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NAME OF THE TEACHER: SR. RENCY GEORGE

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: CHAPTER -2

CLASS: IX

MOBILE NO:9340839715

Chapter-2

Tissues

LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES Learn and recall the concept of tissue.

Learn about the different types of meristematic tissue, their location and functions in

plants.

Differentiate between the simple permanent tissue and complex permanent tissue.

RESOURCES:

i.Text books

ii.Learning Materials

iii.Lab manual

iv.E-Resources,video ,L.C.D etc…

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Introduction

o Till now we studied that all the organisms are made of cells.

o On the basis of cell they are divided into unicellular (single-celled) and/or multicellular (two or more celled).

o Example-Amoeba (unicellular), in case of amoeba all the functions are carried out by the single cell, whether it is digestion, excretion, respiration, but in case of human beings or plants (multicellular), all these functions are assigned to different cells rather different tissues or organs or organ systems.

Living organisms in this world comprise of cells.

There are unicellular as well as multicellular organisms present in this world.

In unicellular organisms, the only single cell is capable of performing several functions such as

Respiration, Digestion and Clearing of the cell.

In multicellular organisms, there is a division of labor. There are different types as well as groups

of cells that perform different functions in a multicellular organism. For Example, In animals

muscle cells are responsible for causing movement, nerve cells are responsible for carrying

messages and signals from one part of the body to another and blood is responsible for

transportation of food and oxygen to different parts of the body.

In plants, there are vascular tissues that are responsible for carrying food and water two different

parts of a plant.

The Formation of Tissues

Cells form groups cells that need to perform a single task often group together.

This grouping of cells together to perform a function efficiently is called a Tissue.

For Example, Muscles and Blood.

The tissue cells have the same structure and they perform the same function.

Tissues of Plants and Animals

Plant Tissues Animal Tissues

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Plants do not move so their tissues are predominantly

the ones that provide support to them so that they can

stand erect.

Animals need more energy as compared to plants

because they are not stationary. Their tissues are

the ones that can support movement.

These tissues are made up of dead cells because dead

cells can also provide mechanical strength to the plants

and do not require much maintenance.

The tissues in case of animals are made up of

living cells so that they can move and perform

several functions.

Only certain parts of the plant can grow. The tissues

present in such regions of and divide themselves and

form new tissues.

Cells in animals grow uniform early and not only in

certain regions of the body.

The structure of plant tissues is not very specialized as

compared to animals

The organs and organ systems in animals are

highly developed.

Plant Tissues

Figure 1 Types of Plant Tissues

Meristematic Tissue

Only certain parts of a plant tend to grow. The tissues located in such parts are called

meristematic tissues.

They have the capability to divide themselves and form new tissues. They have thin cell wall

made of cellulose. Also have dense nucleus and cytoplasm but lack vacuoles.

They can further we classify differently based on the areas of the plants where they are located -

o Apical

o Lateral

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o Intercalary

Figure 2 Location of meristematic tissue

Apical Meristem Lateral Meristem Intercalary Meristem

They are responsible for the

growth of stems and roots in

the plants

They are found on the tips of

the roots and stems.

They are responsible for increasing

the circumference of the middle part

of the stem and hence are found

there.

These tissues are present at

internodes or stem regions

between the places at which

leaves attach.

Why there are no vacuoles in the intercalary meristem?

Vacuoles are responsible for storage of food in water. The intercalary tissues do not store them.

They are rather responsible for manufacturing them.

Moreover, vacuoles contain sap which provides rigidity to a cell. This property of vacuoles may

not allow the intercalary tissues to divide and manufacture new cells. Hence vacuoles are not

present in them.

Permanent Tissue

The cells that are formed by the meristematic tissues often have to take a certain role in the plant

and thus, they lose their ability to divide and form more cells. They then become the permanent

tissues of the plants.ō

Differentiation - The process by which cells of the meristematic tissues convert themselves into

a permanent tissue by taking a fixed shape, size and function is called differentiation.

