothAggravated Bitter Condescending Facetious Inflammatory SnootyAgitated Boring Contradictory Furious Insulting SuperficialAngry Brash Critical Quarrelsome Irritated SurlyApathetic Childish Desperate Harsh Manipulative TestyArrogant Choleric Disappointed Haughty Obnoxious ThreateningArtificial Coarse Disgruntled Hateful Outraged TiredAudacious Cold Disgusted Hurtful Passive Uninterested

Shameful Wrathful

Amused Contemptuous Flippant Joking Quizzical ScornfulBantering Critical Giddy Malicious Ribald SharpBitter Cynical Humorous Mock-heroic Ridiculing SillyCaustic Disdainful Insolent Mocking Sad TauntingComical Droll Ironic Mock-serious Sarcastic TeasingCondescending Facetious Irreverent Patronizing Sardonic Whimsical

Pompous Satiric Wry

Aggravated Confused Foreboding Melancholy Paranoid SadAgitated Dejected Gloomy Miserable Pessimistic SeriousAnxious Depressed Grave Morose Pitiful SoberApologetic Despairing Hollow Mournful Poignant SolemnApprehensive Disturbed Hopeless Nervous Regretful SomberConcerned Embarrassed Horrific Numb Remorseful Staid

Fearful Horror Ominous Resigned Upset

Admonitory Contemplative Formal Intimate Patriotic SeductiveAllusive Conventional Forthright Judgmental Persuasive SentimentalApathetic Detached Frivolous Learned Pleading SeriousAuthoritative Didactic Haughty Loud Pretentious ShockingBaffled Disbelieving Histrionic Lyrical Provocative SincereCallous Dramatic Humble Matter-of-fact Questioning UnemotionalCandid Earnest Incredulous Meditative Reflective UrgentCeremonial Expectant Informative Nostalgic Reminiscent VexedClinical Factual Inquisitive Objective Resigned WistfulConsoling Fervent Instructive Obsequious Restrained Zealous

To n e / Atti t ude W o rd L i st Positive Tone/Attitude Words

Negative Tone/Attitude Words

Humor-Irony-Sarcasm Tone/Attitude Words

Sorrow-Fear-Worry Tone/Attitude Words

Neutral Tone/Attitude Words

Spelli ng : Co mmon Word s tha t S ou nd AlikeBrought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab.

Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike.

Accept, Except accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously. except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.

Affect, Effect affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game? effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game? effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major change in

university policy.A memory-help for affect and effect is RAVEN:Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.

Advise, Advice advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious. advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done: I'd like

to ask for your advice on this matter.

Conscious, Conscience conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient remained

conscious. conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat because his

conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or

conception formed by generalization: Jennifer had a brilliant idea -- she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!

ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor: Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.

ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best; Jennifer was an ideal student.

Its, It's its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the pronoun it): The crab had an unusual growth on its

shell. it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining; it's been raining for three days.

(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

Lead, Led lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead. led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct: The evidence

led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.

Than, Then Than

o used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.o used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.o used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.

Theno a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.o next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.o suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.

Their, There, They're Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books. There = that place: My house is over there. (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.) They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when

two words are being shortened into one.)

To, Too, Two To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to swim. Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too. Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")

We're, Where, Were We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two

words are being shortened into one.) Where = location: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.) Were = a past tense form of the verb be: They were walking side by side.

Your, You're Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied. You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your shoes untied. (Pronouns have

apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

One Word or Two?All ready/already

all ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness already: an adverb expressing time

At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.

All right/alright all right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in scientific

& academic writing: Will you be all right on your own? alright: Alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and business

publications, and especially common infictional dialogue: He does alright in school.

All together/altogether all together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up: All together, there were thirty-

two students at the museum. altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirely: His comment raises an

altogether different problem.

Anyone/any one anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone who can solve this problem deserves an

award. any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a group; usually used with of: Any

one of those papers could serve as an example.Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one

Anyway/any way anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless: He objected, but she went anyway. any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner: Any way

we chose would lead to danger.

Awhile/a while awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; some readers consider it nonstandard; usually needs no

preposition: Won't you stay awhile? a while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for: We talked for a

while, and then we said good night.

Maybe/may be maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps: Maybe we should wait until the rain stops. may be: a form of the verb be: This may be our only chance to win the championship.

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Literary Terms that Everyone Should Know…1. Allegory A story in which people, things, and actions represent an idea or a generalization about life;

allegories often have a strong moral or lesson. 2. Alliteration When the beginnings of words start with the same consonant or vowel sounds in stressed syllables –

and the words are close together. Example: Toby teaches tiny tots in Toledo. 3. Allusion A reference to some striking incident in history or reference to a mythological character. Example:

Cain and Abel or Atlas. 4. Analogy A point-by-point comparison between two dissimilar things in order to clarify the less familiar of

the two. 5. Anecdote A brief account of an interesting incident or event that usually is intended to entertain or to make a

point. A short summary of a humorous event used to make a point. 6. Antagonist The person or thing opposing the protagonist or hero of the story. When this is a person, he or she is

usually called the villain. 7. Antithesis An opposition, or contrast, of ideas. Example: "It was the best of times; it was the worst of times..." 8. Aphorism A short statement that expresses a general observation about life in a clever or pointed way.

–“Sometimes the human heart is the only clock in the world that keeps true time.”-“Keeping Time” 9. Apostrophe The direct address of the absent or dead as if they were present, or the inanimate as if it were

animate, e.g., when Juliet talks to dead Romeo in Romeo and Juliet. 10. Archetype An image, character or pattern of circumstance that recurs throughout literature and thought

consistently enough to be considered universal --wise grandparent, generous thief, innocent maiden. 11. Aside An author directly addresses the audience but is not supposed to be heard by other actors on the

stage. 12. Assonance A repetition of vowel sounds; e.g., How now brown cow. 13. Author’s purpose His or her reason for creating a particular work. 14. Autobiography An author’s account or story of his own life. 15. Biases An inclination for or against a person, place, idea, or thing that inhibits impartial judgment. 16. Biography The story of a person’s life written by another person. 17. Caricature A picture or imitation of a person's features or mannerisms exaggerated in a comic or absurd way. 18. Cause and effect Two events are related as cause and effect when one event brings about, or causes, the other. The

event that happens first is the cause; the one that follows is the effect. 19. Character A person or an animal in a story, play, poem, or other work of literature. 20. Character sketch A short piece of writing that reveals or shows something important about a person or fictional

character. 21. Characterization A representation of a person’s attributes or peculiarities, appearance, personality.

Direct: The writer states directly what the character is like. Example: Rita was small and fragile looking, but she had immense courage and independence. Indirect: 1) The writer gives the actual speech of the character. Example: “I’m afraid but I’ll do it anyway!”

said Rita. 2) The writer reveals what the character is thinking or feeling. Example: As the cold water of the

lake wrapped around her legs, Rita trembled at the memory of last summer’s accident. 3) The writer tells about the character’s actions. Example: With determined effort, Rita managed to

get the rowboat into the lake and clamber aboard. 4) The writer tells how other people respond to the character. Example: Polly watched from the

shore, knowing it was impossible to stop Rita once she had decided to do something. “She is so stubborn!” Polly thought.

22. Classic An enduring work of literature that continues to be read long after it was written. 23. Cliché Any expression used so often that its freshness and clarity have worn off; e.g., “tip of the iceberg.” 24. Climax The high point of the story. It is the point that brings about the solution (or decides that there will

not be a solution). The conflict builds and becomes worse up to this point. After the climax, the problem will usually, though not always, be solved. The climax comes near the end of the story.

25. Comedy A dramatic work that is light and often humorous in tone. It usually ends with a happy resolution. 26. Comparison The process of identifying similarities. Comparisons are used to make ideas and details clearer to

the reader. 27. Conflict The colliding or clashing of thoughts, feelings, actions, or persons: the problems or complications in

the story. All stories have conflicts. There are five basic types of conflict: Character vs. Character: One character in a story has a problem with one or more of the

other characters. Character vs. Society: A character has a conflict or problem with some element of society

– the school, the law, the accepted way of doing things, etc. Character vs. Self: A character has trouble deciding what to do in a particular situation. Character vs. Nature: A character has a problem with some natural happening: a

snowstorm, an avalanche, the bitter cold, or any of the other elements of nature. Character vs. Fate (God): A character has to battle what seems to be an uncontrollable

problem. Whenever the problem seems to be a strange or unbelievable coincidence, fate can be considered as the cause of the conflict.

28. Connotation All the emotions or feelings a word can arouse, such as the positive or good feeling associated with the word love.

29. Contrast The process of pointing out differences between things. 30. Conventions Widely accepted rules for grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. 31. Denotation The dictionary meaning of a word. 32. Denouement The final outcome or resolution of a play or story. 33. Dialect A form of language that is spoken in a particular place or by a particular group of people. 34. Dialogue Consists of the conversations characters have with one another. Dialogue has two main functions:

1) It tells a lot about the characters’ personalities. 2) It moves the plot, or action, along.