Types of Permanent Tissues:

o Simple Permanent Tissues

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o Complex Permanent Tissues

Simple Permanent Tissues are of five types:

o Parenchyma

o Chlorenchyma

o Aerenchyma

o Collenchyma

o Sclerenchyma

Figure 3 Simple Permanent Tissue

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

These tissues are responsible for

photosynthesis, storage of food,

gaseous exchange and floating of

plants.

These tissues are responsible for

providing flexibility to the plants

so that they can bend easily.

These tissues are responsible

for making plants hard and

rigid.

They are a group of living cells with cell

wall made of cellulose.

They are a group of living cells

with cell wall made of cellulose

and pectin.

They are made up of dead

cells having cell wall made of

lignin.

The parenchyma cells have large

intercellular spaces between them.

They have a little intercellular

space in between them.

The cells do not have any

intercellular spaces.

There are thin walls that surround each

cell.

The cells present in these tissues

are broad and irregularly thick at

The cells have a long

structure with thick walls.

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corners.

They are found in leaves and newly

formed branches.

They are present in leaves and

stems of a plant.

They are found in stems,

veins of the leaves and

coverings of nuts and seeds.

Chlorenchyma

These tissues are similar to that of parenchyma but they also contain chlorophyll in them.

Due to the presence of chlorophyll, they are capable of performing the process of photosynthesis

in plants.

Aerenchyma

They are found in aquatic plants.

They are also similar in structure to that of the parenchyma but they have large air cavities in

them.

These cavities allow the aquatic plants to float in water.

What is Lignin?

The cell walls of dead cells have a substance called lignin in them which provides rigidity to the cells.

Lignin acts as the cement for the cells.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of the cell is known as the Epidermis.

It covers the entire plant.

It is a thin layer of single cells but in places with less water, the epidermis of the plants can

become thick in order to avoid frequent water loss.

The cells are flat and they have no intercellular spaces between them.

The outer walls of the epidermal cells are thick and the inner walls are thin.

The epidermal cells often have long hair-like structures in roots which facilitate the absorption of

water.

The main function of the epidermis is to protect the plants from fungi, water loss and any injuries

by secrets a wax-like water-resistant substance called as Cuticle on the surface of the plants

which protects the plants.

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Figure 4 Epidermis

Stomata

Stomata are pore-like structures that are present in the epidermis of the leaves.

These pores are enclosed by two cells that have a similar shape as a kidney. These are

called Guard Cells of Stomata. Guard cells are modified epidermal cells.

Guard cells are responsible for the exchange of gases and transpiration.

Transpiration (OLYMPIAD)

Figure 5 Transpiration

The plant cells when sometimes have extra they lose it in the form of water evaporates through

stomata. This process is called Transpiration.

Role of Transpiration in Plants – (OLYMPIAD)

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Exchange of Gases - Plants absorbs carbon dioxide and release oxygen through transpiration.

Prevent the Plants from Overheating - The leaves absorb sunlight during the process of

photosynthesis. Some of it is used in the photosynthesis process while the rest is radiated

as Heat Energy. We know that absorption of water causes cooling of the surrounding area.

Therefore transpiration keeps the leaves cool.

Transportation of Food and Water in Plants - The roots of the plants absorb minerals and

water present in the soil through transpiration and they are then distributed in the plant through

transpiration stream.

Movement of Water in Plants – As plants lose water in the form of water vapors, the density of

water in leaves becomes low. So the water from the higher density areas such as the roots move

up to lower density areas through a force called Transpirational Pull.

Which gas is necessary for the process of photosynthesis?

The carbon dioxide gas is necessary in the process of photosynthesis. Plants use carbon dioxide

along with water and sunlight to produce glucose in the process of photosynthesis. Plants take in

carbon dioxide and release oxygen as a byproduct of the photosynthesis process.