35. Diction An author's choice of words based on their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. Archaic words are those that are old fashioned and no longer sound natural when used.

Example: "I believe thee not.” Colloquialism: An expression that is usually accepted in informal situations and certain

locations. Example: "He really grinds my beans.” Jargon: Specialized language used by a specific group, such as those who use computers.

Example: override, interface, and download. Profanity: Language that shows disrespect for someone or something regarded as holy or

sacred. Slang: The informal language used by a particular group of people among themselves. It is also

used in fiction to lend color and feelings. Example: awesome, chill, no way - way. Vulgarity: Language that is generally considered crude, gross, and, at times, offensive.

36. Didactic Literature that instructs or presents a moral or religious statement. 37. Drama The form of literature known as plays; but drama also refers to the type of serious play that is often

concerned with the leading character’s relationship to society rather than with some tragic flaw within his personality.

38. Dramatic monologue A literary work (or a part of a literary work) in which a character is speaking about him or herself as if another person were present. The words of the speaker reveal something important about his or her character.

39. Dynamic character A character who undergoes adaptation, change, or growth, for example, Jem in To Kill a Mockingbird

40. Empathy Putting yourself in someone else's place and actually feeling how that person must feel. 41. Epic A long narrative poem about the adventures of a hero whose actions reflect the ideals and values of

a nation or a group. 42. Epigram A brief, witty saying or poem often dealing with its subject in a satirical manner. 43. Epiphany A sudden moment of understanding that causes a character to change or act in a certain way. 44. Epitaph A short poem or verse written in memory of someone. 45. Epithet A word or phrase used in place of a person's name and is characteristic of that person. Example:

Material Girl, Alexander the Great, Ms. Know-It-All. 46. Ethos A Greek root meaning showing moral character or ethics. It usually describes how the speaker’s

knowledge and presence, along with the speaker’s place in society and reputation, affect the intended audience or reader.

47. Exaggeration An extreme overstatement of an idea. It is often used for purposes of emphasis or humor. 48. Exposition The beginning of the story where:

The audience usually meets the characters. The time and place (setting) are told. The conflict (the problem in the story that needs to be solved) is introduced. This portion helps the reader understand the background or situation in which the story is set.

49. Extended metaphor A figure of speech that compares two essentially unlike things at some length. It may introduce a series of metaphors representing different aspects of a situation.

50. Fable A short fictional narrative that teaches a lesson. It usually includes animals that talk and act like people.

51. Fact A statement that can be proved. 52. Falling action All that happens after the climax. This is the action which works out the decision arrived at during

the climax. The resolution (denouement) follows. 53. Fantasy A work of literature that contains at least one fantastic or unreal element. 54. Farce Literature based on a humorous and improbable plot. 55. Fiction Prose writing that tells an imaginary story. The writer of a fictional work might invent all the events

and characters in it or might base parts of the story on real people or events. 56. Figurative language Writers use figurative language – expressions that are not literally true – to create original

descriptions. 57. Figure of speech A literary device used to create a special effect or feeling by making some type of interesting and

creative comparison. Examples: Antithesis, Hyperbole, Metaphor, Metonymy, Personification, Simile, Understatement, etc.

58. Flashback Returning to an earlier time in the story for the purpose of making something in the present clearer. 59. Flat character A character who is simple, two dimensional, and shallow. Readers do not feel like they get to

KNOW a flat character; e.g., the mother in Little Red Riding Hood. 60. Foil Someone who serves as a contrast or challenge to another character. 61. Foreshadowing A suggestion of what is to come later in the work by giving hints and clues. 62. Genre Used to define form or type of literature. The novel, the essay, and poem are examples of the many

genre or forms of literature. 63. Gothic novel A type of fiction that is characterized by gloomy castles, ghosts, and supernatural happenings --

creating a mysterious and sometimes frightening story. 64. Historical fiction Contemporary fiction that is set in the past. 65. Horror fiction Contains mysterious and often supernatural events to create terror. 66. Hubris Derived from the Greek word hybris, means "excessive pride." In Greek tragedy, hubris is often

viewed as the flaw that leads to the downfall of the tragic hero. 67. Hyperbole A figure of speech in which the truth is exaggerated for emphasis or for humorous effect. 68. Idiom An expression whose meaning is different from the meanings of the words that make it up;

examples are: kick the bucket or hang one's head .69. magery Used to describe the words or phrases, which bring forth a certain picture or image in the mind of