Why do plants in desert areas have a waxy coating of cutin over them? (OLYMPIAD)

The epidermis cells of plants that are found in deserts have a waxy coating of cutin over them

because it prevents water loss from the plants surface since water is already scarce in such areas.

Why do branches of old trees are different than the stems of a new plant?

As a plant grows older the meristematic cells start covering the upper layer of the plants instead

of the epidermis.

These are the dead cells that have no special function in the plants but to provide them rigidity.

They make the branches of the plants thick.

This is often called the Bark or the thick cork of the tree.

The bark of the trees contains a substance called Suberin which makes it waterproof and does

not allow gaseous exchanges. (OLYMPIAD)

Complex Permanent Tissues

Complex Permanent Tissues comprise of different kinds of cells. These different types of cells

coordinate with each other and perform a common function in these tissues. Two Complex

Permanent Tissues are - Xylem and Phloem.

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Figure 6 Xylem and Phloem

Similarities between Xylem and Phloem

Their main function is to carry food and water in the plant.

Both have a vascular bundle which is a conductive tissue in plants that helps them survive in

different environmental conditions.

Xylem

Xylem is made up of dead cells having a thick cell lining. It consists of following elements-

Tracheids and Vessels – They have broad tubular structure so that we can allow transportation

of food and water in the plants vertically.

Xylem Parenchyma – It stores food and helps in transportation of water horizontally in the

plants.

Xylem Fibers – They support transportation

Phloem

Phloem is made up of living cells and it allows the movement of food from leaves to other parts of

the plant. It has the following elements –

Sieve Tubes – Broad shaped cells with porous walls

Companion Cells – They facilitate the functions of the sieve tubes

Phloem Fibers – Provide flexibility to the phloem

Phloem Parenchyma – Stores starch and proteins

Xylem Phloem

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Made of Dead Cells Living Cells

Cell wall thickness Thick Thin

Cell wall material Lignin (rigid) Celluloses

Permeability Impermeable Permeable

Cytoplasm None Cytoplasm lining

Transports… Water & minerals Food

Carried to…. Leaves Growing parts & storage organs

Direction of flow Upwards Up & down

Tissue alos has … Fibres Companion cells

Animal Tissue

Figure 7 Types of Animal Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue

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They are the protective tissues of the human body. They cover many organs and cavities that are

present inside the body.

Where are the epithelial tissues found in the human body?

o The lining of the blood vessels

o The lining of the mouth

o Kidney tubules

o Skin

o Lung alveoli

Structure and functions of the epithelial tissues -

o The main function of the epithelial tissues is to act as a barrier and separate different organs

and systems from each other.

o There is no space between the cells of epithelial tissues

o The cells are permeable. This makes it possible for them to exchange materials between

different parts of the body and also between the body and the external environment.

o The epithelial tissues remain separated from the tissues beneath them because of a thin

membrane over them.

Figure 8 Types of Epithelium

Different

types of

epithelium

tissues

Simple

Squamous

Stratified

Squamous Columnar

Ciliated

Columnar Cuboidal Glandular

Structure

They have

delicate

cell lining

and

possess a

The epithelium

Squamous cells

are arranged in

several layers

They are the

column-like

shape

tissues

Columnar

epithelial tissues

which have Cilia

present on them

They are cube-

shaped cells

which are

involved in

absorption and

These are

special gland

cells that can

secrete

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flat thin

structure

secretion. substances

Found in

Alveoli

and

bowman’s

capsule-

nephron

in kidney

Skin Intestine Respiratory

system Kidney tubules

Sweat glands in

the skin

2. Connective Tissues

Structure and function of connective tissues

o They are loosely bound cells present in an intercellular Matrix.

o This matrix can be of different types – Dense, Rigid, Fluid or Jelly-like.

o Depending upon the functionality of the connective tissue, the nature of the matrix varies in

them.

Examples of Connective Tissues

Figure 9 Connective Tissues

Blood

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The main function of blood is to transport gases, food, waste materials and hormones in the

body.

Therefore, blood has a fluid Matrix present in it which is called Plasma.

The plasma contains the red blood cells, the white blood cells and blood platelets.

The RBC have hemoglobin pigment which carries oxygen to tissues.

White blood cells fight diseases and platelets are involved in clotting of blood when injured.

The plasma also contains proteins and hormones in it.

Lymph (OLYMPIAD)

Lymph is a colourless fluid that carries white blood cells throughout the human body in lymphatic

vessels. There are lymphoid organs present in the body that produce lymph and together form the

lymphatic system. Some of them are lymph nodes and tonsils.

Figure 10 Lymph Capillaries

Lymph is similar to blood except for a few differences:

It contains only white blood cells.

It contains less amount of blood proteins, calcium and phosphorous but more glucose.

It flows in one direction only.

Lymph moves in the body through its normal function unlike blood which is pumped by the heart.

Constituents of Lymph:

Lymph Plasma – Lymph Plasma carries infection-fighting proteins along with other substances such

as water, calcium and phosphorous.

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Lymph Corpuscles – Lymph Corpuscles comprises white blood cells. Red blood cells and platelets

are not present in lymph.

Functions of Lymph:

It carries oxygen and minerals to the cells in the body and carries back carbon dioxide and waste

materials back into the blood.

It keeps the body cells moist.

It maintains the volume of the blood.

It helps in eliminating harmful bacteria and virus from the body and hence is responsible for the

immunity of human beings.

It absorbs fats from the intestine and transports them throughout the body.

Bones

Bones form a framework of the body over which the muscles are wrapped together.

The bone tissue is strong and inflexible in nature.

Therefore, the bone cells are present in a rigid matrix which is formed from calcium and

phosphorus.

Haversian Canals (OLYMPIAD)

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Figure 11 Haversian Canal

The bones comprises of microscopic tubes called Haversian Canals.

They are contained in osteons, rough cylindrical structures present along the axis of the bone.

They allow the blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibres to travel through them.

These canals have concentric channels called Lamellae around them.

The Haversian canals communicate with bone cells through connections called Canaliculi.

Cartilage

Cartilage is present over the joints of the bones and provides them with a smooth structure.

For Example in the nose tip and ear pinna, trachea, larynx.

They contain solid matrix made of protein and sugar. They have homogenous matrix.

It provides support and flexibility to various parts of our body.

Ligaments

A ligament connects two bones together.

It has an elasticity which facilitates the connection.

The cells of ligaments have a little matrix.

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Tendons

The tendons tissues are responsible for connecting bones and muscles together.

They have limited flexibility but very great strength.

Areolar

This tissue acts as a filter in between the spaces present inside the organs of the body.

It helps in repairing other tissues as well.

It is found in the skin and bone marrow.

Components of the Areolar Connective Tissue

Figure 12 Components of the areolar connective tissue

1. Cells (OLYMPIAD)

Fat Cells (Adipocytes) – They are responsible for secretion of lipids.

Fibroblasts – They are the present in the highest amount in areolar tissues. They are

responsible for secretion of fibres.

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Mast Cells – They release histamine that plays role in allergic reactions

Macrophages – They eat any germs or infectious cells in the body

Plasma Cells – They produce antibodies

2. Fibres

Collagen Fibres – They provide tensile strength to the tissue

Elastin Fibres – They provide elasticity to the tissue

Ground Substance – It is a fluid matrix that holds cells and fibres of the tissue

Adipose

Fats are stored in our body in the adipose tissues.

They are found below the skin and between the organs of the body.

Provides cushioning to the organs.

3. Muscular Tissue

It is made up of muscle fibers which are long cells.

It allows movements in our body.

How muscles can cause movement?

They contain special proteins called Contractile Proteins. These proteins cause contraction and

relaxation of the muscles.

There are two kinds of muscles found in our body - Voluntary Muscles and Involuntary Muscles.

Assignment

Draw Different types of Animal Tissues in a chart.