the reader. It is the sensory language and the metaphors that the writer uses to create the atmosphere.70. Inference A logical guess based on evidence. Readers, by combining the information the writer provides with

what they know from their own experience, can figure out more than the words say. 71. Irony A contrast between what is expected and what actually exists. 72. Jargon Specialized language of a trade, profession, or group. 73. Legend A story handed down from the past about a specific person. 74. Litotes A form of understatement that is achieved by saying the opposite of what you mean; e.g., calling a

fat child -- “skinny” or a slow one -- “speedy.” 75. Logos A Greek root meaning logic or reason. It usually describes the use of fact and logic to persuade the

intended audience or reader. 76. Main idea A central idea that a writer wishes to express. It could be the central idea of an entire work or a topic

sentence of a paragraph. 77. Malapropism A type of pun, or play on words, that results when two words become jumbled in the speaker's mind.

The term comes from a character in Sheridan's comedy, The Rivals. The character, Mrs. Malaprop, is constantly mixing up her words.

78. Melodrama An exaggerated form of drama, such as soap operas, that are characterized by heavy use of romance, suspense, and emotion.

79. Memoir A specific type of autobiography. A memoir does not cover the author’s entire life. 80. Metaphor A figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally

applicable in order to suggest a resemblance, as in "a sea of troubles" or "All the world's a stage" (Shakespeare).

81. Meter The more or less regular pattern of accented and unaccented syllables in poetry. 82. Metonymy Substituting one word for another related word. Example: The White House has decided to create

more public service jobs. (White House is substituted for president.) 83. Mood The feeling a piece of literature arouses in the reader: happy, sad, etc. 84. Moral A lesson or value that the author is trying to get across to the reader. 85. Motif A term for an often-repeated idea or theme in literature. 86. Motivation Why characters behave in a certain way. You can track motivation with “because” sentences. 87. Myth A traditional story that attempts to justify a certain practice or belief or to explain a natural

phenomenon. 88. Narrative Writing that tells a story. The events can be real or imagined. 89. Narrator The person who is telling the story. 90. Nonfiction Writing that tells about real people, places, and events. 91. Novel A term that covers a wide range of prose materials, which have two common characteristics: they

are fictional and lengthy. 92. Novella A prose work longer than the standard short story, but shorter and less complex than a full-length

novel. 93. Onomatopoeia The formation or use of words such as "buzz" that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or

actions they refer to; "moo," "drip," "clang," and "choo choo" are examples of these.94. Opinion A statement that reflects a writer’s belief but which cannot be supported by proof or evidence. 95. Outlining A general description covering the main points of a subject with headings and subheadings. 96. Oxymoron A combination of contradictory terms such as in “jumbo shrimp.” 97. Parable A short descriptive story that illustrates a particular belief or moral. 98. Paradox A statement that seems contrary to common sense, yet may, in fact, be true. Example: "The coach

considered this a good loss."99. Parallel structure The repeating of phrases and sentences that are syntactically similar. 100. Paraphrasing The restatement of a text by readers in their own words or in another form. 101. Parody A form of literature that intentionally uses comic effect to mock a literary work or style. 102. Pathos A Greek root meaning suffering or passion. It usually describes the part in a play or story that is

intended to elicit pity or sorrow from the audience or reader. 103. Personification A literary device in which the author elevates an animal, object, or idea to the level of human such

that it takes on the characteristics of a human personality. Example: “The rock stubbornly refused to move.”

104. Persuasion Meant to sway readers’ feelings, beliefs, or actions. 105. Plot The sequence of events that happen in a story. There are five basic parts to a plot:

• Exposition • Rising Action • Climax • Falling Action • Resolution

106. Poetic justice A term that describes a character "getting what he deserves" in the end, especially if what he deserves is punishment. The purest form of poetic justice is when one character plots against another but ends up being caught in his or her own trap.

107. Poetic license A poet or other professional writer is allowed to break conventional rules of grammar, spelling, form, or citation to make rhyme, meter, or general effect better. -- Dr. Seuss

108. Poetry A type of literature in which ideas and feelings are expressed in compact, imaginative, and often musical language.

109. Point of view The vantage point from which the story is being told. First-person point of view: The story is told by one of the characters. Third-person point of view: The story is told by someone outside of the story. There are three

kinds of third person p.o.v.: Omniscient- allows the narrator to relate the thoughts and feelings of all the characters Limited omniscient- allows the narrator to relate the thoughts and feelings of only one

character Camera (objective) view- seeing and recording the action from a neutral or unemotional point

of view110. Primary source A firsthand account of an event. Primary sources include: diaries, journals, letters, speeches, news

stories, photographs, and pieces of art. 111. Propaganda One-sided persuasion, materials spread abroad by advocates of a doctrine. 112. Prose An ordinary form of spoken and written language. It is the language that lacks the special features of

poetry. 113. Protagonist The main character or hero of the story. 114. Pseudonym A pen name or false name. The name a writer uses in place of his or her given name. 115. Pun A word or phrase that is used to suggest more than one possible meaning. Also called a “play on

words” 116. Quest A main character seeking to find something or achieve a goal. In the process, this character

encounters and overcomes a series of obstacles, returning wiser and more experienced. 117. Realism Literature that attempts to represent life as it really is. 118. Realistic fiction Imaginative writing set in the real, modern world. 119. Renaissance Means "rebirth,” The period of history following the Middle Ages. This period began late in the

14th century and continued through the 15th and 16th centuries. The term now applies to any period in time in which intellectual and artistic interest is revived or reborn.

120. Repetition A technique in which a sound, word, phrase, or line is repeated for effect or emphasis. 121. Resolution Sometimes called the “denouement.” It ties up the story. It is most often the final solution to the

conflict. It is also what happens as a result of the solution. 122. Rhetorical question A question asked for effect which neither requires a reply nor wants a reply. -- When it is past bed

time and a parent asks, “Isn’t it past your bed time?” 123. Rhetorical techniques The tools used in effective or persuasive language such as ethos, pathos, logos, contrast, repetition,

paradox, understatement, sarcasm, and rhetorical questions. 124. Rhyme Repetition of sounds at the end of words; e.g., “I do not like green eggs and ham. I do not like them

Sam I am.” 125. Rising action The part of a drama that follows the event that gives rise to the conflict and precedes the climax. 126. Sarcasm Use of praise to mock someone or something. 127. Satire A literary technique in which ideas or customs are ridiculed for the purpose of improving society. 128. Scene In a play, a scene is a section presenting events that occur in one place at one time. 129. Science fiction Prose writing in which a writer explores unexpected possibilities of the past or future by using

scientific data and theories as well as his or her imagination. 130. Secondary source Presents information compiled from or based on other than first hand accounts (primary sources).131. Sensory details Words and phrases that help readers see, hear, taste, feel, or smell what the author is describing. 132. Sentence fluency Sentences have varied length and beginnings; they are easy to read aloud. 133. Setting The place and time that a literary or dramatic work takes place. 134. Short story A brief work of fiction that can generally be read in one sitting. Usually contains one major conflict

and at least one main character. 135. Simile A comparison of two unlike things in which a word of comparison (like or as) is used. Example: She

eats like a bird. 136. Slang Non-standard vocabulary, figures of speech marked by spontaneity. 137. Slapstick A form of low comedy that often includes exaggerated, sometimes violent action. The "pie in the

face" routine is a classic piece of slapstick. 138. Soliloquy A speech delivered by a character when he or she is alone on stage. It is as though the character is

thinking out loud. 139. Stage directions In the script of a play, the stage directions are the instructions to the actors, director, and stage crew. 140. Static character A character who undergoes no change; e.g., Atticus in To Kill a Mockingbird.

141. Stereotype A broad generalization or an oversimplified view that disregards individual differences. These can lead to unfair judgments of people on the basis of ethnic background or physical appearance.

142. Style How the author uses words, phrases, and sentences to form his or her ideas. Style is also thought of as the qualities and characteristics that distinguish one writer's work from the work of others.

143. Suspense A feeling of growing tension and excitement. 144. Symbol A concrete object used to represent an idea. Example: A black object usually symbolizes death or

sorrow. 145. Syntax The arrangement – the ordering, grouping, placement – of words within a sentence and sentences

within a paragraph. 146. Theme The statement about life that a particular story is trying to get across to the reader. A theme is a

message about life or human nature that is communicated by a literary work. 147. Tone The overall feeling or effect created by a writer's use of words. This feeling may be serious,

humorous, or satiric. 148. Tragedy A literary work in which the hero is destroyed by some flaw within his character and/or by forces

that he cannot control. 149. Tragic hero A character that experiences an inner struggle because of some flaw within his character. That

struggle ends with the defeat of the hero. 150. Understatement A way of emphasizing an idea by talking about it in a restrained manner. Example: "Aunt Polly is

prejudiced against snakes." (She was terrified of them.) 151. Voice An author’s or a narrator’s voice is his or her distinctive style or manner of expression. 152. Word choice Vivid images created with just the right words and phrases. Also known as Diction.

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