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Figure 13 Muscular Tissue

Striated/ Skeletal/ Voluntary muscles Smooth/ Unstriated/Involuntary muscles

We can move them according to our own will We cannot start or stop the movement of

involuntary muscles.

They are also called Skeletal Muscles as they are

attached to the bones. They also called Smooth Muscles.

They are also called Striated Muscles because of the

presence of dark and light bands over them

They are also called Unstriated

Muscles because they do not have any light or

dark bands on them.

The cells of voluntary muscles have more than one

nucleus, they do not have any branches, and have a

long cylindrical structure.

The cells of the involuntary muscles are long and

have pointed ends.

For Example, Muscles of our hands and legs. For Example, The muscles in the alimentary

canal and the Iris of our eyes.

Cardiac Muscles

o These are special kinds of involuntary muscles.

o The muscles of the heart are called Cardiac Muscles they perform rhythmic contraction and

relaxation throughout our life.

o They are cylindrical in shape, they have branches and there is a single nucleus.

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o Cardiac muscle consists of individual heart muscle cells connected by intercalated discs to

work as a single functional organ

4. The Nervous Tissue

How do we react to stimuli?

o This is because of the nervous tissues present in our body. They are capable of transmitting

information quickly from the brain to different parts of the body and vice-versa.

Therefore nervous tissues are found in nerves, brain, and spinal cord.

The Nervous tissue is made up of cells called the Nerve Cells or Neurons.

These neurons connect together to form the nerves of our body.

Structure of a Neuron

o It is an elongated cell with a Cell Body that consists of some branch-like structure called

Dendrites.

o There is a Nucleus present in the center of the cell body.

o The Nerve Endings of the cell are connected with the cell body via Axon.

o A nerve cell can be up to 1 m long.

Figure 14 Structure of Neuron

The Structure of Neuron

1. Dendrites

They are tree-like extensions (highly-branched) at the beginning of a neuron.

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They increase the surface area of the neuron.

They receive chemical signals from different neurons of the body.

They then convert these chemical signals into electrical signals and pass them to the neuron cell

body.

A neuron can have a single dendrite or multiple dendrites

2. Cell Body

Also called Soma.

The main function of the cell body and nucleus of the neuron is to maintain the functionality of the

cell.

It does not play an active role in the transmission of the signal.

It produces proteins that are required by different parts of the neuron to work properly.

It contains different cell organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus etc that perform

various functions of the cell.

3. Axon

Neurons have one axon in general.

It is a long structure that connects the cell body to the terminals and it also connects with other

neurons, cells and organs of the body through nerve terminals.

It allows in fast transmission of signals. The larger the diameter of the axon the faster it will

transmit signals.

It is covered with a special insulating substance called myelin. It helps in rapid transmission of

signals.

4. Schwann Cells (OLYMPIAD)

The Myelin sheath that covers the axon is produced by Schwann cells.

The Myelin sheath keeps the signal intact

Question and Answers:-

Question 1. What is a tissue?

Answer: A group of cells that are similar in structure and work together to do a peculiar function

is called tissue.

Question 2. What is the utility of tissues in multicellular organisms?

Answer: Tissues provide structural strength, mechanical strength, show division of labour.

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Question 3. Name types of simple tissues. Answer: The types of simple tissues are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma and

aerenchyma.

Question 4. Where is apical meristem found? Answer: Apical meristem is found at the tip of root or shoot of the plant.

Question 5. Which tissue makes up the husk of coconut? Answer: The husk of coconut is made of sclerenchymatous tissue.

Question 6. What are the constituents of phloem? Answer: Phloem is made up of four types of elements sieve tube, companion cells,

phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma.

Question 7. Name the tissue responsible for movement in our body. Answer: Muscular tissue, 2. Nervous tissue, combination of both the tissues are

responsible for movement in our body.

Question 8. What does a neuron look like? Answer: A neuron consists of a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from which

long thin hair like parts arise. Each neuron has a single long part called the axon, and many small, short branched parts called dendrite. An individual nerve cell is called neuron, it may be up to a metre long.

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Question 9. Give three features of cardiac muscles. Answer: Feature of cardiac muscles

(1) Heart muscles (cardiac muscles) are cylindrical, branched and uninucleated (2) They are striated muscle fibres.

(3) They are involuntary muscles, cannot be controlled by us.

Question 10. What are the Junctions of areolar tissue? Answer: Areolar tissue are connective tissues found in animal. It is found between skin

and muscles, around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow. It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps in the repair of

tissues.

Question 11. Define the term “tissue”. Answer: Group of cells that are similar in structure and perform same function is called

a tissue.

Question12. How many types of elements together make up the xylem tissue? Name them. Answer: The xylem is made up of vessels, trachieds, xylem fibres and xylem

parenchyma.

Question 13. How are simple tissues different from complex tissues in plants? Answer: Simple tissues are made up of one type of cells which coordinate to perform a common function. Complex tissues are made up of more than one type of cells. All these coordinate to perform a common function.

Question 14. Differentiate between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma on the basis of their cell wall. Answer: Parenchyma: The cells have thin cell walls made up of cellulose.

Collenchyma: The cells have cell walls thickened at the comers due to pectin deposition.

Sclerenchyma: Their walls are thickened due to lignin deposition.

Question 15. What are the functions of stomata? Answer: The outermost layer of the cell is called epidermis and is very porous. These

pores are called stomata. These stomata help in transpiration and exchange of gases.

Question 16. Diagrammatically show the difference between the three types of muscle fibres. Answer: Striated muscles

(1) They are connected to bones (Skeletal muscles). (2) They are voluntary muscles. (3) The cells are long, cylindrical with many nucleus and are unbranched.

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Smooth muscles (1) They are found in alimentary canal and lungs. (2) They are involuntary muscles. (3) They are spindle in shape and have single nucleus. Cardiac muscles (1) They are found in heart. (2) They are involuntary in action. (3) They are branched and have one nucleus.

Question 17. What is the specific function of the cardiac muscle? Answer: (1) Cardiac muscles cells are cylindrical, branched and uninucleated.

(2) They are involuntary muscles. (3) They show rhythmically contraction and relaxation throughout life.

(4) Their rhythmic contraction and relaxation helps in pumping action of heart.

Question 18. Differentiate between striated, unstriated and cardiac muscles on the basis of their structure and location in the body.

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Answer:

Question 19. Draw a labelled diagram of neuron. Answer:

Question 20. Name the following: (1) Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth. (2) Tissue that connect muscle to bone in humans. (3) Tissue that trar-carts food in plants. (4) Tissue that siwea j’ut in our body. (5) Connective tissue with a fluid matrix. (6) Tissue present in the brain. Answer: (1) Squamous epithelium (2) Tendons (3) Phloem (4) Areolar tissue

(5) Blood (6) Nervous tissue

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Question 21. Identify the type of tissue in the following: Skin, bark of tree, bone, lining of kidney tubule, vascular bundle. Answer: (a) Skin—Striated squamous epithelium (b) Bark of tree—Cork, protective tissue (c) Bone—Connective tissue (d) Lining of kidney tubule—Cuboidal epithelium tisse

(e) Vascular bundle—Conducting tissue

Question 22. Name the regions in which parenchyma tissue is present. Answer: In the pith of the roots and stems. When it contains chlorophyll, it is called

chlorenchyma, found in green leaves. In aquatic plants, parenchyma contains large air cavities and help them to float. Such type of parenchyma is called aerenchyma.

Question 23. What is the role of epidermis in plants? Answer: Cells of epidermis forms a continuous layer without intercellular spaces. It

protects all the parts of plants.

Question 24. How does the cork act as a protective tissue? Answer: Cork acts as a protective tissue because its cells are dead and compactly

arranged without intercellular spaces. They have deposition of suberin on the walls that make them impervious to gases and water.

Question 25. Complete the table:

Answer: