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International Journal on Environmental Sciences

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Volume - VII Issue : 2 July - December 2016

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CONTENTS

Editor:Dr. Kshipra MisraAdditional DirectorHead, Department of Bio-chemical Science (DBCS)New Delhi

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Sl. Title Page No. No.

1. Detection of Paramphistome antibodies by Employing 115-118Coproantigen through indirect Dot-ELISASYED SHABIH HASSAN

2. A Biochar from Prosophis Wood and its Properties 119-124S. SHENBAGAVALLI AND S. MAHIMAIRAJA

3. Air Quality over Delhi NCR during Road Space 125-131Rationing Scheme Phase 2: An Observational StudyMADHU JOSHI, P B SHARMA, P C S DEVARA,SARIKA JAIN, PAVLEEN BALI, M P ALAM

4. Influence of Biochar on Methane Emission from 132-137Paddy Field Under two Different Moisture RegimeS. SHENBAGAVALLI AND S. MAHIMAIRAJA

5. A Study on Effect of Climate Change on the 138-142Agriculture Sector in Mirzapur, U.P. IndiaASHOK KUMAR SRIVASTAVA

6. Biodiversity: Its Different Levels and Values 143-145ASHOK KUMAR VERMA

7. Water Resources and Management 146-1571

HARI PRASATH. B AND R. SATHYA

8. Species Composition and Seasonal Variation 158-165 of the Family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) in Doon Valley, Uttarakhand, IndiaRASHMI NAUTIYAL AND SUDHIR SINGH

9. An Appraisal on the Defilement of Ganga Stream 166-175in Uttar Pradesh Stretch – Ganga Water PollutionADITI TIWARI AND SHUBHAM BAJPAI

10. Evaluation of Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects of 176-179Cypermethrin on Root Meristems of Allium cepa L.GEETHA SUVARNA AND BHAGYA B. SHARMA

11. Effects of Occupational Exposure 180-184to Cement Dust in Asbestos Factory Workers K RUDRAMA DEVI, MINNY JAEL. P AND DILIP REDDY K

12. Frequency Analysis of Consecutive Days 185-189Maximum Rainfall at Raichur, Karnataka, IndiaPRADEEP C.M., YASMIN and G.V. SRINIVASA REDDY



CONTENTS

13. Regimes of Alpine Rivers and their 190-194Impacts under Changing ClimateCHAITANYA SURE

14. A Study on the Role of NGOs in 195-202the Protection of EnvironmentKAVITA DUA

Detection of Paramphistome antibodies by Employing Coproantigen through indirect Dot-ELISA

SYED SHABIH HASSAN

Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary ScienceGuru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, (Punjab)

Received: 15 April 2016 Revision: Accepted:

ABSTRACT

Early diagnosis of paramphistomosis is important so that the losses due to mortality can be curtailed. The use of coproantigen is an immunological assay like ELISA for the detection of paramphistome infection has an edge over other tests in terms of specificity, sensitivity and rapidity. Development of indirect Dot-ELISA for the detection of anti – P. epiclitum antibodies using various types antigen for knowing the status of infection in livestock has become popular. The collected sera samples were tested for paramphistome antibodies by Indirect Dot-ELISA. Coproantigen of all six samples positive for adult Paramphistomum spp (10g/l concentration) were used for coating NCM pad on Dot-ELISA combs and incubated overnight at 4 C. The combs were then incubated in 3% lactogen for 1 h at 37 C in PBS for blocking of non-specific sites. The combs were also incubated in sera samples at dilution 1:200 followed by incubation in Rabbit Anti-Goat HRPO Conjugate for 1 h at 37 C. Then NCM combs were immersed in 3, 3`-DAB (Di-amino-benzidine hydrochloride) for 3-5 min. Development of dark brown coloured dot indicating positive reaction was found in the sera samples tested. The results indicated the possible application of coproantigen in detection of anti-paramphistome antibodies in ruminants. A part from this, 55 field/clinical sera samples (40 sheep and 15 goats) were also examined by Sandwich Dot-ELISA. Out of the total, 15 samples (12 sheep, and 3 goats) were found to be positive with the prevalence rate of 27.3%. The % positivity was recorded as very high (+++), high (++), low (+) and mild. Findings will be exploited for the early detection of paramphistomum antibodies in infected animals at large scale so that future preventive strategies may be undertaken to establish the role of coproantigen and its potential in immunodiagnosis of paramphistomosis.

Key words: Paramphistome antibodies, coproantigen, detection, indirect Dot-ELISA.

15 May 2016 25 May 2016

INTRODUCTION

Amphistomosis constitutes a major health hazard to

ruminants particularly in low-lying areas where snails

are found abundantly during monsoon and post

monsoon season. Mortality due to immature

paramphistomosis is very high and at time it can go up

to 80% in ruminants. Incidence of amphistomosis in

cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats has been reported in

different states of India (Chhabra et al 1972, Chhabra

and Gill, 1975; Varma et al., 1989 and Manna et al.,

1994, Juyal et al. 2003, Hassan et al. 2005). The

conventional copro-parasitological diagnostic

techniques are generally not very reliable and also lack

sensitivity and specificity, particularly as eggs are not

present in host faeces in immature amphistomosis and

at times difficult to identify morphologically under the

light microscopy. Early diagnosis of the disease is very

important so that the losses due to mortality can be

curtailed by providing the appropriate treatment. The

use of coproantigen is an immunological assay like

ELISA for the detection of paramphistome infection

has an edge over other tests in terms of specificity,

sensitivity and rapidity. Coproantigen ELISA has

previously been used mainly for cestodes (Deplazes et

al. 1999, Fraser and Craig 1997), Fasciola hepatica

Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]

International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2) : 115-118, July-December 2016ISSN No.: 0976-4534

Research Paper

115

116

116 JULY-DECEMBER 2016Detection of Paramphistome antibodies.....

(Dumenigo et al. 1996) and Giardia infections (Green

et al. 1985). Presently, there is no information

available as far as paramphistomosis is concerned;

therefore, an attempt has been made for the detection

of anti-paramphistome antibodies in sera using

coproantigen of naturally positive paramphistome

infected animals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Faecal, sera and live parasite samples of paramphistome infected animals were diligently collected after thorough examination of slaughtered sheep and goats from the slaughter house at Karnal (Haryana) and Bareily (UP). Faecal samples were initially found positive after microscopical examination by sedimentation and floatation method. The eggs of amphistome and strongyles were found in large numbers in naturally infected animals. After that, positive faecal samples were separated and processed for the coproantigen preparation as per standard method with slight modifications (Dumenigo et al. 1996; Deplazes et al. 1999). The protein content was estimated by the method of Lowry et al. (1951). One gram of faecal samples was mixed in 0.2M carbonate-bicarbonate buffer pH-9.6, in the ratio of 1:4 (w/v) till slurry was formed. The mixture was then centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min and the supernatant was collected and used as coproantigen then detected paramphistome antibodies with following methods.

Used ELISA plate and kept ready dipsticks,

antigen, sera, reagents, solution, micropipette of

various ranges and various (+) ve or (-) ve

controls in 2-3 legs of combsâ

Used infected ruminant sera (serum from the

animal found positive for paramphistome infection

by sedimentation test) for coating of NCM pads on

dipsticks and dipsticks stored at 4C for overnight.

Use (+) ve and (-) ve controls like normal

sera/foetal calf sera/PBS, 150ul/well

Incubation in 3% lactogen in 0.01M PBS, pH=7.4,

at 37˚C for 1 hr for blocking the non-specific

antigen binding sites, 150 l/well,

Two washings in 0.01 M PBS, pH=7.4

of 2 min each.

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

Incubated the dipsticks in Coproantigen (CAg)

dilution (150μl of 0.01μg/μl in each well)

made in 0.01MPBS, pH=7.4

Two washings in 0.01 M PBS , pH=7.4

of 2 min each.

Incubated NCM combs in rabbit anti –P. epiclitum

sera (dilute in 0.01 M PBS, pH=7.4) in dilution

range 1:50 – 1: 90000 at 37˚C for 1 hr, 150 l/well,

three washings in 0.01 M PBS, pH=7.4

of 2 min each.

Incubated the dipsticks then incubated with goat

anti-rabbit–HRPO conjugate at 1:500 dilution

(in 0.01M PBS, pH=7.4) for 1 hr at 37 °C,

150 l/well

three washings in 0.01 M PBS, pH=7.4

of 2 min each.

Incubated NCM comb in 3 3`- Diamino-benzidine

hydrochloride (5 mg/10 ml PBS + 10μl 0.06%

H2O2) for 5- 15 min, 150 l/well

Stop the Reaction by using DW

Development of dark brown

spot indicated positive reaction.

(1) 3% Lactogen Dissolved 3 gm lactogen in 100 ml 0.01 M PBS

(pH=7.4)

(2) 0.01M PBS (Phosphate Buffer saline) (pH = 7.4)NaCl = 8 gm, Na HPO = 1.15 gm, KCl = 0.2 gm, 2 4

KH PO = 0.2 gm2 4

Dissolved in DW and made the volume 1 litre

(3) DAB Substrate (3 3`- Diamino-benzidine

hydrochloride) 5 mg/10 ml PBS + 10μl 0.06% H O for 5- 15 2 2

minute Prepared just before use, and handled carefully

because it is carcinogenic. (4) Stop the reaction with DW

SYED SHABIH HASSAN 117International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (1)

117

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The collected sera samples were tested for

paramphistome antibodies by Indirect Dot-ELISA.

Coproantigen of all six samples positive for adult

Paramphistomum spp (10g/l concentration) were used

for coating NCM pad on Dot-ELISA combs and

incubated overnight at 4 C. The combs were then

incubated in 3% lactogen for 1 h at 37 C in PBS for

blocking of non-specific sites. The combs were then

incubated in sera samples at dilution 1:200 and were

given 2 washings of 2 min each in PBS, followed by

incubation in Rabbit Anti-Goat HRPO Conjugate for 1

h at 370 C. In the next step, after thrice washings in

PBS, the combs were immersed in 3, 3`-DAB (Di-

amino-benzidine hydrochloride) for 3-5 min.

Development of dark brown coloured dot indicating

positive reaction was found in the six sera samples

tested (Fig.1). The results indicated the possible

application of coproantigen in detection of anti-

paramphistome antibodies in ruminants. A part from

this, 55 field/clinical sera samples (40 sheep and 15

goats) were examined by Sandwich Dot-ELISA. Out

of the total, 15 samples (12 sheep, and 3 goats) were

found to be positive with the prevalence rate of 27.3%

(Table-1). The % positivity was recorded as very high

(+++), high (++), low (+) and mild. Of all the samples,

the percent positivity of sheep (3 = +++, 4 = ++, 2 = +, 3

= mild) was 30.0 %; goats (1= +++, 2= ++, 0= +, 0=

mild) was 20.0%. The overall % positivity was found

to be 27.3 % (Table-1).

Table 1: Paramphistome antibodies detection by Sandwich Dot- ELISA using coproantigen in field samples.

Species No. Examined No. Positive % Positivity Observation

+++ ++ + Mild

Sheep 40 12 30.0 3 4 2 3

Goats 15 03 20.0 1 2 0 0

Total 55 15 27.27 4 6 2 3

ELISA is being practiced as the most effective

diagnostic technique for detection of anti-parasitic

antibodies. ELISA especially Dot-ELISA has been

observed as a specific and sensitive serodiagnostic

method for Paragonimosis sp. (Zhang et al. 2000). It is

a fast, simple and inexpensive test and also found

suitable for field diagnosis of fasciolosis in cattle. The

test showed a sensitivity of 82%, specificity of 90%

with 95% confidence level (CL), good repeatability

and a significant association with reference to ELISA

(Maisonnave, 1999). Furthermore in comparison to

diffusion in gel (DIG) ELISA and indirect ELISA tests,

Dot ELISA (with sensitivity of 93.1% and specificity

95.4%) has been found to be highly effective and may

be recommended for use in sero-epidemiological

surveys of F. hepatica (Ibarra et al.1998). ELISA has

also been observed to be suitable for widespread use in

the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis (El–Shazly-AM et

al. 2002). In Haemonchus contortus also a high titre of

1:40000 was observed with rabbit hyperimmune sera

raised against somatic antigen of H. contortus (Kaur et

al. 2002). Hence the high titre observed in the present

study may prove to be of great significance in

diagnosis of paramphistomosis in field cases and also

in characterization of immunodominant antigens for

the immunological control of the disease.

Findings will be exploited for the early detection of

paramphistomum antibodies in infected animals at

large scale so that future preventive strategies may be

undertaken to establish the role of coproantigen and its

potential in immunodiagnosis of paramphistomosis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is thankful to Science and Engineering

Research Council (SERC) Division, Department of

Science and Technology (GOI), New Delhi for

financial support and Punjab Agricultural University

& GADVASU, Ludhiana for facilities provided.

118 JULY-DECEMBER 2016Detection of Paramphistome antibodies.....

118

REFERENCES

Chhabra, R. C. and Gill, B. S. 1975: Incidence of

helminthic infections and control of amphistomiasis

and fascioliasis in animals in two villages of the

Punjab. Journal of Research, PAU, 12:184-188.

Chhabra, R. C., Kwatra, M. S. and Bali, H. S. 1972: Immature paramphistomiasis in Sahiwal and crossbred calves in Punjab. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 42 (4): 272-74.

Deplazes, P., Alther, P., Tanner, I., Thompson, R. C. A., and Eckert, J. (1999): Echinococcus multilocularis coproantigen detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in fox, dog and cat populations. Journal of Parasitology, 85 (1): 115-121

Dumenigo, B. E., Espiano, A. M., Finlay, C. M. (1996): Detection of Fasciola hepatica antigen in cattle faeces by monoclonal antibodies based sandwich immunoassay. Research in Veterinary Science, 60, 278-279.

El – Shazly, A.M., Gabr-A., Mahmoud, M.S.E., Aziz, S. S. A and Saleh, W.A. (2002). The use of Ziehl neelsen stain, ELISA and nested PCR in diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent – compromised patients. Journal of Egyptian Society of Parasitology. 32 (1) 155-166.

Fraser, A., and Craig, P. S. (1997): Detection of gastrointestinal helminth infection using coproantigen and molecular diagnostic approaches. Journal of Helminthology, 71:103-107

Green, E. L., Miles, M. A. and Warhurst, D. C. (1985): Immunodiagnostic detection of Giardia antigen in faeces by rapid visual enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The Lancet, 28:691-693

Hassan, S. S. Kaur, K., Joshi, K. and Juyal, P. D. (2005): Epidemiology of paramphistomosis in

domestic ruminants in different district of Punjab and other adjoining areas, Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 19 (1): 43-46

Ibarra, F., Montenegro, N., Vera, Y., Boulard, C., Quiroz, H., Flores, J and Ochoa, P. (1998). C o m p a r i s o n o f t h r e e E L I S A t e s t s f o r seroepidemiology of bovine fasciolosis. Veterinary Parasitology. 77 (4) 229-236.

Juyal, P. D., Kaur, K., Hassan, S. S. and Kaur, P. 2003. Paramphistomosis in domestic ruminants. Punjab Vet. Journal, 2: 100-102.

Kaur, K., Kapur, J., Parmar, A. and Sood, M. L. (2002). Kinetics of antibody response by Dot ELISA in rabbits immunized with adult Haemonchus contortus antigen. Parasite. 9, 363 – 365.

Lowry, O. H., Rosenbrough, N. J., Farr, A. L. and Randall, R. J. (1951): Protein measurement with folin–phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chemist., 193: 265 - 275

Manna, A. K., Pramanik, S., and Mukherjee G. S. 1994: Incidence of Paramphistomosis in West Bengal. Indian. J. Anim. Hlth. 33 (2): 87-89.

Maisonnave, J. (1999). Standardization of a dot immunoperoxidase assay for field diagnosis of Fasciola hepatica infected cattle. Veterinary Parasitology. 85 (4) 259-268.

Varma, T. K., Prasad, A., Malviya, H. C. and Dwivedi, P. 1989: Incidence of paramphistome infections in ruminants at Bareilly. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 59 (2) 231-234.

Zhang, X. L., Duan, J. H., Wang, Y., Kuang, M. S. and Huang, P. S. (2000). Analysis of Paragonimus skrjabini antigen and its application in serodiagnosis. Chinese Journal of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases. 18 (5) 277-281.

A Biochar from Prosophis Wood and its Properties

1 2S. SHENBAGAVALLI* AND S. MAHIMAIRAJA

1Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry,Agricultural College & Research Institute, Tutucorin District., Tamil Nadu

2Department of Environmental Science, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Received: 03 July 2016 Revision: Accepted:

ABSTRACT

A biochar was prepared by pyrolysis of prosophis wood (biomass derived carbon). The bulk density and particle density of the sample were determined by cylindrical method. The per cent pore space, moisture content, water holding capacity, apparent density, absolute specific gravity and volume expansion were determined by using Keen Raczkowski Box. A SEM was used to observe the char surfaces in order to verify

-1the presence of porosity. Carbon content was very high a value of 940 g kg . Potassium content of the -1 -1 -1biochar was relatively high (29 g kg ) than nitrogen (112 g kg ) and phosphorus (1.06 g kg ). The structural

composition of biochar was cellulose 36%, hemicelluloses 31% and lignin 22%. Bio-char can act as a soil conditioner is enhancing plant growth by supplying and more importantly, retaining nutrients and by providing other services such as improving soil physical and biological properties.

Key words: biochar, pyrolysis, carbon, nutrients.

25 July 2016 10 August 2016

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that activated carbons can be prepared from a variety of raw materials. The most frequently used precursors are wood, coconut shell, leaf litter, poultry manure, farm waste, sludge and etc. It has been extensively proved that any cheap material with high carbon content can be used as raw material for the production of active carbon. These raw materials are well suited for activated carbon manufacture, if their pyrolytic transformation into porous char produces in economically justifiable yield. Biochar is a term reserved for the plant biomass derived materials contained within the black carbon (BC) continuum. This definition includes chars and charcoal, and excludes fossil fuel products or geogenic carbon (Lehmann et al. 2006). The unique characteristics of the Biochar is its effectiveness in retaining most nutrients and keeping them available to plants than other organic matter such as for example common leaf litter, compost or manures. The chemical structure of charcoal is characterized with poly-condensed aromatic groups, providing prolonged biological and

chemical stability that sustains the fight against microbial degradation; it also provides, after partial oxidation, the highest nutrients retention. Biochar serve as a source of reduced carbon compounds (organic molecules adsorbed to the particle's matrix) for any biochar colonizing soil bacteria. Therefore, C entering the soil as charcoal is a significant sink for atmospheric CO and may be important for global 2

C sequestration. The biochar proves to be stable and effective carbons sink. The carbon locked in them do not release as CO due to the microbial activity. The 2

carbon in the biomass is subjected to easy degradation since they contain low grade carbon. But in biochar, pyrogenic carbon is formed by pyrolysis. Hence they remain in the soil for long periods. The aim of the present paper was to characterize the properties of biochar of prosophis wood.

EXPERIMENTAL A char (biochar) of prosophis wood was obtained by pyrolysis of wood in a stainless steel retort, placed in a

−1electric furnace at a heating rate of 20 C min up to O600 C and held 2-3 hrs until the finishing of the formed

O

Corresponding author: [email protected]


Research Paper

119

condensed liquid product. The biochar was powdered, sieved through < 2mm sieve and then used for further analysis.

Measurement of carbon in Biochar: Methods for the measurement of C in Biochar were evaluated for their effectiveness in recovering the total organic carbon (TOC) content. No comparative study of these methods for measuring C in Biochar has been published. Therefore, in the current study different methods for measuring the C in prosophis - Biochar were examined. The methods include digestion of Biochar using different acids (pretreatment) and then determination of C by Walkley and Black method, wet oxidation by chromic acid, dry combustion using muffle furnace, colorimetric method using spectrophotometer and total organic C using TOC analyser.

Physico-chemical analysis: The bulk density and particle density of the sample were determined by cylindrical method suggested by Gupta and Dakshinamoorthi (1981). The per cent pore space, moisture content, water holding capacity, apparent density, absolute specific gravity and volume expansion were determined by Using Keen Raczkowski Box suggested by Richards (1954). A SEM was used to observe the char surfaces in order to verify the presence of porosity

The pH and the electrical conductivity of the samples (EC) were measured using a combined electrode pH meter and Conductivity Bridge, respectively (Jackson, 1973).

The CEC of biochar was determined by the method described by Crooke (1964). About one gram of sample (<1mm) was placed in a 400 ml beaker and moistened with few drops of distilled water, and allowed to become thoroughly wet. To this, 200 ml of 0.01N HCl was added and stirred intermittently for 5 min. The root material was filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper and washed with distilled water until the washings were free of chloride. The filter paper was pierced and the root material was washed into 250 ml beaker using 200 ml M KCl (pH adjusted to 7.0). The pH of adj-KCl suspension was determined and titrated against 0.01 N KOH solution with intermittent stirring to restore the pH of 7.0, which was maintained for at least 5 min and the amount was calculated. The results

–1were expressed in cmol(±) kg

The exchangeable acidity was determined with 1 N KCl extraction for 1 h and titrated with 0.005 and 0.025 N NaOH solution for biochar and biochar–soil mixtures, respectively. The results were expressed in

–1mmol kg (Yuan, 1959).

The organic carbon content of the sample was

measured by dry ignition method suggested by

Mitchell (1932). The biochar sample (10 g) was taken

in a pre-weighed silica crucible and kept in a muffle

furnace at 400oC for 3 hrs. Then the crucible along

with dried materials was weighed and the difference in

weight was total carbon present in the sample Nitrogen

(N) and Phosphorus (P) content of the samples were

determined by following Bremner method and

colorimetric (vanadomolybdate) method respectively.

The sample was digested with triacid mixture and the

potassium (K) and sodium (Na) contents were

determined using a Flame Photometer (Jackson,

1973). Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) contents of

the samples were determined by a complexometric

method (Jackson, 1973). The cellulose content of the

sample was estimated by adopting the method of

Updegraph (1969). Lignin content of the sample was

gravimetrically estimated following the method of

Chesson (1978). The hemicelluloses content of the

sample was estimated by adopting the method of

Sadasivam and manickam (2005).


The results on C content of Biochar as determined by various methods are presented in Fig.1. The recovery of Biochar – C by various methods ranged between 4.25 and 94%. The C by wet oxidation by chromic acid method resulted in a very poor estimation of Biochar - C. The C measured using colorimeter and TOC analyser recorded only 19 and 35%, respectively. The C recovery due to the pretreatment (digestion) of Biochar with different acids, ranged from 28 to 78%, the lowest amount was recorded by the pretreatment with concentrated H PO followed by concentrated 3 4

HNO . The triacid mixture and Aqua - regia have 3

shown only 56 and 52% of C, respectively. Amongst the pretreatment, H O has given the highest amount of 2 2

C. The C measured by dry combustion method provided a reasonable estimate of total C in Biochar samples.

120 JULY-DECEMBER 2016A Biochar from Prosophis Wood.....

120

Fig.1: The recovery of biochar – C by various methods.

Table 1: Physical, Chemical and Biochemical Characteristics of Biochar.

T1- Wet oxidation by chromic acid; T2 - Colorimetric method; T3 - Pretreatment with H PO ; T4 - TOC analyser; 3 4

T5 - Pretreatment with HNO ; T6 - Pretreatment with diacid mixture; T7 - Pretreatment with Aquaregia; T8 - Pretreatment with 3

Triacid mixture; T9 - Pretreatment with H O ; T10 – Dry combustion.2 2

S.No. Characters Values* SD

a). Physical Properties

1. Bulk Density (Mg m-3) 0.45 0.02

2. Particle Density 0.54 0.01

3. Percent Pore space 48 3.00

4. Moisture Content (%) 1.21 0.04

5. Water Holding Capacity (%) 131 3.00

6. Apparent Density (g/cc) 0.516 0.04

7. Absolute Specific Gravity 0.98 0.05

8. Volume Expansion (%) 21 1.00

b). Chemical Properties

9. pH (1: 2.5 soil water suspension) 7.57 0.14

10. EC (dSm-1) (1: 2.5 soil water extract) 1.30 0.10

11. Cation Exchange Capacity (cmol(+) kg-1) 16 1.53

12. Exchangeable Acidity (mmol kg-1) 49 3.61

13. Organic Carbon (g kg-1) 940 12.50

14. Total Nitrogen (%) 1.12 0.10

15. Total Phosphorus (%) 0.1 0.05

16. Total Potassium (%) 2.9 0.28

17. Sodium (%) 0.38 0.03

S. SHENBAGAVALLI AND S. MAHIMAIRAJA 121International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (1)

121

Some important properties of biochar are presented in Table. 2. Bulk density and particle density of the

-3biochar were 0.45 and 0.54 Mg m , with a porespace of 48% respectively. It had high water holding capacity (131%). The pH of the biochar was neutral (7.57). The

-1Electrical Conductivity of the biochar was 1.30 dSm -1with the CEC of 16 cmol(+) kg . High exchangeable

-1acidity (49 mmol kg ) was observed in the biochar sample. Carbon content was very high a value of 940 g

-1kg . Potassium content of the biochar was relatively high (2.9 %) than nitrogen (1.12%) and phosphorus

(0.1%). Biochar had relatively lower amount of Mg (0.036%) than Na (0.38%) and Ca (1%). It is important to note that biochar is somewhat depleted in N and slightly depleted in S relative to more thermally stable nutrients. During the pyrolysis or oxidation process that generates biochar, heating causes some nutrients to volatilize, especially at the surface of the material, while other nutrients become concentrated in the remaining biochar. Nitrogen is the most sensitive of all macronutrients to heating; thus, the N content of high-temperature biochar is low (Tyron, 1948).

18. Calcium(g kg-1) 11 1.00

19. Magnesium (g kg-1) 0.36 0.03

c). Biochemical Properties

20. Cellulose (%) 36 2.08

21. Hemicelluloses (%) 31 3.51

22. Lignin (%) 22 1.00

* Mean of triplicate samples

Fig. 2: SEM images of prosophis wood biochar with porous structure.

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Accordingly, extractable concentrations of NH4+ and PO4 generally decrease with increasing pyrolysis temperature during biochar generation, with a portion

+ +of NH being oxidized to a small exchangeable NO 4 3

pool at higher temperatures (Gundale and DeLuca, 2006). The concentration of P is small relative to the large concentration of C, and a significant portion of plant P is incorporated within organic molecules through ester or pyrophosphate bonds (Stevenson and Cole, 1999).This organic P in dead plant tissues is not available for plant uptake without microbial cleavage of these bonds. When plant tissue is heated, organic C begins to volatilize at approximately 100°C, whereas P does not volatilize until approximately 700°C is achieved during pyrolysis (Knoepp et al., 2005). Combustion or charring of organic materials can greatly enhance P availability from plant tissue by disproportionately volatilizing C and by cleaving organic P bonds, resulting in a residue of soluble P salts associated with the charred material.

The structural composition of biochar was cellulose 36%, hemicelluloses 31% and lignin 22%. Similar composition was reported by Demirbas, (2000) for biochar from oak wood. Lignin gives higher yields of charcoal and tar from wood although lignin has three fold higher methoxyl content than wood (Sakakibara, 1983; Demirbas, 2000; Wenzl et al., 1970). Phenolic is derived from lignin by cracking the phenyl-propane units of the macromolecule lattice. Pyrolysis seems to produce the most substituted phenols on a selective basis. Thermal degradation of cellulose proceeds through two types of reaction: a gradual degradation, decomposition and charring on heating at lower temperatures, and a rapid volatilization accompanied by the formation of levoglucosan on pyrolysis at higher temperatures. The degradation of cellulose to a more stable anhydrocellulose, gives higher bio-char yield. High heating rate provides a shorter time for the dehydration reactions and the formation of less reactive anhydrocellulose, which gives a higher yield of char (Zanzi, 2001). The hemicelluloses undergo thermal decomposi t ion very readi ly. The hemicelluloses reacted more readily than cellulose during heating. Hemicellulose and lignin are depolymerized by steaming at high temperature for a short time (Demirbas and Kucuk, 1994). These data suggest that substantial variation can occur in the

chemical properties of biochar due to the temperature that the plant material reaches during charring (Bridle and Pritchard, 2004).

SEM analysis of powdered sample of prosophis wood biochar also indicates the porous structure (Fig.2). So the porosity of biochar will be increased, after the activation in other to obtain the activated carbon. A detailed activation investigation and SEM study are needed to comment further on actual structure of biochar.

CONCLUSION

Biochar is comprised of stable carbon compounds created when biomass is heated to temperatures between 300 to 1000°C under low (preferably zero) oxygen concentrations. The structural and chemical composition of biochar is highly heterogeneous. Some properties are pervasive throughout all biochars, including the high C content and degree of aromaticity, partially explining the high levels of biochar's inherent recalcitrance. Neverthless, the exact structural and chemical composition, including surface chemistry, is dependent on a combination of the feedstock type and the pyrolysis conditions (mainly temperature) used. These same parameters are key in determining particle size and pore size (macro, meso and micropore; distribution in biochar. Biochar's physical and chemical characteristics may significantly alter key soil physical properties and processes and are, therefore, important to consider prior to its application to soil. Furthermore, these will determine the suitability of each biochar for a given application, as well as define its behaviour, transport and fate in the environment. Dissimilarities in properties between different biochar products emphasises the need for a case-by-case evaluation of each biochar product prior to its incorporation into soil at a specific site. Further research aiming to fully evaluate the extent and implications of biochar particle and pore size distribution on soil processes and functioning is essential, as well as its influence on biochar mobility and fate

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to thank the UGC, New Delhi, for awarding a Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship to the senior author.


123

REFERENCE

Bridle,T. R. and Pritchard D., 2004. Energy and nutrient recovery from sewage sludge via pyrolysis, Water Science and Technology, 50,169–175.

Chesson, A. 1978. A review – Maceration in relation to the post harvest handling and processing of plant material. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 48: 1-45.

Gundale, M.J. and DeLuca,T.H., 2006. Temperature and substrate influence the chemical properties of charcoal in the ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir ecosystem, Forest Ecology and Management, 231, 86–93.

Gupta, C. and R.P. Dakshinamoorthi. 1981. Practical in soil physics. IARI, New Delhi..

Jackson, M.L., Soil Chemical Analysis. 1973. Prentice Hall of India (Pvt) Ltd., New Delhi, 275.

Knoepp, J.D., DeBano, L. F. and Neary,D.G., 2005. Soil Chemistry, RMRS-GTR 42-4, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden, UT

Lehmann, J., Gaunt, J. and Rondon, M., 2006. Bio-char Sequestration in Terrestrial Ecosystems - A Review, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 11, 403- 427.

Mitchell, J. 1932. The origin, nature and importance of soil organic constituents having base exchange properties. J. Am.Soc.Agron. 24: 256-275.

Richards, I.A. 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA. Handbook No. 60. pp. 160.

Sadasivam, S and A. Manickam. 2005. Biochemical method for agricultural sciences. Wilay Estan Ltd., New Delhi, p.208.

Sakakibara A., 1983. Chemical structure of lignin related mainly to degradation products. In Recent advances in lignin biodegradation research, T. Higuchi, H. M. Chang, T. K. Kirk (eds.). Tokyo: UNI Publisher.125.

Stevenson, F.J., and Cole, M.A., 1999.Cycles of the Soil, second edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York.

Tyron, E. H., Effect of charcoal on certain physical chemical and biological properties of forest soils, Ecological Monographs, 1948,18, 82–115

Updegraph, D.M. 1969. Semi-micro determination of cellulose in biological materials. Anal. Biochem., 32: 420-424.

Wenzl, H. F. J., Brauns, F. E. and Brauns. D. A., 1970.The chemical technology of wood. New York: Academic Press.

Yuan, T.L. 1959. Determination of exchangeable hydrogen in soils by titration method. Soil Sci. 88: 164-167.

Zanzi, R., Pyrolysis of biomass. 2001.Dissertation, Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Stockholm.

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Air Quality over Delhi NCR during Road Space Rationing Scheme Phase 2: An Observational Study

1,2, 1 1,2,*MADHU JOSHI P B SHARMA , P C S DEVARA 3 3 2SARIKA JAIN , PAVLEEN BALI , M P ALAM

1Amity Centre for Environmental Science & Health, Amity University Haryana

2Amity Centre for Ocean-Atmospheric Science & Technology, Amity University Haryana3Amity School of Applied Sciences, Amity University Haryana

Received: 15 October 2016 Revision: Accepted: 22 November 2016

ABSTRACT

This paper briefly discusses the air quality over Delhi NCR during summer road space rationing Odd-Even Scheme Phase II and attempts to identify the success/failure of the scheme. The observations were made pre, during and post phase of the scheme using a portable instrument “AirBeam”. The analysis suggests that pollution level showed gradual reduction during the initial phase of the campaign, subsequently, the values have gone up during the second week of the campaign. This exacerbation is considered to be partly due to the accidental fires within Delhi as well as advection of smoke from biomass burning in the neighboring states, and partly due to natural sources such as dust.

Key words: Particulate Matter; Biomass burning; Road space rationing; AirBeam; Dust Storm; Advection.

28 October 2016

INTRODUCTION

Pollution is poisoning our environment in every form; noise, heat and light. It is harmful for every living organism on the earth. It can be caused both by natural sources and humans. Restriction on natural recourses is impossible but a limitation on the human made sources is possible. Haze from car and truck emissions, industrial pollution, and wildfires obscures some of the most dramatic vistas in the country and can pose a substantial hazard. Studies have indicated excess mortality and morbidity due to cardiovascular/ cardiopulmonary and respiratory causes, based upon occupational related acute exposures alone (Balakrishnan, et al., 2012). Pollution in many Indian cities, Delhi in particular, is rapidly increasing and significantly hazarding the economy and health of population. For curbing the regional pollution, Delhi Government has initiated the road space rationing Odd-Even scheme for the vehicles on the roads for the first time in India first Phase (1 Jan to 15 Jan 2016) in winters. An exclusive study by Devara et al., 2016, revealed interesting results of relative decrease in

concentration of pollutants and their association with local meteorology. Hence, the first round of the Odd-Even scheme in the national capital favors the second phase (15 April - 30 April 2016 in summer) initiative in full strength despite the scorching heat.

Driving restrictions are a valid means to curb air and noise pollution but also invite public fury. It is obvious that the reduction of cars on the roads is an undisputed positive result. The public does not want to pay to use public roads and often regards rationing as more equitable. However, the introduction of such strict laws will help fight pollution which has increased beyond permissible limits in Delhi (Gopalaswami 2016). Beijing first introduced temporary Odd-Even license plate restriction policies in 2007 and 2008, to support international sporting event 2008 Olympics. Evidence of reductions in congestion and mobile source pollution during this period were confirmed (Wang et al., 2009). Mexico City also carried similar interventions to improve the polluted ambient air quality along with Santiago, Bogota, Rome and Milan. Economists generally believe that congestion pricing



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is a more efficient strategy than “command and control” rationing to reduce pollution and congestion (Small and Gomez-Ibañez, 1998; Small and Verhoef, 2007).

The air pollution has a close association with the weather phenomena (Gopalaswami 2016; Devara et al., 2016). During first phase of Odd-Even in Delhi, it was found that due to overlapping of some prominent meteorological processes like western disturbances (WDs); fogs etc., inherent to the tropical winters, the results were found to be unclear on the days when the sky was not clear. As an accurate weather forecast plays an important role in the economy of a country (Joshi and Kar 2016). Hence, forecasting future air quality can play an important role in an air quality management system and helps in reducing the real economic burden on the country (CENRS 2001). Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Govt. of India, has introduced a major national initiative, "System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research" (SAFAR) for greater metropolitan cities of India to provide location specific information on air quality in near real time and its forecast 1-3 days in advance. Studies show that air quality improves substantially when Odd-Even is introduced for the first time in cities all over the world. The results after second and subsequent implementation are not so uniform. Beijing registered more positive impacts, the road rationing programme whereas, Mexico City failed

when the scheme was made permanent. The trends were found to be promising and encouraging during the first phase of Odd-Even in Delhi by Amity University Haryana (AUH). The aerosol mass concentration of particulate matters PM2.5 was monitored by AUH Scientists, during the second phase at different locations. The aim of the study was to analyze and investigate the observational data during summer in the second phase. The study also deals with multi-site air, noise pollution and surface-level meteorological measurements, in the Delhi NCR during the road-space rationing scheme.

Data and MethodologyAdvances in air pollution sensor technology have enabled the development of small and low-cost systems to measure outdoor air pollution. A palm size portable instrument AirBeam (Dye et al. 2014; Jiao et al. 2016) has been used to achieve the specific goals for monitoring multi-site measurements over specific locations in the Delhi NCR (Figure 1). AirBeam is powered by an Arduino board and currently works with the AirCasting app on Android. Using a light scattering method the device measures PM2.5, particles that are less than 2.5 microns in diameter. Air enters a sensing chamber where an LED lightsource scatters the particles into a detector – that scatter is measured and converted into an air particle measurement. The platform also detects changes in the environment related noise, temperature and relative humidity.

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Fig. 1: Geographical Locations of the in-situ observation stations marked with orange symbols in number as . 1. DTU gate; 2. Punjabi Bagh; 3. ITO; 4. Hauz Khas; 5. AIMS; 6. RKPuram; 7. Gurgaon; 8. Kerki Dhaula; 9. Dwarka; 10. IGI; 11. AnandVihar ; 12. Defense Colony ; 13. VasantVihar ; 14. Badarpur Border.

126 JANUARY-JUNE 2016Air Quality over Delhi NCR during Road Space

The details of the measurement sites/locations considered in the present study (Figure1. ) are DTU gate: Bawana Road; Punjabi Bagh: Railway Colony; ITO: near Pragati Power Station; Hauz Khas: Near IIT Gate; AIMS: Next to Trauma Centre; RKPuram: Near Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar Park; Gurgaon: Iffco Chowk; Kerki Dhaula: Maneser Toll; Dwarka: Uttam Nagar Metro Station; IGI: Mahipalpur; AnandVihar: Opposite to AnandVihar Bus Depot; Defense Colony: Near Amity University Head Office; VasantVihar: Near Vasant Vihar Bus Depot; Defense Colony: Next to Amity Univ. Delhi Office. The observations were collected from 13 April - 2 May 2016, which covers the pre- and post- period of the scheme Phase 2. The observation time for the portable instrument at each location was fixed for about four hours. Thus, on each day minimum 3 locations were covered and the same location was repeated after every about two days interval.

Evaluation of AirBeam with CPCB dataThe high frequency AirBeam data comparison is carried out with the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) data available at hourly interval. It is important here to mention that the maximum value of AirBeam data in a particular hour matches closely with the available CPCB value of that particular hour. Hence, the comparison is made with the maximum observed value with the available CPCB data of the particular hour. Figure 2(a) shows the comparison of time variation of PM2.5 at Anand Vihar on 14 April

The two data sets show similar trend in time variations of PM2.5 with slight over estimate in value. Figure2(b, c) shows the comparison at RK Puram and Punjabi Bagh for 15 April 2016 and 20 April 2016, respectively. It is evident from the figure that the trends in data match, on an average, well with those of CPCB. A significant positive the correlation of 0.90 is noticed at Anand Vihar; 0.7 at R K Puram and 0.65 at Punjabi Bagh


Figure 3 shows the variations of averaged PM2.5 level during the study period in terms of bar plots for different locations. The locations adjacent to each other are plotted together, so as to have the inter-comparison of neighboring locations. The PM2.5 values are found to be more at Badarpur than that of Ashram Chowk. Similarly at Anand Vihar and ITO the values depicted are higher at Anand Vihar. High values are found at Kerki Dhaula than at Gurgraom which in turn have more value that IGI in. Analysis of the location in the inner part of Delhi suggests higher pollution values at the stations near to the Ring Road. The places along the ring road viz; Punjabi Bagh, RK Puram and AIMS compared to the adjacent places DTU, Vasant Vihar and Hauz Khas respectively have high pollution level.

127

Fig. 2: Comparison of with CPCB at (a) Anand Vihar on 14 April 2016 (b) R K Puram on 15 April 2016 and (c) Punjabi Bagh on 20 April 2016.

Fig. 3: Variations of PM2.5 (µg/m3) over different locations in the Delhi NCR averaged for the period 13 April – 2 May 2016.

Figure 4 shows the daily variations of PM 2.5 at all above locations. It is important to note that in the initial phase of the expedition there is decrease in the pollution level at all the locations till 24 April 2016. From 26 April 2016 onward the pollution level raised over all the observation locations. The maximum value for the PM2.5 was observed to be on 27 April 2016. On this date pollution level for PM2.5 was found to be heights at all the places in Delhi. The geographical map of Delhi overlaid with trajectories followed by the road rout Amity pollution monitoring van, depicts the

MADHU JOSHI ET AL., 127International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (1)

instantaneous value of PM2.5 measured with a moving platform is presented in Figure 5. The trajectory in left panel show the instantaneous PM2.5 values in the morning (7.00-8.00 am) and right upper panel afternoon (12.30 -1.00 pm) and right bottom panel 1.00 -2.00 pm. In each panel just below the color bar the

values in top two adjacent circles shows the average and peak values for the particular duration. Apart from road rationing scheme, there were few incidents noticed during Phase 2 which drastically changed the PM2.5 level in the city.

128

Fig 4: Daily variations of PM2.5 (µg/m3) over selected sites in the Delhi NCR using AirBeam.

Fig. 5: Trajectories followed by the road route of the Amity PSV depicting the PM2.5 on 27 April 2016. Left panel represents morning (7.00-8.00 AM) and right panels represent afternoon (12.30-2.00 PM). (Base Mape Google Earth).


intense that most of the northern India has been affected with the thick smoke. Later on the biomass burning due to agricultural waste over Haryana also intensified the pollution levels.

Figure 7 presents the wind speed and direction during the experimental period were obtained from Weather Underground (https://www.wunderground.com). The figure also presents the gusty winds for different dates. It can be seen clearly that the smoke from the states neighboring to the north and northwestern sector, got adverted over the Delhi area as most of the time winds were blowing from north-northwestern sector. For example on 26 April winds were blowing from northern sector and the sky was covered with the cloud and on 27 April there were more calm winds in morning. These meteorological conditions trapped the polluted air over Delhi area hence on 26 -27 April the pollution level over Delhi area was found to be highest, even more than the pre campaign.

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Fig. 6: MODIS Satellite Images indicating the red dots representing accidental/forest/biomass fire superimposed with the surface reflectance for different dates during the observation period.

There were major episode of fire between Monday and Tuesday (17 and 25 April at Dwarika and 26 April at Mandi House). Also, there was heavy fire in the neighboring states which enhanced the PM2.5 level in the study area with the advection of wind.The MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) satellite images (https://earthdata.nasa.gov/) for the fire (red dots) observed from space on different dates during the expedition is depicted in Figure 6. The entire northern region has active fire including Haryana, Uttrakhand and Himachal. The wildfires were so

Fig. 7: Daily variations of Wind Speed (Km/h) and direction over Delhi from 12 April to 2 May 2016.

In the late evening on 27 April 2016 there was a heavy dust storm which advected the more neighboring


areas and their advection through wind field into the Delhi NCR. The heavy pollution over the places near ring road owes to traffic in the road.

The pollution level showed gradual reduction during the initial phase of the campaign, subsequently, the

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Fig. 8: NOAA HYSPLIT model back trajectories over Delhi for different dates during the analysis period.


values have gone up during the second week of the campaign. This is considered to be partly due to the accidental fires/biomass burning within Delhi as well as in the neighboring states, and partly due to natural sources such as dust/sand storms. The influence of meteorological parameters on PM2.5 concentrations at different sites in the Delhi NCR revealed the major role played by advected winds from western side. A deeply wooded, broad forest belt around Delhi may help to reduce chronic air pollution, advected in the city.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful to Honorable Chancellor, Amity University Haryana (AUH) for providing encouragement and infrastructure support during the campaign. Special thanks go to Registrar for issuing the funds, transport and responsible scientist team. Thanks are due to the anonymous Amatians for their contributions to the experimental work. They were always ready to help in making the campaign successful.

REFERENCES

Balakrishnan, K. Cohen A., Smith K. R.,: Addressing the burden of disease attributable to air pollution in India: The need to integrate household and ambient air pollution exposures. Environmental Health Perspective. 2012. Vol 122 No.1, pp. A6-7. DOI:10.1289/ehp.1307822

CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board), 2011: Air Quality Monitoring, Emission Inventory and Source Apportionment Study for Indian Cities: National Summary Report, New Delhi: CPCB, pp.225.

CENRS (Committee on Environment and Natural Resources). Air Quality Forecasting A Review of Federal Programs and Research Needs. June 2001. CENRS Air Quality Research Subcommittee. pp 21. http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/csd/AQRS/reports

Devara, P.C.S., Sharma, P.B., Joshi, M., Alam, M.P., Dumka, U.C., Tiwari, S. and Srivastava, A.K. Impact of Road-space-rationing method on regional air quality. Indian Aerosol Science and Technology (IASTA) E-Bulletin, 2016. Vol 4 No.1, pp. 10-20.

Dye, T., Pasch A., Raffuse S., Roberts P. Evaluation of the AirBeam Particulate Matter Sensor Sonoma Tachnology Incorporated, Report by STI-814005 © 1987-2016 Sonoma Technology, Inc. Petaluma, CA. 2014, pp. 1-17.

Gopalaswami R. A Study on Effects of Weather,

Vehicular Traffic and Other Sources of Particulate Air Pollution on the City of Delhi for the Year 2015. Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health. 2016, Vol. 4, No. 2, 24-41.

Jiao W., Hagler G. , Williams R. , Sharpe R. , Brown R. , Garver D. , Judge R, Caudill M , Rickard J. , Davis M. , Weinstock L. , Zimmer-Dauphinee S. , Buckley K. Community Air Sensor Network (CAIRSENSE) project: evaluation of low-cost sensor performance in a suburban environment in the southeastern United States. Atmos. Meas. Tech., 2016. Vol 9, pp 5281–5292, doi:10.5194/amt-9-5281-2016.

Joshi Madhu and Kar SC. Value–Added Quantitative Medium Range Rainfall Forecasts for the BIMSTEC Region. Meteorological Applications. 2016, 23(3); 491-502.DOI: 10.1002/met.1573.

Small, K.A., and J.A. Gomez-Ibañez.. “Road Pricing for Congestion Management: The Transition from Theory to Policy.” UCTC No 391, The Unzverslty of California Transportation Center, Berkeley, 1998. pp. 213-246.

Small, K.A., and E.T. Verhoef. The Economics of Urban Transportation. Routledge, London. Taylor & Francis Group an informa business. 2007, pp. 1-293.

Wang, Y., J. Hao, M.B. McElroy, J.W. Munger, H. Ma, D. Chen, and C.P. Nielsen. 2009. Ozone Air Quality During the 2008 Olympics: Effectiveness of Emission Restrictions. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2009, 9 : 5237–5251.

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Influence of Biochar on Methane Emission from Paddy Field Under two Different Moisture Regime

1 2S. SHENBAGAVALLI* AND S. MAHIMAIRAJA

1Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry,Agricultural College & Research Institute, Tutucorin District., Tamil Nadu

2Department of Environmental Science, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Received: 15 July 2016 Revision: 25 July 2016 Accepted:

ABSTRACT

Paddy fields are one of the dominant anthropogenic sources of methane emission to the atmosphere, and the main passageway of methane from paddy soil is through the rice plant. In the current study the biochar material was produced by the indigenous pyrolysis of prosopis wood material under high temperature and characterized. A field experiment was conducted to examine the effect of biochar on methane flux from rice soil under different moisture regime viz., intermittent wetting and drying and submerged condition. Biochar

-1 -1at the rate equivalent to 2.5 t ha and 5 t ha along with and without vermicompost were applied during Kharif 2010. The CH4 – C was reduced by 20 % and 45.8% respectively, when the Biochar was applied at a

-1rate of 2.5 (T ) and 5t ha (T ) to the soil under submerged condition (M ). The effectiveness of Biochar in 2 3 2

reducing CH4 flux was enhanced when it was applied along with vermicompost. The combined application of Biochar and vermicompost was found effective in reducing the CH4 – C emission from soil, by 36.7 (T ) 5

to 66.1 % (T ). Similarly, under intermittent wetting and drying, application of Biochar reduces CH4 – C 6

emission by 23.6 (T ) to 46.3 % (T ) without any vermicompost, and 28.3 (T ) to 56.2 % (T ) with 2 3 5 6

vermicompost.

Key words: biochar, pyrolysis, carbon, nutrients.

10 August 2016

INTRODUCTION

Methane is produced when organic materials decompose in oxygen-deprived conditions, notably from fermentative digestion by ruminant livestock, from stored manures, and from rice grown under flooded conditions. Paddy fields are one of the dominant anthropogenic sources of methane to the atmosphere (estimated as 15% of global methane emission; IPCC, 1994). Total methane emissions rose by about 40 % from 1970 (11 % from 1990), and sectorally there was an 84 % (12 % from 1990) increase from combustion and use of fossil fuels, whilst agricultural emissions remained roughly stable due to compensating falls and increases in rice and livestock production respectively. To predict the reactivity as well as stability of biochar when used as a soil amendment, it is important to know the biochar

organic structural composition. The structural form of C in biochar depends on the biogeochemistry of the biomass feedstock and the conditions under which it was pyrolyzed (Lehmann, 2007). Biochar composed primarily of condensed aromatic C are known to persist in soil environments for millennia, whereas biochars with higher levels of single-ring aromatic and aliphatic C will mineralize more rapidly (Lehmann. 2007). In this paper, methane emission from paddy soil was examined through application of biochar with and without vermicompost under different moisture condition.


Characterization of prosophis wood biochar and experimental soilA biochar of prosophis wood was obtained by



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pyrolysis of wood in a stainless steel retort, placed in a electric furnace at a heating rate of 20◦C min−1 up to 600◦C and held 2-3 hrs until the finishing of the formed condensed liquid product. The biochar was powdered, sieved through < 2mm sieve and then used for further analysis. Initial soil from experimental field was collected and analyzed for important characteristics as per the standard procedure.

Field Experiment with RiceA field experiment was conducted in 'B' block of the Wetland Farm, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. The Farm is situated in Western Agro-climatic Zone of Tamil Nadu at 11° North latitude and 77° East longitude with an altitude of 426.7 m above MSL. A medium duration rice variety 'Improved ADT 43' was grown during Kharif season (June – September 2010).

Treatment details: Main plots: M - Alternate wetting 1

and drying: M - Submergence2

Subplots: T – NPK alone ; T – NPK + Biochar (2.5t 1 2

-1ha-1); T – NPK + Biochar (5t ha ) 3-1T – NPK + Vermicompost (5t ha ) ; T – NPK + 4 5

-1 -1Vermicompost (5t ha ) + Biochar (2.5t ha )-1 -1T – NPK + Vermicompost (5t ha ) + Biochar (5t ha ) 6

The plots were irrigated with one cm of water for one week after transplanting. The depth of water was increased from one cm to five cm as the crop advanced in age in the case of submerged condition; whereas, in the intermittent wet and dry condition, irrigation was given with five cm depth of water after the establishment stage one day after the disappearance of ponded water.

Collection of gaseous samples: Gas samples were collected at tillering stage for rice field using a closed gas chamber technique. For collecting gas samples, the gas chamber was flushed several times with 100ml syringe and then the gas samples were collected at 1 hr interval. The methane concentration in the gas samples was estimated using Gas Chromatography (Varian 3810 series) attached to Flame Ionization Detector (FID) fitted with D 13-5 column. The temperature for the column, injector and detector was kept at 500C, 1800C and 2000C respectively. The pressure of the

-2gases was 4, 2 and 2 kg cm for nitrogen (carrier gas), zero air (supporting gas) and hydrogen (combustion

-2gas) respectively, with total of 8kg cm . The peak area was measured with a micro processor – controlled integrator connected to a computer. The area of methane peaks was used to calculate methane concentration against standard peaks.

-1 -1CH emission (mg day ha ) = [(S / P ) X (P /V )] X 4 c astd as s

Vac /St X d /S X Aa h

Where,

S = standard concentrationc

Pa = peak area for standardstd

P = peak area for sampleas

V = sample volumes

V = volume of the air chamberac

S = sampling time (hr)t

S = sampling area a

A = area for one hectareh

d = per day (24 hrs)

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Effect of Biochar on Methane fluxThe CH4 flux from soil amended with different

levels of Biochar under different moisture conditions is given in Table.1. At tillering stage the rate of CH4

-1 -1emission ranged from 16.74 to 72.05 g ha hr , whereas at harvest stage it ranged from 10.07 to 46.42

-1 -1g ha hr . The rate of CH emission from soil differed 4

significantly between the two moisture conditions; soil under continuous submerged condition emitted relatively more CH than under intermittent wetting 4

and drying condition. At tillering application of -1vermicompost (5 t ha ) along with NPK fertilizers (T ) 3

recorded the highest rate of CH emission (72.05 g ha-1 4

-1hr ) from soil under submerged condition. Significant reduction was observed due to the application of Biochar. Increase in the rate of application of Biochar

-1(5 t ha ) resulted in a marked reduction in the CH flux. 4

The effectiveness of Biochar on reducing CH 4

emission was more pronounced in the presence of vermicompost, than in its absence. At harvest, irrespective of treatments, the CH flux was relatively 4

lesser than at tillering stage. At harvest, the lowest rates -1 -1 of 10.07 and 15.30 g ha hr were recorded due to the

combined application of 5 tonnes of Biochar,

133


vermicompost (5 tonnes) and the recommended dose of NPK fertilizer (T ) to soil under intermittent wetting 6

and drying and submerged condition, respectively.

Results from the field experiment have

demonstrated that large amount of CH was found 4

emitted from soil under continuous submerged

condition (M ) than under intermittent wetting and 2

drying (M ). The CH flux was also higher at vegetative 1 4

stage than at harvest stage. The total amount of CH – C 4

emitted from rice field was calculated based on the

CH4 flux (Table 1). The amount of CH4 – C varied -1from 28.7 to 87.8 kg ha under intermittent wetting and

drying (M1), whereas, it was from 37.7 to 123.5 kg ha-

1 under submergence (M ). The two major pathways 2

that produce CH in submerged soils (Aulakh et al., 4

2001) include:

i) Reduction of CO with H CO + H → CH + H O2 2 2 4 2 4 2 2

ii) Decarboxylation (transmethylation) of acetic acid

CH COOH →CH + CO3 4 2

The amount of CH emitted from rice fields to the 4

atmosphere is the balance of two opposite processes,

i.e. CH production and oxidation in the soil. Oxidation 4

of CH in the soil is carried out by methanotrophic 4

bacteria, which are strictly obligate aerobes (Papen

and Rennenberg, 1990). Methanogenic, the process

responsible for CH formation, occurs in all anaerobic 4

environments in which organic matter undergoes

decomposition. Rice is generally grown in water

logged condition, which creates an anoxic

environment that is conducive to methanogenic

bacteria to produce CH . Methanogens use organic C 4

as electron donors for energy and synthesis of cellular

constituents and, in turn, reduce C to CH . 4

The moisture condition is one of the most confounding factors affecting CH emission from rice 4

soil. Continuous submergence in general results in higher CH emission compared to intermittent wetting 4

and drying (Fig. 1). Submergence creates anaerobic conditions conducive to the CH production as 4

methanogens are strictly anaerobes. When the soil is

-1 -1Table 1: Effect of different levels of Biochar on CH flux (g hr ha ) emission from soil. 4

T – NPK alone 38.26 64.86 51.56 32.28 43.34 37.811

-1T – NPK + Biochar (2.5t ha ) 29.23 51.84 40.54 23.82 35.75 29.792

-1T – NPK + Biochar (5t ha ) 20.56 35.11 27.84 12.06 26.07 19.073

-1T – NPK + VC (5t ha ) 51.21 72.05 61.63 35.31 46.42 40.864

-1 -1T – NPK + VC (5t ha ) + BC (2.5t ha ) 27.45 41.00 34.23 23.43 35.63 29.535

-1 -1T – NPK + VC (5t ha ) + BC (5t ha ) 16.74 22.00 19.37 10.07 15.30 12.686

Mean 30.58 47.81 39.19 22.83 33.75 28.29

SEd CD (0.05) SEd CD (0.05)

T 0.05 0.12 0.03 0.08

M 0.01 0.03 0.08 0.18

M x T 0.06 0.14 0.04 0.89

T x M 0.04 0.09 0.02 0.45

Tillering

M1 M2 Mean M1 M2 Mean

Treatments Harvest

VC- Vermicompost M -Intermitant Wetting and drying M - Submerged condition1 2

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134 JANUARY-JUNE 2016Influence of Biochar on Methane.....

allowed to dry making it aerobic, the activity of methanogens is reduced resulting in lesser CH 4

production. Submerged soil can also entrap a substantial amount of CH in the form of gaseous 4

enclosures or solution in soil pore water. According to Denier van der Gon and Neue (1996) about 10% of the CH emitted during a complete rice crop cycle is 4

entrapped in the soil and is released during drying of the rice fields. The changes in soil pH, redox potential and physical properties in soil under intermittent wetting and drying also play a significant role in CH 4

production which might have resulted in differential CH flux from the soil. Compared with continuous 4

flooding (submerged) intermittent wetting and drying was found to reduce CH4 emission by 25 to 58 % and by 38 to 65%.

During the drying cycle an increase in soil Eh and a decrease in CH flux are often observed resulting in 4

significant reduction (22 – 88 %) in CH emission 4

compared to continuous submerged condition (Jain et al., 2000). The population of methanotrophs in flooded soil increases as the crop growth advances (Reichardt et al., 1997) which may gradually intensify the CH 4

production and reaches the maximum at rice peak growth period. However, at the harvest stage, the

population and activity of methanogens decreased due to depletion of their energy source, resulting in lesser production of CH in soil at harvest stage. Since 4

methanotrophic bacteria can oxidize NH , it is also 3

closely correlated to the N cycle of rice soil. The reduction in mineral N (NH – N + NO - N) content, 4 3

SOC and enzyme activities observed at harvest stage further could be correlated to the decrease in population and activities of methanogens.

Irrespective of soil moisture conditions, the addition of -1vermicompost at a rate of 5t ha significantly enhanced

the CH flux from rice soil. An amount of 123.5 and 4

-187.8 kg CH – C ha was found emitted from soil under 4

the submergence (M ) and intermittent wetting and 2

drying (M ), respectively, due to vermicompost 1

application (T ). It was 11 (M ) and 33 (M ) present 4 2 1

higher than that of control treatment (T ). The addition 1

of any organic matter, manures, crop residue, green manure, compost etc, to a wetland rice field was found to increase CH production (Aulakh et al., 2001) as 4

they provide N and C required for microbial activities and serve as a source of electrons. The organic manures like compost, lower the soil redox potential (Eh) and provide C to methanogens. Even a small difference in carbon balance between fields and season can result in

Fig.1: Effect of Biochar on CH4 - C emission from rice soil.

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large difference in CH emission. However, the amount 4

of CH emitted in the current study for vermicompost 4

application was for lesser than those reported by Buendia et al. (1997). Quality and quantity of organic manure also influence CH production. For example 4

Wang et al. (1992) showed that CH production 4

increased in proportion to the application rate of rice straw indicating that CH production is C limited in 4

most soils. In a field study, it was observed that substituting 50 % of inorganic N with FYM the CH 4

emission was found increased by 172 % compared to the application of entire amount of N through urea. In another study the emission of CH was the lowest in the 4

unfertilized treatment and the highest with the application of entire amount of N through organic sources (IARI, 2005).

Application of Biochar with and without vermicompost significantly reduced the CH4 emission from soil (Fig.1). The CH – C was reduced by 20 % 4

and 45.8% respectively, when the Biochar was applied -1at a rate of 2.5 (T ) and 5t ha (T ) to the soil under 2 3

submerged condition (M2). The effectiveness of Biochar in reducing CH flux was enhanced when it 4

was applied along with vermicompost. The combined application of Biochar and vermicompost was found effective in reducing the CH – C emission from soil, 4

by 36.7 (T ) to 66.1 % (T ). Similarly, under 5 6

intermittent wetting and drying, application of Biochar reduces CH – C emission by 23.6 (T ) to 46.3 % (T ) 4 2 3

without any vermicompost, and 28.3 (T ) to 56.2 % (T ) 5 6

with vermicompost.

Irrespective of soil moisture condition, the Biochar, both with and without vermicompost, was found very effective in reducing the CH emission from rice field. 4

The reduction in CH flux could be related to the 4

methanotrophic activity in soil. In many studies the net soil methanotrophic activity was found reduced by the Biochar additions (Spokas and Reicosky, 2009).

The reduction in CH – C emission might also be due to 4

sorption of CH gas on Biochar practices. Studies 4

4conducted by Ponge et al. (2006) on CH adsorption 4capacity of activated carbons showed increased CH

adsorption with increase in surface area of the activated carbon. Biochar provides a source of chemi-sorption which effects the microbial community in soil.

Rondon et al. (2005) reported a near complete suppression of CH4 upon Biochar application at an application rate of 2% w/w basis to soil. It was hypothesized that the mechanism leading to reduction in CH emission is increased soil aeration leading to a 4

reduction in frequency and extent of anaerobic conditions under which methanogenis occurs.

CONCLUSION

The CH flux was reduced by 20 % and 45.8% 4

respectively, when the Biochar was applied at a rate of -12.5 and 5t ha to the soil under submerged condition.

The effectiveness of Biochar was enhanced when it

was applied along with vermicompost. The study has

demonstrated the intrinsic potential of Biochar in

improving the sequestration of large amounts of C in

soil by reducing CH emission. However, the 4

effectiveness of Biochar should be evaluated in soils

under different agro-ecological zones before making

any recommendation for fields-scale application.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to thank the UGC, New Delhi, for awarding a Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship to the senior author.

REFERENCES

Aulakh, M.S., R. Wassmann and H. Rennenberg. 2001. Methane emission from rice fields: quantification, mechanisms, role of management, and mitigation options. Adv.Agron., 70: 193-260.

Buendia, L.A., A. Neuo, H.U. Wassmann, R. Latin, S. Javellena, A. Yuchang, X. Makarim, K. Corton and T. Charoensilp. 1997. Understanding the nature of methane emission from rice ecosystems as basis of mitigation strategies. Appl. Energy., 56: 433-444.

Denier Van Der Gon, H.A.C and H.U. Neue. 1996. Oxidation of methane in the rhizosphere of rice plants. Biol. Fertil. Soils., 22: 359 – 366

IARI, 2005. Global Warming: Indian estimates of green house gas emission from agricultural fields. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

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136 JANUARY-JUNE 2016Influence of Biochar on Methane.....

Jain, M.C., S.Kumar, R. Wassmann, S.Mitra, S.Singh. J. Singh, P. Singh, R. Yadav and A. Gupta. 2000. Methane emissions from irrigated rice fields in northern India. Nutr. Cycling. Agroecosys., 16: 11-17

Lehmann, J., A handful of carbon, Nature, 2007, 447,143-144.

Papen, H. and H. Rennenberg. 1990. Microbial processes involved in the emission of radioactively important trace gases. In: Transaction of 14th international soil science congress. 232- 237.

Ponge, J.F., S. Topoliantz, S. Ballof, S. Rossi, J. Lavelle, P. Betsch and P. Gaucher. 2006. Ingestion of charcoal by the Amazonian earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus: A potential for tropical soil fertility. Soil Biol. Biochem., 38: 2008-2009.

Reichardt, W., G. Mascararina, G. Padre and J. Doll. 1997. Microbial communities of continuously cropped, irrigated rice fields. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 233-238.

Rondon M., J. Ramirez, and J. Lehman. 2005. Charcoal additions reduce net emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. In: Proceedings of the 3rd USDA Symposium on Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Sequestration, March 21-24. p. 208.

Spokas, K.A., and D. Reicosky. 2009. Impacts of sixteen different biochars on soil greenhouse gas production. Ann. Environ. Sci., 3:179–193

Wang, Z.P., Y. Liandau, R. Delaung and W. Partic. 1992. Methane production from anaerobic soil amended with rice straw and nitrogen fertilizers. Fert. Res., 33:115 -121.

137


A Study on Effect of Climate Change on the Agriculture Sector in Mirzapur, U.P. India

ASHOK KUMAR SRIVASTAVA

Faculty of Engineering and Technology,V.B.S. Purvanchal University, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh

1Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry,

Agricultural College & Research Institute, Tutucorin District., Tamil Nadu2Department of Environmental Science, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Received: 17 May 2016 Revision: Accepted:

ABSTRACT

The economic impact of climate change in Mirzapur U.P. agriculture are also relevant for predicting the medium seen economic impact of climate change if farmers are constrained in their ability to recognize and adapt quickly to changing effective climate. The predicted medium run-impact is negative and statistically significant. It is felt that climate change reduces major crop yields by 5.0 to 9.25%. The long-run impact is dramatic, reducing yields by 30 percent or more in the absence of long run adaption. The results suggest that climate change is likely to impose significant costs on the agriculture economy unless farmers can quickly adapt to increasing temperature.

Key words: Climate change, Mirzapur, Agriculture, data, economy.

25 May 2016 20 June 2016

INTRODUCTION

Climate change, caused due to increased anthropogenic activities and resultant emissions of greenhouse gases, is now widely recognized as the major environmental problem facing the globe which has the potential to harm societies and ecosystems. Climate change is real concern for the sustainable development of agriculture globally.

Although agriculture is a complex and highly evolved sector, which is directly dependent upon the climate. Heat, water and sunlight are the main drivers of the crop growth while some aspects of climate change such as longer growing seasons and warmer temperature may bring benefits, there will also be a range of adverse impacts, including reduced water availability and more frequent extreme weather. These impacts may put agricultural activities, certainly at level of land managers and farm estates, at particular risk.

The atmosphere surrounding the earth is made up of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and the remaining 1%, having trace gases that include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen and nitrous oxide. These gases are also called green house gases act as a blanket and cover heat radiation from the earth and make the atmosphere warm. Beginning with the industrial revolution global atmospheric concentrations of these green house gases have increased marked by as a result of human activities. The global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due to primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change, while those of methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to agriculture. As a result we are facing global warming.

The increasing green house gases (GHG) resulted in global warming by 0.72 to 0.74°c over past 100 years and 10, of the 12 warmest years were recorded 2000-2011. The intergovernmental panel for climate change



Research Paper

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(IPCC) project by the end of the country. Some changes will affect agriculture through their direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, livestock, fisheries and pests. India is likely to be affected very high due to greater dependence on agriculture, limited natural resources, alarming increase in human population, changing pattern in long use and socio-economic factors that pose a great threat in meeting the food, fibre, fuel and fodder requirement. There is a impact on agricultural land-use due to snowmelt, availability of irrigation, intensity of inter and intra-seasonal droughts and floods, soil organic transformation matters, erosion of soil and availability if energy as a consequence of global warming, impacting agricultural production and hence the nutrious food security. Global warming due to green house effect is expected to impact hydrological cycle, soil moisture, precipitation, evaporation etc, which are challenges for agriculture.

GLOBAL SCENARIO OF CLIMATE CHANGE

A) CURRENT SCENARIOThe global atmosphere concentration of carbon dioxide , a green house gas(GHG) largely responsible for global warming has increased from a pre-industrial value of about 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005 [1]. Similarly, the global atmosphere concentration of methane and nitrous oxide, other important green house gases, has also increased considerably. The increase in green house gases was more than 70% between 1970 and 2004. The mean earth temperature has changed by 0.74°c during 1906-2005. Most of the observed increase in anthropogenic green house gases concentrations. During the last 50 years, cold days, cold nights and frost have become less frequent, while hot days, hot nights and heat waves have become more frequent. The frequency of heavy precipitation has increased over most land areas. Global average sea level rose at an average rate of 1.8mm per year over 1961 to 2003 [2]. This rate was faster over 1993 to 2008 [3], about 3.1-4.7 mm per year.

B) FUTURE PROJECTIONSThe projected temperature increase by the end of the country is likely to be in the range of 3.2°c to 4.8°c value substantially higher than 4.8°c cannot be excluded. It is likely that future tropical cyclones will become more intense, with larger peak wind speeds and heavier precipitation. For the next two decades a warning of about 0.15°c to 0. 22°c per decade is projected. Even it

all future emissions were stopped now, a further warming of about 0.1°c per decade would be expected. Himalayan glacier and snow cover are projected to contract. It is known that hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation will continue to become more frequent. Increase in the amount of precipitation are very likely in high-latitudes, while decreases are likely in most subtropical land regions, continuing observed pattern in recent trends. The sea level rise by the end of the country is likely to be 0.22°c to 0.64°c meters. Average global surface ocean PH is projected to reduce between 0.16 to 0.38 units over the 21st century.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN MIRZAPUR The Mirzapur district covers an area about 78695 square km. Geo-logically the study area is occupied by Calcareous soil for cultivation of various crops such as wheat, rice etc. The region is important not only from historical and geographically point of view.

The mean average rainfall was 99672 mm in 2005 and 87365 mm in 2006 respectively (District statistical data 2006). The year is divided into three into three seasons, summer rains and winter. The average daily temperature during the summer measures 40°c to 50°c and the temperature during winter season ranges from 13°c-23°c.

CLIMATE FACTORSSeveral factors directly connected to climate change and agricultural productivity.

A) Average temperature increase.

B) Change in rainfall amount and its patterns.

C) Rising atmosphere concentrations of oxygen and effects of global warming.

D) Pollution levels such as troposphere ozone.

E) Change in climate variability and extreme events.

EFFECTS OF ELEVATED CARBON DIOXIDE ON CROPSCarbon dioxide is essential to plant growth. Rising carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere can have both positive and negative consequences physiological effect by increasing the rate of photosynthesis. Currently the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 380 parts per million. In comparison, the amount of oxygen is 210,000 ppm. This means that one of ten plants may be

139

ASHOK KUMAR SRIVASTAVA 139International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

starved of carbon dioxide, due to the enzyme that fixed carbon dioxide, RuBisco also fixed oxygen in the process of photorespiration [4]. The effects of an increase in carbon dioxide would be higher on crops (such as wheat) than on maize, because the famer is more susceptible to carbon dioxide shortage, studies have shown that increased carbon dioxide leads to fewer stomata developing on plants which reduced water

usages. Under optimum conditions of temperature and humidity the yield increase could reach 36% to 38% if the levels of carbon dioxide are doubled.Further few studies have looked at impact of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations on whole farming systems. Most models study the relationship between carbon dioxide and productivity in isolation.

Table 1 : Annual Rainfall data of MIRZAPUR district in (mm) from (2004-2015).

Fig 1 : Annual Rainfall data of MIRZAPUR district in (mm) from (2004-2015).

Sl. YEAR MIRZAPUR PARARI CHUNAR NARAYAN-NO. PUR OURA

1. 2004-O5 435.00 425.0 0 410 410.5 430.2 430.5

2. 2005-06 550.18 520 580.3 615 610.4 575.18

3. 2006-07 1960.15 1650 1525.75 1670.14 1600.56 1681.32

4. 2007-08 1520.34 1201.3 1150.75 1130.64 1100.22 1220.65

5. 2008-09 800.42 704.16 650.5 715.32 612.66 574.21

6. 2009-10 1156.16 700.42 809.15 776.82 812.72 688.65

7. 2010-11 715.50 700.92 920.16 802.56 650.25 627.88

8. 2011-12 905.00 982.38 730.18 644.52 704.14 793.24

9. 2012-13 515.82 502 670.02 600.15 700.18 597.79

10) 2013-14 786.42 805.36 815.26 790.85 750.14 789.61

AAHAR AVG

Source: District Statistic Office

Increase productivityby carbon dioxide

Changes in production because of

temperature change

Possibility to grow new species of crops

Growth period expansion

Carbon dioxide increases

changing environment temperature and

weather condition

Variation on cultivated and industrial region

Quality deterioration

Blight increase

Augmentation of natural disaster

Soil erosion increase

Save the heating bills

Ecosystem changed

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140 JANUARY-JUNE 2016A Study on Effect of Climate Change.....

The LONDON ROYAL SOCIETY concluded that the benefits of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations are “likely to be far lower than previously estimated” when factors such as increasing ground level ozone are taken into account.

THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE AGRICULTURAL SECTORThe agricultural sector is a driving force in the gas emissions and land use effects to cause climate change. In addition to being a significant user of land and consumer of fossil fuels, agriculture contributes directly to green house gas emission through practices such as gas emissions through practices such as rice production and the raising of live stock, according to the Intergovernmental panel on climate change, the three main causes of the increase in green house gases observed over the past more than 100 years have been fossil fuels, land-use and agriculture.

AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY DECLINE

A) The trend of agricultural industry decline with climate change with the help of Indian Agricultural Research Institute the possibility of loss of 4-5 million tons in wheat productions take place in future with every rise of 1°c-2°c temperature throughout the growing period. It also assumes that irrigation would remain available in future of today's levels. Losses for other crops are still uncertain but they are expected to be smaller for Kharif crops.

B) Increasing sea and river eater levels and increase of temperature respectively through global warming (1°c-2°c) / year could have important and rapid effects on the mortality of fish and other cattle and their geographical distributions.

C) Land use: Agriculture contributes to green house increases though land use in four different ways.

(1) Carbon dioxide releases linked to deforestation.

(2) Methane releases from rice cultivation.

(3) Methane releases from enteric fermentation in cattle

(4) Nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide release from fertilizer application.

So, these agricultural processes comprise 56% to 60% of methane emissions, and approximately 78% to 85% nitrous oxide emissions and virtually all carbon dioxide emissions tied to land use.

D) Live stock and Lives stockThe above activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices are responsible for over 16% to 20% of human-made green house emissions including:

(1) 6% to 10% of global warming made carbon emissions.

(2) 40% to 45% of global methane emission (due to fermentation process).

(3) 60% -65% of global nitrous oxide emissions (due to use of fertilizer).

Worldwide, livestock production occupies 75% of all land-use for agriculture or 25% of the land surface of the earth.

In the long run, the climate change could affect agriculture in several ways:

(a) Productivity, in terms of quantity and quality of crops.

(b) Agriculture practices, through changes of water use (irrigation) and agricultural inputs such as herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers.

Table 2 : Annual temperature data of MIRZAPUR District (°c) from 2006 to 2014.

Sl. No. Year Temperature

1 2004 28°±2

2 2006 30°±2

3 2008 31°±2

4 2010 26°±2

5 2012 33°±2

6 2014 30°±2

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ASHOK KUMAR SRIVASTAVA 141International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

(c) Environmental effects take place due to drainage of soil erosion and reduction of crop diversity.

(d) Created land space, through the loss and gain of cultivated lands, land renunciation and hydraulic amenities.

(e) Organism may become competitive more or less, as well as human may develop urgency to develop more competitive organisms, such as flood resistant or salt resistant varieties of rice.

CONCLUSION

It cannot avoid the consequences of global warming. Mirzapur agriculture may face with a crisis that is climate change, different types of industrial pollutants can threaten agriculture, but it can be an advantage for raising other parameters which is realizing for protecting the environment.

Environmental is huge international issue. Since the global warming will bring a lot of problems and some of them already showing.

It is important to focus on how to deal with the situation and necessary to do more research about a subtropical and tropical climate.

REFERENCES

Kim Chang Gil and Jung Huk Gyu, 2008. Green Growth symposium (agriculture sector).

Agrell, J, Anderson , P. , Oleszek , W. Stochmal, A. and Agrell, C. 2004. Combined effects of elevated carbon dioxide and herbivore damage of alfalfa and cotton. Journal of Chemical Ecology 30:2309-2324.

Ainsworth, E.A., BEIER, C. and Calfapietra , C., et al. 2008a. Next generation of elevated [co2] experiments with crops: a critical investment for feeding the future world plant cell and environment. 31:1317-1324.

Ainsworth, E.A., Leakcy, A.D.B, Ort, D.R. and Long, S.P. 2008b. FACE-ing the facts: inconsistencies and interdependence among field, Chamber and modeling studies of elevated [co2] impacts on crop yield and food supply. New phytologist.179(5-9).

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142 JANUARY-JUNE 2016A Study on Effect of Climate Change.....

Biodiversity: Its Different Levels and Values

ASHOK KUMAR VERMA

Department of Zoology,Government Post Graduate College, Saidabad Allahabad (U.P.), India

Received: 21 August 2016 Revision: 30 August 2016 Accepted: 20 September 2016

ABSTRACT

Biodiversity or biological diversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, comprising millions of plants, animals, microorganisms and the genes they contain. It simply means the existence of a wide variety of plant and animal species in their natural environments or the diversity of plant and animal life in a particular habitat. The biodiversity is usually described at three levels and it has a large number of values. In present discussion, author is trying to discuss different levels and values of biodiversity in modern context.

Key words: Biodiversity, genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity, values, conservation.

INTRODUCTION

There are varied definitions of the term 'biodiversity'. According to Gaston and Spicer (2004), it is 'variation of life at all levels of biological organization'. Biodiversity is also viewed as a measure of the relative diversity among organisms present in different ecosystems. In this definition, diversity includes variation within species and among species, and comparative diversity among ecosystems. Biodiversity may also be defined as the 'totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (Glowka et al, 1994) defines biodiversity as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

A review of literature revealed that huge efforts have been taken and a number of scientists have worked a lot on biodiversity. Some of them are Kaushik et al, (2008), Odum (1971), Wilson (1988), Nair (1992), Bhatt (1997), Subba Rao (2001), Verma et al, (2015, 2016a, 2016b), Prakash et al, (2015, 2016a, 2016b), Verma (2016a, 2016b) etc.

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

The biodiversity is explored at following three levels and all these three work together to create the complexity of life on Earth:

1. genetic diversity

2. species diversity

3. ecosystem diversity

The genetic diversity is the diversity of the basic units of hereditary information (genes) within a species, which are passed from one generation to next. The genetic diversity results in variations hence the basic source of biodiversity and the amount of genetic variation is therefore the basis of speciation. The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt according to its environment hence important for natural selection Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability but not all groups of animals have the same degree of genetic diversity. To conserve genetic diversity, different populations of a species must be conserved.

The species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. It is the variability found within the population of a species or between different species of a community. The species is the real basic



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unit used to classify the organisms and its diversity is the most commonly used level for describing the biodiversity. It represents broadly the species richness and their abundance in a community. Species are therefore distinct units of diversity, each playing a specific role in the ecosystem. In nature, the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals per species vary, leading to greater diversity. The species are grouped together into families according to shared characteristics.

An ecosystem is a set of life forms (biotic components) interacting with one another and with the non-living elements (abiotic components) of their environment. It means, the ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together. An ecosystem may be as large as the Great Barrier Reef or as small as the back of a spider crab's shell, which provides a home for plants and other animals, such as sponges, algae and worms. Ecosystem diversity is therefore the diversity of habitats (place where an organism or a population of organisms naturally occurs), which include the different life forms within. Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem exists along 3 levels. First is alpha diversity (within community diversity), second is beta diversity (between communities diversity) and the third is gamma diversity (diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area).

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity has its enormous value almost in all aspects of life. The multiple uses of biodiversity include:

1. Consumptive use, in which biodiversity products are harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuels, food, drugs, medicines, fibres etc. A large number of wild plants and animals are sources of food for human beings. About 75% of the world's population depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines. For examples, the wonder drug penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called Penicillium, tetracycline from a bacterium. Quinine, the cure for malaria is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree, two anti-cancer drugs namely vinblastin and vincristin are obtained from Catharanthus plant and so on. Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity.

2. Productive use, in which animal products like musk from musk deer, silk from silkworm, wool from sheep, fur from many animals, lac from lac insects etc. are trades in market. Besides, many industries are dependent upon productive use of values of biodiversity e.g. paper and pulp industry, plywood industry, railway sleeper industry, textile industry, leather industry and pearl industry.

3. Social value, in which social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of people are associated i.e. biodiversity has distinct social value, attached with different societies. Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like Tulsi, Peepal, Mango, Lotus etc. The leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in worship or the plant itself is worshipped. The social life of tribals, songs, dances and customs are closely linked around the wildlife. Many animals like cow, bull, peacock, owl, snake etc. also have significant place in our psycho-spiritual arena and thus hold special social importance.

4. Ethical value or existence value, which is based on the concept of 'Live and Let Live'. It means biodiversity is valuable because if we want our human race to survive and continue then we must protect all biodiversity i.e. 'all life must be preserved'.

5. Aesthetic value, in which eco-tourism is entertained. People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity hence biodiversity has great aesthetic value.

6. Ecosystem service value, in which non-consumptive use of self maintenance of the ecosystem and various ecosystems have been recognized. It refers to the services provided by ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat of global warming etc.

7. Scientific and evolutionary value, in which each species provides some clues to scientists as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve on earth. Moreover, biodiversity helps scientists to understand how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems. In addition, biodiversity has other many values too.

Thus, different levels of biodiversity: ecosystem, species and genetic, all have huge potential and a

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decline in biodiversity will lead to serious economic, ecological and socio-cultural losses. If we want our human race to survive then we must protect all biodiversity because biodiversity has existence value.

CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY

The living world has rich diversity of animals, plants and microbial life that appear to be well adapted according to the environment. This varied diversity must have to be maintained in order to mutual survival and existence of living beings.

The biodiversity is being depleted by the loss and deterioration of habitats, over exploitation of resources, unprecedented climatic changes, pollution, diseases, cultivation shifting, poaching of wild life etc. Since the human beings are deriving all the benefits from biodiversity hence they should take proper care for the preservation of biodiversity in all its forms and good health as well as safety for the future generation.

Conserving biodiversity does mean the proper management of the biosphere by human beings in such a way that it gives maximum benefits for the present generation and also develops its potential so as to meet the needs of the future generations.

The best way to conserve biodiversity is to save habitats and ecosystems rather than trying to save a single species. The conservation of biological diversity has now become a global concern. There are basically two main approaches of biodiversity conservation namely, in-situ conservation (within habitat) and ex-situ conservation (outside habitat).

The former is achieved by conservation of flora and fauna in nature itself e.g. Biosphere reserves, National parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve forests etc. The later is achieved by establishment of gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens etc.

REFERENCES

Bhatt Seema (1997). Biodiversity: Oxford University Press Delhi.

Gaston K. J. and Spicer J. I. (2004). Biodiversity: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Blackwell Publishing.

Glowka L. et al, (1994). A Guide to the Convention on Biological Diversity Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 30 IUCN Gland and Cambridge. Xii + 161 pp.

Kaushik A. and Kaushik C.P. (2008). Environmental Studies: New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.

Nair S.M. (1992). Endangered Animals of India and Their Conservation. National Book Trust, New Delhi.

Odum E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B. Saunders Company, Japan, 3rd edition.

Prakash S. and Verma A.K. (2015). Studies on different fish genera in Alwara lake of Kaushambi. Bioherald: An International Journal of Biodiversity & Environment. 5(1-2):60-62 pp.

Prakash S. and Verma A.K. (2016a). Impact of awareness programme on growth and conservation of vulnerable avian species Grus antigone antigone in and around Alwara lake of District Kaushambi (Uttar Pradesh), India. The Journal of Zoology Studies 3 (2): 1-5 pp.

Prakash S. and Verma A.K. (2016b). Conservation Status of fresh water fishes reported in Alwara lake of District Kaushambi (U.P.). International Journal of Zoology Studies 1(5):32-35 pp.

Subba Rao S. (2001). Ethics of Ecology and Environment. Rajat Publications, New Delhi.

Verma A.K., Prakash S. and Kumar Sunil. (2015). Status and Ecology of Sarus Crane, Grus antigone antigone in and around the Alwara Lake of District Kaushambi (U.P.). International Journal on Environmental Sciences. 6 (2): 331-335 pp.

Verma A.K. and Prakash S. (2016a). Fish biodiversity of Alwara lake of District Kaushambi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences 4(4): 5-9 pp.

Verma A.K. and Prakash S. (2016b). Population dynamics of Indian Sarus Crane, Grus antigone antigone (Linnaeus, 1758) in and around Alwara lake of Kaushambi district (Uttar Pradesh), India. International Journal of Biological Research 4(2): http://www.science pubco. com/index.php/IJBR/ article/view. 206-210 pp.

Verma A.K. (2016a). Dominancy of Cypriniformes fishes in Alwara lake of District Kaushambi (U.P.). International Journal on Agricultural Sciences. 7 (1). 89-91 pp.

Verma A.K. (2016b). Distribution and Conservation Status of Cat Fishes in Alwara Lake of District Kaushambi (U.P.). International Journal on Environmental Sciences. 7 (1):72-75 pp.

Wilson E.O. (1988). Biodiversity. National Academic Press, Washington, D.C

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ASHOK KUMAR VERMA 145International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

Water Resources and Management

1 2HARI PRASATH. B AND R. SATHYA

1,2Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi, Tamil Nadu, India

Received: 25 August 2016 Revision: 15 September 2016 Accepted: 30 September 2016

ABSTRACT

The Future We Want, the pivotal role of water for sustainable development, rearmed the need for an integrated approach to water resources management and highlighted the role of ecosystems for achieving a water-secure world. Water-related hazards account for 90% of all natural hazards, and their frequency and intensity is generally rising. Water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50 percent by 2025 in developing countries, and 18 percent in developed countries (UNEP). Over 1.4 billion people currently live in river basins where the use of water exceeds minimum recharge levels, leading to the desiccation of rivers and depletion of groundwater (UNDP). By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions (FAO). Half of the world's wetlands have been lost since 1900 (WWAP). Feeding a world of 8 billion people will require a much more efficient use of water for C. Ecosystems, upon which we all depend including for water security in terms of quantity and quality, are degrading very fast due to human activities. To add to these challenges, the impact of climate change and associated increased variability, primarily felt through changes in water availability, will threaten human well-being, economies and put further strain on the environment required to maintain aquatic ecosystems. Frequencies and intensities of floods and droughts and other water-related extreme events are on the rise. these challenges are compounded by the additional level of complexity considering more than half of global freshwater, 276 international watercourses, crosses international political boundaries where often no treaty exists to manage these trans boundary waters. These basins account for 40% of the global population and 60% of global freshwater.

Key words: Ecosystems, River basins, Groundwater, Agriculture, Climate change, Freshwater.

INTRODUCTION

Water is a natural resource that is multifunctional and MultidimensionalWater is the origin of every form of life. It is a habitat, an ailment, a means of production and transport, and a commodity. By its very nature, water creates networks: it is linked to other natural resources - land, forests, biodiversity, etc. Aquatic systems are interconnected; Environmental problems have repercussions from one end to the other of a hydrographic basin. Various groups and stakeholders use water for their needs. Water is international, national, regional and local, with highly diverse temporal and spatial frames of reference. The complexity of this network makes it difficult to implement adequate management

measures. Demographic and urban growth and the worldwide progress of industrialization combine to increase the demand for water. The ecosystems which produce and regenerate this resource, are threatened, polluted or destroyed. The world population tripled during the 20th century, its water needs have multiplied by six (Dyson et al., 2003). When water resources are limited and different stakeholder groups vie simultaneously for their use, competitive and conflict-ridden reactions are not far behind. Property rights, dam construction, management of a hydrographic basin by several countries, competition between natural and rural areas, where water can be regenerated, and urban areas, where it is consumed before being returned polluted into the rivers — all



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these elements generate conflicts that aggravate the world water crisis. Moreover, at present the distribution of water among users is inequitable, a situation that primarily affects the poorer populations. “We are creating jobs for the people and income for the nation. We are doing that with the most advanced and efficient water technologies. Hence, there is no reason to blame us for the water problems downstream.” Having recognized the severity of this crisis, world leaders committed themselves, at the United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000 and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002, to ”reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and waste water treatment facilities by 2015.” This millennium objective has been recognised as a common concern and top priority worldwide yet it is unrealistic even today. To implement it, 400,000 persons would have to be connected to a water supply and treatment system each day! Furthermore, it does not adequately integrate the issues of water regeneration and availability (Cap-Net, 2005 and FAO., 2005).

Water is not scarce; it is simply badly managedThe international community knows that the water crisis is a crisis of governance. Irregular and violent rainy seasons, rising water levels, floods, landslides, prolonged droughts, climate change - these are just some of the factors that are already noticeable in respect of the drastic changes in the water cycle that afflict certain regions of our planet. The costs generated by water-related natural disasters have more than doubled over the past ten years. Dams, other constructions and potential man-made risks make the situation worse. Governments lack both the capacities and the financial resources to implement effective measures to prepare for and reduce the impact of these disastrous developments. Approaches focusing on preventive action still lag behind traditional curative solutions. Risk reduction has not been well integrated into water resource management, which continues to be viewed primarily as a technical problem with economic repercussions, while its sociocultural and environmental aspects are often ignored. The present sectorial organisation of water management institutions belies the multifunctional nature of water: the adaptation of integrated management concepts and methods is an urgent need. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is seen worldwide as THE

solution to this problem. Ideally, IWRM should account for interests relative to water conservation and use, for all existing constraints as well as for all major poli t ical , legal, administrative, economic, environmental, social and cultural aspects. IWRM represents a highly challenging and complex approach. In fact, this is why it so well suits the nature of water. IWRM is not a product, but a process that offers a flexible framework with several points of entry, like a puzzle in which each move represents a further step on the way to sustainable integrated management.

The ecological aspect: regenerationThe environment ensures the provision and regeneration of water as a dynamic system of interconnected natural resources. More heed should be paid to the limits of this system. The sustainable management of the ecosystems that supply our natural resources should be integrated within political action plans. The international agreements and processes relative to climate change, desertification, biodiversity, humid zones, dams, etc. could be the groundwork for the introduction of new environmental action policies; but their efficient implementation requires that they be viewed in the context of the sustainable management and regeneration of all natural resources.

Social and institutional aspects: participation and decentralisationIn order to ensure the sustainable use of water resources, IWRM stresses the importance of involving all stakeholders within one hydro graphic basin: the authorities, institutions, the public and private sectors, and civil society, with a special focus on women and marginalized groups. Decentralisation and the subsidiarity principle play a key role in this process: the lowest possible unit of management should be fostered. This requires the establishment of a permanent framework for the local populations to vent their problems and needs, assume their environmental responsibilities, and acquire the knowledge and skills required to make decisions and launch initiatives. The structure of this framework should correspond to local sociocultural, ecological and economic conditions. Local participation should be backed by close cooperation at higher institutional levels: between the departments or ministries that administer water,

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KUMARA N. ET. AL 147International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

irrigation, planting of crops that combat erosion and can be used as fodder, mini-dams); institutional support (training and institutional consolidation, awareness-raising campaigns for the local population). The creation of “Water User Associations” is the key element in this integrated approach; they offer all players a platform for debate and action with a view to cooperative management solution.

Better water resources management – Greater resilience today, more effective adaptation tomorrowWater is a primary medium through which climate change will have an impact on people, ecosystems and economies. Water resources management should therefore be an early focus for adaptation to climate change. Water resources management does not hold all of the answers to adaptation, a broad range of responses will be needed. But water is both a key part of the problem, and an important part of the solution. It is a good place to start. Improved understanding of the dynamics of climate change as it affects water supply and demand and the broader impacts on all water-using sectors will guide better water resources management. This will in turn build resilience to current climate variability, while building capacity to adapt to future climate change. Water is recognized to be key to the achievement of many of the Millennium Development Goals. So better water resource management is a cost-effective strategy; delivering immediate benefits to vulnerable and underserved populations, while strengthening systems and capacity for longer-term climate risk management. Achieving and sustaining water security – broadly defined as harnessing water's social and productive potential and limiting its destructive potential – provides a focus for adaptation strategies and a framework for action. For countries that have not achieved a reasonable level of water security, climate change will make it harder. For those who have enjoyed significant levels of water security, it may prove hard to sustain. All are likely to need to channel additional resources to water resource management (Emerton et al., 2005).

A water secure world will need better information and stronger institutions, as well as investment in infrastructure small and large scale to store and transport water. It will require balancing equity, environmental and economic priorities; and 'soft' (institutional and capacity) as well as 'hard'

forests, the environment, etc., between the decision- making bodies within one hydro graphic basin, between countries. The International Conference on Freshwater in Bonn in 2001 stressed the importance of national strategies and of introducing legislative provisions that establish institutional responsibility for water-related problems.

The economic aspect: pricing and financingInternational organisations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) propose to privatise the water sector, arguing that this would eliminate monopolies and abusive prices. The issue is controversial, however - privatisation could give rise to new forms of power and dependencies linked to a product the population simply cannot live without. Human rights oppose considering water as a commodity; the debate, which has lasted for years, is far from being closed. A number of ideas have been formulated: free provision of the quantity of water for living (30-50 litres per person per day according to the WHO); adjusting water rates to income; a price that would be inversely proportional to the distance people must cover to meet their water needs. Every operational action can contribute to the integrated management process. Even when implemented at a very specific level, it should be integrated within the management of the whole hydro graphic basin.

Conflict resolution and participatory approachIrrigation that does not account for the basin's real water availability, erosion and evapotranspiration on land that has been stripped by farming, threaten these various groups with a growing water shortage. Competition is very high in this semi-arid zone, and the stronger competitor wins. Some large-scale farmers irrigate excessively, and the poorer populations downstream are deprived of the water they need to survive. Water sources are diverted clandestinely at night; conflicts grow more and more frequent. An integrated water resources management project has been set up to cope with this situation. It consists of different parts: drawing up data on the basin's true potential (measurement of the water flow and the quantities used, computer models); meetings and discussion workshops between government representatives and the different user groups in order to pinpoint problems and needs, and search for joint solutions; training in appropriate techniques (drip

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148 JANUARY-JUNE 2016STUDY THE GROWTH, YIELD.....

climate variability and shocks, particularly in the world's poorest countries. Water is a primary medium for climate change impacts The Ministerial Declaration of the Second World Climate Conference states “…that among the most important impacts of climate change were its effects on the hydrologic cycle and on water management systems and, through these, on socio-economic systems.” (Second World Climate Conference, 1990) A 'leverage' effect could see relatively small temperature changes leading to a 10 – 40% increase in average river flows in some regions and a 10 – 30% decrease in others. This could have a major impact on water supplies to a rapidly urbanising world as well as on shelter and transport infrastructures. It may render many of the industries and much of the agriculture that supplies and feeds them highly vulnerable, if not unsustainable. Proactive water management is proactive adaptation Just as climate change mitigation is being addressed through a series of fundamental changes in the way that societies produce and use their energy, adaptation will be addressed in part through a series of fundamental changes in the way societies manage and use their water resources. In pursuing these changes, we suggest the end goal should be to achieve 'water security': the reliable availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks (Grey and Sadoff, 2007). To achieve water security, investments will be needed in infrastructure to store and transport water, as well as to build institutions that are armed with the information and capacity to predict, plan for and cope with climate variability. Such investments will help adapt to long-term climate change and manage current climate variability and shocks – thus offering water security to the world's poorest countries. The art will lie in finding the right balance between the different kinds of intervention.

The role of Integrated Water Resources ManagementNeither the challenges that climate change poses for development nor many of the potential responses are particularly new. Many of them were first articulated on an international platform in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit, which warned of the dangers and outlined a programme of action that sought to address them in a manner that balanced the twin goals of addressing environmental protection and the development needs

(infrastructure) responses. It will need appropriate attention to both natural and man-made storage options. It will require actions and innovations at all levels: in projects, communities, nations, river basins and globally. Integrated water resources management offers an approach to manage these dynamics, and a thread that runs up and down these levels of engagement. Financial resources are needed to build a water secure world. Sound water management, which is a key to adaptation, is weakest in the poorest countries, those with the greatest climate variability today, and those predicted to face the greatest negative impacts of climate change. Investment in national water resources management capacity, institutions and infrastructure should therefore be a priority for mainstream aid, as well as for sustainable development financing that delivers adaptation benefits. In some trans boundary basins the best adaption investments for any individual country may lay outside its borders, for example in basin-wide monitoring systems or investments in joint infrastructure and/or operating systems in a neighbouring country. To the extent that specialized adaptation funds are made available, they should go beyond single-country solutions to generate public goods and to promote cooperative trans boundary river basin solutions (Mchibwa et al.,2008).

Water resources and adaptation: Framing the issueMany of the anticipated impacts of climate change, will operate through water. Changing rainfall and river flow patterns will affect all water users; shifting rainfall patterns will affect cropping systems and the prevalence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria; increased uncertainty and shifting crop water requirements will threaten poor rain fed farmers in particular; intensification of droughts, floods, typhoons and monsoons will make many more people more vulnerable; while risks and uncertainties are growing around water-borne disease incidence, glacier melt, glacier lake outburst flood risks and sea level rise. These impacts are the consequence of the way in which the hydrological cycle is expected to be affected by climate change. While in many cases, the impact cannot yet be proven, the long-term nature of water resource management means that responses need to start now. This will require enhanced understanding of water resources to inform well-directed management and investment interventions. The benefit will be that these interventions will also help to manage current

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change on freshwater systems are expected to outweigh the benefits (high confidence). By the 2050s, the area of land subject to increasing water stress due to climate change is projected to be more than double that with decreasing water stress. Areas in which runoff is projected to decline face a clear reduction in the value of the services provided by water resources. Increased annual runoff in some areas is projected to lead to increased total water supply. However, in many regions this benefit is likely to be cou nterbalanced by the negative effects of increased precipitation variability and seasonal runoff shifts on water supply, water quality and flood risks. (high confidence)” It is against this technical background that the challenges of the future have to be addressed, although it should be remembered that existing climates are already highly variable and climate change simply adds to the complexity and scale of the challenge of managing this variability. While there is growing confidence about model predictions of changing temperatures and rainfall, the impact of these changes on water availability from rivers, lakes and underground sources is poorly understood. As an example, one effect of temperature increases is to increase evaporation rates. Since the balance between evaporation and rainfall determines whether a climate is humid or arid, aridity will tend to increase where rising temperatures are not matched by rising rainfalls. Changes in aridity will have a substantial impact on both surface water runoff and groundwater recharge as will changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall. The impact of global warming on snow fields and glaciers will also impact water resources, since they currently act as natural reservoirs, storing water in winter and releasing it gradually as melt-water in summer. Under global warming scenarios, the melting of snow and glaciers will first increase and then reduce river flows, causing first floods, then droughts. The phenomenon is particularly important in the Andean region of South America and the Himalayan region of South Asia. Further complicating the picture will be the impact of climate change on vegetation cover which will in turn significantly change both runoff and evaporation. All these factors will affect the water resources available for use by societies. Water quality effects are also important. Reductions in river flows will reduce their capacity to dilute wastes and require additional investments to achieve the same standards of environmental protection. Changing runoff patterns

of poor countries. To help achieve these goals, the principles of the integrated water resource management (IWRM) provides a valuable historical perspective as well as evidence of the difficulty of moving from problem identification to effective action. It highlighted that: “The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated pollution of freshwater resources in many world regions, along with the progressive encroachment of incompatible activities, demand integrated water resources planning and management. Such integration must cover all types of interrelated fresh- 1 it is worth noting that this definition does not focus on security as relating to threats of violence or war, although some related concerns, such as the intentional contamination of water supplies, could be addressed as water-related risks. Nor, for the purpose of this paper, does it focus only on arrangements for the security of household level water services, though it does include those services. Water bodies, including both surface water and groundwater, and duly consider water quantity and quality aspects. The multisectoral nature of water resources development in the context of socio-economic development must be recognized, as well as the multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply and sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development, hydropower generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recreation, low and flatlands management and other activities. Rational water utilization schemes for the development of surface and underwater supply sources and other potential sources have to be supported by concurrent waste conservation and wastage minimization measures.” These dimensions become even more important as we seek to understand how climate change factors into this already complex mix. Two key attributes of IWRM commend it as an approach to the challenges of climate change. The first is that it integrates the activities of a range of sectors that use, impact or are impacted by water thus ensuring that activities in one sector do not undermine those in another. The second is that it recognizes that effective institutions will be needed to manage the trade-offs between different activities and interests (Global Water Partnership Technical Advisory Committee, 2000 and 2007).

Climate change challenges for water resource management “Globally, the negative impacts of future climate

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evolving hydrologies will impose significant demands on water management. The variability of rainfall will also increase with climate change, and this will impact growth potential and the costs of achieving adequate levels of water security. In Ethiopia, the economic cost of hydrological Variability, in fact, can be a greater management challenge than scarcity in that both sides of the equation (too little water and too much water) need to be managed, and managed under greater uncertainty. The major impact of climate change in many sectors may be an increase in the cost of water services, and the cost of reliability in service delivery. This will not only be the case for drinking water, but also for agriculture, power production, services and industry. Ecosystem water use will be put under extreme pressure as the costs of water rise. Few countries have effective mechanisms to assure adequate water for ecosystems, so ecosystem water use is routinely the first use foregone. Climate change will increase the incidence of catastrophic events such as flood and drought. This will impact lives, livelihoods, land values and investment incentives in vulnerable areas. While readiness and insurance schemes as well as water management interventions will be instrumental in addressing these risks, the prospects for these increasingly vulnerable areas will change. In general, more vulnerable areas are inhabited by poorer populations. 2 This estimate is based on the results of a stochastic, economy wide multi-market model that captures the impacts of both deficit and excess rainfall on agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. The results show growth projections dropping 38% when historical levels of hydrological variability are assumed, relative to the same model's results when average annual rainfall is assumed in all years (which is the standard modelling assumption) (Grey and Sad off, 2007).

Those with options move away from hazards or uncertainties. As vulnerable areas become more vulnerable to floods, sea level rise, groundwater intrusion, loss of arable land the poor are likely to be disproportionately hurt. Changing water security conditions will drive changes in the spatial location of economic activities, and even the structure of economies. On balance, economic activity will be driven toward water secure areas and away from insecure areas. Over time, changing water security conditions may also affect the structure of an economy

and temperatures may result in water quality effects that either render water unusable (as in agriculture, where salinity is a major determinant of viability) or impose additional treatment costs on users (as in the case of the eutrophication of waters used for domestic supplies). The intrusion of seawater into coastal freshwater systems is a further quality challenge. The ability to monitor and predict such climate change impacts at a scale that is helpful to users is still extremely limited, leading the technical team of the IPCC working on water and climate (IPCC, 2008) to conclude that: “There is a need to improve understanding and modelling of changes in climate related to the hydrological cycle at scales relevant to decision making.” Although the importance of hydrological monitoring has been highlighted at all United Nations conferences on water and sustainable development since the 1977 Mar del Plata conference, the quality of the hydrological data, which is needed to monitor the impact of climate change and to guide future planning, has generally deteriorated since then. Much of the data on stream flows that is held by the Global Runoff Data Centre in Germany is more than 30 years old, and in 2008 support was terminated for the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS), a worldwide repository of water quality data. In many poorer countries, hydrological information systems decayed when scarce resources were allocated to more immediate needs, and even in the rich world, monitoring targets have often not been met. As a result, in many countries there is limited information to support the planning, development and management of water resources, a situation which cannot be reversed overnight. The broader dynamics Changes in the availability, timing and reliability of rainfall and the water resources that flow from it will have impacts on all water-using sectors. These impacts in turn will affect the broader dynamics of national economies as well as environmental and social needs, particularly in poorer societies. Specifically, since effective water management is important for the achievement of many of the Millennium Development Goals, these impacts could also threaten their achievement and their sustainability once achieved. While the overall availability of water will not necessarily decrease with climate change, the distribution and timing of rainfall will change. This will change patterns of access to water, creating new surpluses in some areas and increased competition in others. Managing these

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its sectorial mix and the rules by which it operates – as water affects sectorial economic returns.

Globally, trade in water-intensive products ('virtual water') may increase as patterns of water security shift. In the absence of confounding incentives, trade should promote greater water-intensive export production in water rich areas, and greater imports of water-intensive products in water scarce areas. Timeframes, sequencing and uncertainty the uncertainty which pervades every aspect of climate change adaptation planning is seen by some as good reason to postpone action. Most impacts are expected decades in the future, and the scale of impacts could vary widely with a range of factors –the success and scope of mitigation efforts, the accuracy of today's models and the potential for non-linear tipping points that cannot be modelled, and so on. However, implementing any new approaches to water resources management responses will also be a long-term process. Institutions take time to design and establish. Major water resources infrastructure, such as large reservoirs and canals, routinely take over a decade to plan and construct. While sequencing and prioritizing specific medium-term priorities is surely complex, it is timely and wise to focus now on opportunities for enhancing management capacities, for strengthening information systems, and for building infrastructure to enhance resilience at both small and large scales.

Climate change responses through water resources managementGiven the impending challenges, it is crucial for policy makers to recognize the role of water as a primary medium through which climate change will have an impact on development and to incorporate these considerations in overall development planning and management. Likewise, it is important for water managers and water users alike to adapt to the unfolding future. An approach to water resource management is needed that can identify and address the challenges and uncertainties. The challenge is analogous to the way that the mitigation challenge is being addressed, through a series of fundamental changes in the way that societies produce and use their energy. These start from the resources societies use to fuel their activities, the way that these are used and combined to generate power, through to the settlement patterns that societies adopt for their cities and the

public transport systems. It extends to patterns of production, consumption and trade, all with a view to reducing the production of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. A similar approach is required in the use of water, although arguably water provides a greater challenge since, in many cases, it is sourced directly from the natural environment of which it forms part. Unlike energy, water is difficult to transport over large distances and patterns of its use are very localized, varying dramatically between and within countries. Apparently different sources of water are often related to each other through the water cycle. Plantation forests on hillsides may deplete groundwater in the valleys; overenthusiastic pumping of groundwater in one area may dry up streams nearby; harnessing river for hydropower may affect fish populations and fisher folks' livelihoods in estuaries downstream. So water resources must be managed, and water used, in a manner that reflects water's variability, uncertainty, scarcity and abundance. That management also has to reflect the interconnectedness between its users at different scales locally, regionally and globally.

Adaptation through better water resources managementIf water security is to be achieved and sustained, it will require approaches that reflect the particular challenges of the water cycle, aggravated as they will be by drivers including, but not limited to, climate change. Such approaches should reflect the integrated nature of the water cycle by incorporating the different users, uses, threats and the threatened. IWRM is an approach to water management that explicitly recognizes the need to structure and manage the trade-offs required, recognizing that one use affects others and that all depend upon the integrity of the resource base. Better water management will be essential if communities are to adapt successfully to climate induced changes in their water resources. The strategies adopted will have to use a combination of 'hard', infrastructural, and 'soft', institutional, measures and to go well beyond what is normally considered as 'water business'. Critically, they will require major changes in the way agriculture, industry and human settlements in general are managed. The future resilience (or vulnerability) of human communities to climate change related impacts will depend, in large measure, on their success. The patterns of water use as

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well as the nature of the water resource itself are dynamic and ever changing. Changes in cons umption patterns and production technologies, changing patterns of trade or political and social preferences and priorities all have an impact on the way water is used and the impacts human activities have upon it. Similarly, changes in the resource, including the impacts of anthropogenic climate change cannot be projected with any degree of precision, and institutions must be able to respond flexibly to the changes as they emerge. A further important advantage of the IWRM approach is that it is itself adaptive. Properly applied, IWRM establishes institutions and processes that can identify and respond to changes in the economic and social environment as well as in the natural environment.

Institutionalizing adaptation in water managementThe principles of IWRM clearly align with the challenges to water management that climate change will exacerbate. Water policies and practices must aim to build institutions, information and capacity to predict, plan for and cope with seasonal and inter-annual climate variability, as a strategy to adapt to long-term climate change. And these institutions must be able to facilitate processes of social and economic change that involve significant trade-offs. In this context, institutions are not only formal organizations; indeed, it may be preferable if formal organizations emerge only once the key challenges and the key functions that have to be undertaken are known. 'Soft' institutions which include informal coordination activities, information gathering and collation, setting of rules through legislation or cooperation, and the monitoring and regulation of compliance are equally important. Good management practices that are inculcated in user communities are more likely to be sustainable than rules imposed by formal organizations. To achieve the goals of water security and development, water challenges need to be addressed within broader climate change and development strategies and users and resource managers must be engaged in an interactive way that enhances their ability to cope with uncertainty and respond to challenges as they emerge.

In part, this means ensuring that all levels of decision makers from policy makers to water managers to users have the information they need to develop and

continuously update adaptation strategies. While information and the capacity to understand it is essential, in many countries, the ability of core management institutions to address current let alone future challenges is limited and needs to be strengthened. The same applies to another key function of water resources management, the facilitation of tradeoffs between different water users and uses to cope with both variability and long term climate change. These tradeoffs need to balance the 'three Es' of economic Efficiency, social Equity and Environmental sustainability.

Given the role of water in almost all dimensions of social and economic life and its fundamental role in the environment, any change in the pattern of water use and management will affect a variety of stakeholders. While the goal will always be to find win-win synergies, there will usually be trade-offs of some sort to be made and the processes by which these are made (and the way negative impacts are mitigated) need to be institutionalized. Thus trade-offs have to be made between the security offered by dams, which increase water storage capacity to manage low flows and floods, and the impact of construction on people living in the project area. While the societal benefit from increased storage is huge, the impact in terms of livelihoods and social structures can be devastating. There are also trade-offs between different uses; in many countries the needs of farmers and hydropower generators are not aligned and assuring security of water supply to urban residents may reduce power generation income. Devising mechanisms to determine who should get what share in times of plenty and in times of scarcity is at its root a political issue which requires robust institutions to achieve outcomes that are accepted by all those involved. And, as the demand for water grows and reaches the limits that can be provided, there are decisions to be made about the balance between the protection of the natural environment of which water forms part and the requirements of social and economic activity. While the decisions themselves will reflect domestic political processes, water management institutions must help to frame and facilitate them. Actions will need to take place at all levels (projects, villages, economy-wide, global) At the project level, water investments should be designed for resilience to climate change. At the village level, interventions should seek to diminish

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social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities to climate. Economy-wide planning should take into account climate shifts and the implications this might have for specific sectors or spatial areas. Globally, promotion of trade in water intensive products (virtual water trade) and targeted technology transfers could promote adaptation. The impacts of variability, aggravated by climate change, are felt at different levels and have to be addressed at all levels. Individual farmers have to take decisions – and need information to do so. Power companies need to know where their supplies are likely to come from and plan accordingly. And urban residents need to know that reliable water supplies for domestic and commercial purposes will be maintained. Ideally, decision-making processes will be 'built in' to the institutions that are established to manage water. Actions will need guidance by science and best practices from both water and climate fields while many of the responses to water management challenges are as old as civilization, new circumstances create many opportunities – and many needs – for innovation and fresh thinking. In many regions, rainfall and river flows are already extremely variable in both timing and amount, and it has been suggested that climate change will simply mean 'more of the same' variability. To some extent this is correct. Variability is the stock in trade of hydrologists and water engineers who use well understood statistical techniques to estimate the variability of rainfall and stream flow. This is then applied to the design of infrastructure such as storage dams, flood protection dykes and even the culverts which ensure that roads are not washed away. The future may not however be amenable to being predicted in the same way. Practitioners and publics alike will need to have access to the best possible information as well as to different approaches taken in different communities to ensure that they choose the most appropriate alternatives and are not trapped by their pasts into a dead-end future. In particular, it will be important to improve access to climate information and to develop stronger linkages with climate scientists, in order to take on board the significant recent improvement in the science community's ability to predict, with some degree of accuracy, climate variability at seasonal and inter-annual scales (Kabat et al, 2002). Incorporating this information effectively as part of water resource management could be a crucial tool for coping more

effectively with climate variability and building capacity for adapting to climate change. Actions must balance software (intelligent and robust institutions) and hardware (adequate infrastructure) An important element of the approaches to water resource management that have evolved over the past few decades has been the recognition that engineering solutions, while vitally important and an integral part of any future approach, will not by themselves solve the world's water problems. There is a range of social, economic and political challenges that have to be addressed and a variety of 'soft' institutional instruments that can be deployed to complement 'hard' infrastructural solutions. The art is in finding the right balance. 'Hard' Options One way to manage the impacts of climate variability on water resources is through 'hard options' to capture and control river flows. Storage dams are built to retain and store flows that are in excess of user requirements and to release them during periods when low flows are not sufficient to meet user needs, a practice that can also serve to maintain aquatic ecosystems. Alternatively, during floods, peak flows can be stored for later release, avoiding flood damage by reducing maximum flows. Both functions are important to sustain urban settlements and to avert disasters caused by floods and droughts. Dams also harness water as a form of potential energy to generate electricity, without which healthy urban life is difficult to sustain as settlements increase in site. Nineteen per cent of the world's electricity is currently generated from hydropower and there is substantial potential to expand this, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. A specific benefit of hydropower is that it does not usually generate significant quantities of greenhouse gases and thus allows economic and social development to occur without aggravating global warming. Other important waterworks include canals, tunnels and pipelines, which not only supply human demands directly but, less obviously, create linked systems that, by virtue of their multiple sources, suffer less variability and therefore offer enhanced supply security. Equally, wastewater disposal and storm water drainage systems contribute to the ability of communities to maintain their activities and protect public health. 'Soft' Options the armoury available to water managers for addressing variability and extreme events is not restricted to infrastructural means. As

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important are the institutional mechanisms that help deal with climate variability and achieve goals such as water supply for people, industries and farms, flood protection and ecosystem maintenance. These 'soft' tools manage demand as well as increase supply, through water allocation, conservation, efficiency, and land use planning. These soft tools are often cheaper, and may be more effective, than their infrastructural equivalents and can certainly complement infrastructure to ensure that it works effectively. Thus, in addressing potential water shortages, as much attention should be given to managing demand as to increasing supply, by introducing more efficient technologies as well as simply promoting a culture of conservation. This will be particularly important in areas where overall water availability declines. In many countries, this is already done in a rudimentary way. Targeted technical interventions such as leak reduction programmes in municipal distribution networks can not only pay for themselves through water savings but provide direct energy savings, which help to mitigate climate change. Demand management to encourage efficient use also has huge potential. Well-off households can substantially reduce their consumption and farmers can usually get far more 'crop per drop'; industrialists often achieve more production per unit water when put under regulatory pressure and can also locate water intensive processes in areas where water is plentiful. Incentives for water users to exchange their current water allocations, either through administrative systems or 'trading', can help to achieve more efficient water use, although the social impacts need to be carefully managed. At a larger scale, the global trade system has a substantial impact – positive and negative - on water use, which needs to be understood and engaged. In this context, the promotion of biofuels as a source of energy could greatly aggravate the challenges of water scarcity if not carefully planned and regulated. Beyond direct water management, institutional instruments such as land use planning can substantially reduce the vulnerability of communities to water based natural disasters if they are informed by reliable flood data. Thus resilience against floods can be achieved by building protective infrastructure or through planning which restricts settlement in vulnerable areas. This demonstrates that there is often a choice from a suite of hard and soft instruments that can be applied to enhance resilience.

Urban planning can also contribute in other ways. Although rapid urbanization is often perceived as an environmental problem, it also brings environmental benefits. One of these is that household water demand is usually less in dense urban areas than in more thinly populated areas, for obvious reasons. Planning and building compact cities may indeed prove to be one of the more effective ways of curbing domestic use of water. In all this, it is important to recognize that many of these challenges are not new and are certainly not the product of climate change alone (Millington et al., 2005). Thus, aside from urbanization, the changing lifestyles and dietary patterns associated with growing affluence in countries like China and India will, arguably, have an even greater and more immediate impact on the water environment. This is why it is important to address the impact of climate change on water resources as part of a broader programme of better water management. Mixing 'Hard' and 'Soft' in virtually all circumstances, water security will require a mix of investments in both hard (infrastructure) and soft (institutions) options. The right mix will be a function of many hydrological, economic, socio-political and environmental factors. Historically, when stocks of hydraulic infrastructure are low, investment in infrastructure have provided relatively higher returns. Investment in management capacity, and infrastructure operations and institutions become increasingly important as larger and more sophisticated infrastructure stocks are built (Grey and Sad off, 2006)

Stage of Development DevelopedThe increased intensity of extreme flood and drought events suggests that climate change will enhance returns to infrastructure investments that allow water managers to control, store and deliver water under more variable conditions. On the other hand increasing variability and hydrological uncertainty suggest that the value of information and flexible, adaptive management institutions will be significantly enhanced. The right balance will be driven by specific circumstances, but returns to investments in both can be anticipated to rise. In the countries most threatened by climate change, particular attention will have to be given to ensuring that the voices of the poorer and more marginalized communities are heard since they will usually be the group most at risk, whether from hunger due to drought and crop failure or from the impact of

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floods and related disasters, which usually have their greatest impact along the river banks and ravines of crowded cities where the poor are more likely to live.

What's new in all of this for water resources management?Climate change is going to require a re-examination of current approaches in water management, as well as in the design of many components of urban settlements and economic and social infrastructure generally. In this context, lessons from the past and from areas that currently suffer from extreme conditions may be valuable. While water management is always driven by local contexts, there are several areas of effort that will clearly require renewed and increasing attention in all countries. Disaster risk management Intelligent and adaptive responses will depend on a systematic understanding of the potential risks and impacts of climate change and their application to specific situations. In this area, the expertise of hydrologists and engineers will need to be brought more closely together with that of risk managers in the insurance industry, disaster management specialists and regional planners. While this has begun to happen in some areas, countries and specialized agencies will need to promote such interaction in a systematic manner with the aim of identifying new and changing risks, prioritizing them in terms of likely impact and occurrence, and devising strategies to reduce them. A special case of the institutional challenge is the integration of disaster management systems with the broader institutions of water management. Much knowledge about managing extremes already resides in specialized disaster management institutions. The challenge is to extract this wisdom about dealing with extreme events and apply it more generally, on the assumption that once rare events will occur more frequently. In this process, it will be recognized that many of the challenges are social as well as technical and institutional. Politicians need to be convinced of the nature of future problems before they are willing to devote time and resources to them. Behaviours need to be modified at community level if risks that have been identified are to be averted. Recent experience in the management of severe flood events has highlighted that the pre-emptive engagement of disaster management works before an extreme event, to ensure that communities are informed about risks and aware of how to respond to extreme events, has proved to be

the difference between the loss of property and infrastructure only and the loss of lives.

CONCLUSION

Water resources management is becoming increasingly complex as the water sector has to reconcile rising demand, ever-increasing competition and interdependencies between stakeholders. In this context, agriculture faces the challenges of securing a share of water resources that is sufficient to feed a growing world population and of managing the impacts of its activities on the resource base. It has to meet these challenges in an institutional set-up that is in a state of flux, recognizing the limits of centralized technocratic planning. Today, raising capacity in water resources management entails supporting stakeholders and decision-makers to reach a common understanding on the priorities and necessary arrangements for sharing and allocating water-related goods and services. Valuation is central to this process. Setting priorities and making choices implies valuing certain uses and arrangements above others. Water valuation can help stakeholders to express the values that water-related goods and services represent to them. It also offers a means for conflict resolution and planning, informing stakeholders, supporting communication, and facilitating joint decision-making on priorities and specific actions. This report confronts concepts from the literature on water valuation with practical experiences from three local cases where an effort was made to embed existing valuation tools and methods in ongoing water resources management processes. It uses the lessons from this exploration to provide a first outline for a stakeholder-oriented water valuation process. This is expected to provide a useful starting point to help water professionals and policy-makers improve the use of water valuation as a means to support participatory processes of water resources management.

REFERENCES

Cap-Net. 2005. Integrated water resources management plans. Training manual and operational guide. Cap-Net, GWP and UNDP.

Dyson, M., Bergkamp, G. & Scanlon, J., (Ed). (2003). Flow. The essentials of environmental flows. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK, IUCN.

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Emerton, L. & Bos, E. (2004). Value. Counting ecosystems as water infrastructure. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN.

FAO/Netherlands. (2005). Report of the Conference on Water for Food and Ecosystems. The Hague, 31 January - 4 February, 2005 (available at http://www.fao.org).

Millington, P., Olson, D. and McMillan, S. (2005), Integrated River Basin Management from Concept to

Good Practice, Briefing Note, Bank-Netherlands Water Partnership Program (BNWPP), Netherlands.

Mchibwa,F, Jaspers F, van der Zaag P. (2008), From Towards Integrated Water Resources Management Reforms to Implementation: The Paradox of Financial Sustainability in River Basin Organizations in Developing Countries, Paper presented at Stockholm Water Week (2007), Stockholm.

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Species Composition and Seasonal Variation of the Family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) in Doon Valley, Uttarakhand, India

RASHMI NAUTIYAL AND SUDHIR SINGH

Forest Entomology Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (Uttarakhand)

Received: 01 August 2016 Revision: 27 August 2016 Accepted: 15 September 2016

ABSTRACT

The study deals with population composition and seasonal variation of the family Encyrtidae (Chalcidoidea) in forest ecosystem of Doon valley. To examine the diversity and seasonal variations the five season's data (spring, summer cum pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon, winter) were collected from March 2008 to February 2011 using yellow pan trap method. A total of 118 species of Encyrtidae were recorded, Subfamily Encyrtinae had maximum number of 28 genera and 89 species followed by the subfamily Tetracneminae with 8 genera and 29 species. Maximum diversity in Encyrtidae was observed during the post monsoon followed by spring in year 2008, while comparative low diversity was observed during monsoon 2009 and summer 2008. When species richness by subfamily in each season was considered, Encyrtinae attained maximum species richness with 35 species during the post monsoon. The result indicates that Neodusmetia sangwani with 113 individuals had maximum number of individuals in three years.

Key words: Encyrtidae, Chalcidoidea, Yellow pan, Encyrtinae, Tetracneminae, Neodusmetia sangwani.

INTRODUCTION

The Doon valley lies between two intermittent ranges of the Himalayas. It is bounded in the North by lesser Himalaya and in the South by Siwalik, in the North West by river Yamuna and in the South West by the river Ganga. Doon valley covers an area of approximately 815 sq. km and is bounded by latitude 30° 15′ to 30° 30′ N and longitude 77° 40′ to 78° 00′ E. The study area has about 51-58% of its geographical area under forest cover (FSI, 1995). The rich vegetation cover is predominant in foothills of the Shiwaliks and the parts of the southern slope of the Mussoorie hill. The lowest slopes of the Shiwaliks, where there is a large proportion of clay and better drainage, provide the best soil for the growth of Shorea robusta (Sal) trees the predominant forest species in the area. Sal and its associates, forming the northern tropical moist and dry deciduous communities, occur throughout the Shivaliks across large tracts of the valley and also along the lower foothills of the

Himalayas. It has mean annual temperature of 24 C. The greatest temperature fluctuation during the winters (November-February) range from -1° C (min) to 20° C followed by short spring and summer with temperatures ranging from 20° C (min) to 44° C (max). Encyrtids are minute parasitic hymenopterans that belong to superfamily Chalcidoidea, they are natural enemies of different insect species, mostly phytophagous insects. Collection of Encyrtidae and their seasonal trends have been recorded for three years and the results are presented in this paper


To understand the species composition and seasonal

variation, the Encyrtidae were collected from March

2008 to February 2011 in Doon valley and adjoining

hills. Different sites were selected in such a way that

whole of the valley is covered. Therefore, after

undertaking preliminary surveys to know the nature of

vegetation and terrain of the valley following ten sites

°

Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]


Review Article

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were selected: Barkot, Jhajra, Kalsi, Karvapani,

Lachiwala, Langa, Muni ke Reti (Rishikesh), New

Forest, Thano and Timli. Extensive random collections

were made from forest area with yellow pan trap

method. Thirty flat rectangular plastic trays, of size 24

x 29cm and 6-7cm deep, were used at each location.

Traps were half filled with water containing a few

drops of detergent (“Ezee”) to reduce the surface

tension of the water. These trays were laid on an

average for 8 hours (from 9am -5pm) for a day. These

trays were placed in open places among thick

vegetation or grasses at a distance of 15 – 20 m apart

from each other. Effective collecting area of each 2 2yellow pan was about 700 cm (696 cm precisely). All

together 30 yellow pans were used during the

sampling, therefore, collective collection area of 30 2yellow pans, comprising a sample was 2.088m .

Specimens collected were thoroughly washed in clean,

fresh -water to remove added detergent. The field

collected specimens were stored in 80% ethanol in

glass vials and kept in a cool dark place in refrigerator.

Collected specimens after drying and card mounting

were identified with the help of Hayat (2006) and other

original literature by various Encyrtidae taxonomists.

Only female specimens were identified upto species

level and males were only up to genus level and their

individual count is given. Classification adopted here

is based on Trjapitzin (1973a, b).

Surveys were conducted during five distinct seasons viz. Spring: March –April; Summer: May – June; Monsoon: July- August; Post monsoon: September- October and Winter: November-February for whole three years. A data matrix was constructed for every year which recorded the species and their abundance in each season. Seasonal variation in the abundance of Encyrtidae was calculated using the Shannon –Weiner formula (H), (1963). This is obtained as follows,

NH = å Pi log Pii=1Where H = species diversity indexPi = the proportion of individuals in the ith speciesN= total number of speciesi = species 1, 2, 3... N

RESULTS

Altogether 118 species of Encyrtidae belonging to 2 subfamilies were recorded. Subfamily Encyrtinae had maximum number of 28 genera and 89 species followed by the subfamily Tetracneminae with 8 genera and 29 species (Table 1).

The values of the index calculated by the Shannon- Weiner equation are depicted in fig 1. Maximum diversity was observed during the post monsoon followed by spring in year 2008, while comparative low diversity was observed during monsoon 2009 and summer 2008. Winter 2008, spring and monsoon 2010 seasons showed equal species diversity. The number of Encyrtidae species varied with the seasons (Table.1). The maximum number of Encyrtidae species was observed during post monsoon followed by spring season. Reduction in species richness was observed during monsoon and summer seasons.

When species richness by subfamily in each season was considered (Fig. 2), Encyrtinae attained maximum species richness with 35 species during the post monsoon and decrease with 12 species during summer season. There was only slight seasonal variation in species richness in the case of Tetracneminae. Species richness had maximum with 12 species during spring season, whereas showed reduction with 4 species during summer.

In case of Encyrtinae when number of individuals in total seasons was considered, Copidosoma floridanum attained maximum value with 41 individuals followed by Cheiloneurus bangalorensis with 23 individuals; whereas in case of Tetracneminae number of individuals was higher for Neodusmetia sangwani with 113 individuals followed by Rhopus sp-8 (Male) with 11 individuals.

DISCUSSION

Kazmi et al. (2014) reported 28 genera with 40 species from the Uttarakhand. Present study provides interesting information to understand the diversity and seasonal variations of family Encyrtidae in Valley. Many species showing good no of availability in all the seasons which help to understand their potentiality for the biocontrol programme in the future. This study also explores and enriches the diversity of Encyrtidae from the state.

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RASHMI NAUTIYAL AND SUDHIR SINGH 159International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

Table 1: Seasonal distribution of Encyrtidae recorded from Doon valley with yellow pan trap.

S. No Species Spg Sum Mon PMon Win

SUB-FAMILY ENCYRTINAE

1 Acerophagus sp 0 0 3 0 0

2 Adelencyrtus mayurai 2 0 0 0 0

3 Agarwalencyrtus citri 0 0 0 2 0

4 Anomalicornia tenuicornis 0 0 0 0 1

5 Apoleptomastix bicoloricornis 5 0 2 0 1

6 Apoleptomastix sp-1(Male) 9 0 1 0 0

7 Cerchysiella kamathi 0 0 0 0 1

8 Cheiloneurus bangalorensis 15 2 0 6 0

9 C. flaccus 0 0 0 1 0

10 C. quadricolor 2 3 0 1 0

11 C. sp-1 0 0 0 2 0

12 C. sp-2 0 1 0 0 0

13 C. sp-1 (Male) 1 0 3 0 0

14 C. sp-2 (Male) 0 0 0 14 0

15 C. sp-3 (Male) 0 1 0 0 0

16 C sp-4 (Male) 0 0 0 1 0

17 C sp-5 (Male) 3 2 0 0 0

18 Comperiella indica 0 0 0 0 1

19 Copidosoma bouceki 0 0 0 3 0

20 C. floridanum 7 1 8 18 7

21 C. gracilis 2 0 3 1 0

22 C. indicum 1 0 1 9 0

23 C.sp-1(Male) 3 0 0 4 22

24 C. sp-2 (Male) 2 0 0 0 39

25 C. sp-3(Male) 0 0 0 4 0

26 C.sp-4 (Male) 3 0 0 0 3

27 C. transversum 0 0 1 1 0

28 C. varicorne 0 1 0 0 0

29 Diversinervus elegans 0 0 0 0 1

30 Homalotylus albiclavatus 0 0 0 4 0

31 Lakshaphagus indicus sp. nov. 0 0 0 0 1

32 Lamennaisia ambiguua 0 0 0 3 7

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160 JULY-DECEMBER 2016Species Composition and Sesonal Variation.....

Contd. from previous page.....


33 Mahencyrtus sp-1 (Male) 0 0 1 0 0

34 Meniscocephalus sp-1 (Male) 0 3 0 0 0

35 Metaphycus sp-1 1 0 0 0 0

36 M. sp-1(Male) 0 0 0 1 0

37 M. sp-10 0 0 0 0 4

38 M. sp-11 0 0 0 0 2

39 M.sp-12 3 0 0 0 0

40 M. sp-13 0 0 0 0 1

41 M. sp-14 0 0 0 0 6

42 M. sp-15 0 0 0 0 1

43 M.sp-2 0 0 6 0 0

44 M. sp-2 (Male) 0 0 3 0 0

45 M. sp-3 3 0 0 0 0

46 M. sp-3 (Male) 2 0 0 0 0

47 M. sp-4 0 0 1 2 0

48 M. sp-6 0 0 0 3 0

49 M. sp-6 (Male) 0 0 2 0 0

50 M.sp-7 0 0 0 1 0

51 M.sp-8 0 0 0 0 6

52 M. sp-8 (Male) 0 0 0 0 1

53 M. sp-9 0 0 0 1 1

54 Ooencyrtus aethes 0 0 0 1 0

55 O. agastus 0 0 1 0 1

56 O .guamensis 0 0 0 1 0

57 O. lucina 0 0 0 0 4

58 O. papilionis 3 1 0 1 0

59 O. segestes 2 1 1 1 0

60 O. sp-1 0 0 0 1 0

61 O. sp-2 (Male) 0 0 1 0 0

62 O. sp-3 (Male) 0 1 0 0 0

63 O. utetheisae 0 0 0 5 1

64 Parablatticida aligarhensis 0 0 0 8 0

65 P. brevicornis 6 0 4 0 0

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66 P. citri 1 0 0 0 1

67 Plagiomerus bangloriensis 1 0 0 0 1

68 Prochiloneurus albifuniculus 3 0 0 0 3

69 Proleurocerus litoralis 0 3 0 0 0

70 Psyllaephagus sp-1 0 0 0 0 1

71 Psyllaephagus macrohomotomae 1 0 0 0 0

72 Rhythidothorax nigrum 1 0 0 0 0

73 R. callistus 0 0 1 0 0

74 R. horticola 0 0 4 6 0

75 Saucrencyrtus insulanus 0 0 1 0 0

76 Syrophophagus sp-1 0 0 0 2 0

77 S. sp-3 2 0 0 0 0

78 S. (Male ) 0 0 0 0 2

79 S. hakki 1 0 0 2 0

80 S. hofferi 0 0 0 2 0

81 S. calunica 0 0 0 1 0

82 Trechnites albipodus 0 0 0 2 0

83 T. manaliensis 2 0 0 0 0

84 T. sp-1 1 0 0 0 0

85 T. sp-1 (Male) 0 0 1 0 1

86 T. sp-2 (Male) 2 0 0 0 0

87 T. sp-3 (Male) 2 0 0 0 0

88 T. sp-4 (Male) 3 0 0 0 0

89 Tyndarichus melanacis 0 0 0 1 0

Diversity indices for Encyrtinae

Taxa_S 32 12 21 35 28

Individuals 95 20 49 116 121

Dominance_D 0.06 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.15

Simpson_1-D 0.94 0.9 0.92 0.93 0.85

Shannon_H 3.15 2.36 2.78 3.11 2.48

Sub-Family Tetracneminae

1 Anagyrus discolor 4 1 0 3 0

2 A.gracilis 0 0 2 0 0

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3 A.obodas 0 0 3 0 0

4 A. ranchiensis 0 4 0 0 0

5 A.sp- 8 (Male) 0 1 0 0 0

6 A.sp-1 0 2 0 0 0

7 A. sp-4 (Male) 0 1 0 0 0

8 A. sp-7(Male) 0 2 0 0 0

9 A.sp-8 (Male) 1 0 0 0 0

10 A. subflaviceps 2 0 1 0 0

11 A. tricolor 0 0 0 1 0

12 Charitopus sp-1 (Male) 0 1 0 0 0

13 Dusmetia sp-2 (Male) 0 0 1 0 0

14 Gyranusoidea indica 1 0 0 1 6

15 Gyranusoidea sp-2 0 1 0 0 0

16 Leptomastix dactylopii 0 0 0 2 0

17 Leptomastix longicornis 9 0 0 0 1

18 L.sp-2 (Male) 1 0 0 0 0

19 Manicnemus sp-1 (Male) 3 0 1 0 0

20 Neodusmetia sangwani 13 44 37 14 5

21 Rhopus atys 1 0 0 0 0

22 R. nigriclavus 0 3 0 0 0

23 R. sp-1 0 0 0 1 0

24 R. sp-2 (Male) 0 0 0 2 0

25 R. sp-3 0 0 0 0 1

26 R. sp-4 (Male) 1 0 0 0 0

27 R. sp-5 (Male) 2 0 0 0 0

28 R. sp-6 (Male) 0 4 1 0 0

29 R. sp-8 (Male) 11 0 0 0 0

Diversity indices for Tetracneminae

Taxa_S 12 11 7 7 4

Individuals 49 64 46 24 13

Dominance_D 0.17 0.49 0.66 0.38 0.37

Simpson_1-D 0.83 0.51 0.35 0.63 0.63

Shannon_H 2.03 1.29 0.82 1.39 1.12

Mon.=Monsoon, PMon.=Post Monsoon, Spg.=Spring, Sum=Summer, Win.=Winter

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164

Fig.1: Seasonal variations in encyrtid species diversity index (collected by yellow pan trap, in forest habitat) calculated by Shannon- Weiner formula.

Fig. 2: Species Richness of Tetracneminae and Encyrtinae across five seasons (Spring, Summer, Monsoon, Post monsoon and Winter) in forest habitat using yellow pan trap method.


Kazmi, S. I. and Girish Kumar, P. 2014. A Checklist of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Dehradun, Uttarakhand (India). PROMMALIA, II: 63–91.

Shannon, C.E and W. Wiener, 1963. The Mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois Press, Urbana. 117.

Trjapitzin, V. A. 1973a. The classification of the parasitic Hymenoptera of the family Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea). Part I. Survey of the system of classification. The subfamily Tetracneminae Howard, 1892. Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie, 52: 163175. [In Russian] .

Trjapitzin, V. A. 1973b. Classification of the parasitic Hymenoptera of the family Encyrtidae (Chalcidoidea). Part II. Subfamily Encyrtinae Walker, 1837. Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie 52(2): 416-429.

CONCLUSION

One hundred eighteen species of Encyrtidae were recorded from the Doon valley which also extends their diversity in the state. Cheiloneurus bangalorensis is most abundant in spring, Copidosoma sp-2 (Male) in winter, Neodusmetia sangwani in summer and monsoon and C. floridanum in post monsoon season.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Authors are thankful to Dr Savita, Director, Forest Research Institute for providing the necessary facilities.

REFERENCE

FSI, 1995. The State of Forest Report. Forest Survey of India, Kaulagarh Road, Dehra Dun.

Hayat, M. 2006. Indian Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). viii+496pp M. Hayat, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, India

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An Appraisal on the Defilement of Ganga Stream in Uttar Pradesh Stretch – Ganga Water Pollution

ADITI TIWARI* AND SHUBHAM BAJPAI

Bhargav Agricultural Laboratory, Department of Botany University of Allahabad, Allahabad-211002, Uttar Pradesh, India

Received: 19 September 2016 Revision: 25 October 2016 Accepted: 10 November 2016

ABSTRACT

The River Ganges which runs approximately 2525 kilometers in India is plagued with overburden of population and the pollution resulted by it. Ganga is important not only for its cultural and spiritual significance but also because it hosts more than 40% of the country's population. The water quality of river Ganga is constantly deteriorating in the Uttar Pradesh stretch due to considerable population and its anthropogenic activities (increasing industrial and domestic corridor; discharge of waste water effluents; use of excessive fertilizers in agriculture). River Ganga is under unremitting strain due to relentless increasing pollution loads because of demanding population, rapid urbanization, and large scale industrialization.

This paper has composed a scientific literature survey on the major causes and sources of water pollution of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh. In addition the review has compiled the empirical data and information reflecting different sources of Water Pollution and also revealing water quality status of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh. An outline of the outcomes of strategies followed to trounce pollution of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh is also incorporated.

Key words: : River Ganga, water pollution, Sources of pollution, Physico -chemical properties, Ganga Action Plan, Uttar Pradesh.

INTRODUCTION

Water is termed as 'Natural liquid Gold' because without water life cannot retain itself on Earth. Water is a most essential and vital resource for all living being. Excessive human pressures are causing stress and hardship in surface water sources like rivers as these are subjected to colossal pollution constituted of organic and inorganic constituents. The river Ganges; considered holiest among Hindus in Gangetic plains of Northern India has originated from Bhagirathi. It's origin is Gaumukh situated at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,770 feet). It flows about 2,525 km generally eastward through a vast plain to the Bay of Bengal (CPCB, 2013). The main townships of Uttar Pradesh falling at bank of Ganga river are Garhmukteshwar, Narora, Kannauj, Kanpur, Dalmau, Allahabad, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Ballia and

river flows through Uttar Pradesh with total length of approximately 1000kms (CPCB, 2013).

The water quality of river Ganga is constantly deteriorating in these regions due to anthropogenic activities (increasing industrial and domestic corridor; discharge of waste water effluents; use of excessive fertilizers in agriculture). River Ganga is under unremitting pressure due to incessant increasing pollution loads because of demand of population growth, rapid urbanization, and large scale industrialization. The pollutants are harmful to environment as these could exhibit toxic effects on aquatic life and the public health.

The study has drawn rigorous reviews of empirical evidence on the river pollution causes of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh with the meticulous survey on the existing scientific literature.



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Background of the Study:

1. To identify the causes and sources of water pollution of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh.

2. To collect the analyzed data and information regarding water quality status of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh.

3. Drawn an outline of the outcomes of strategies followed to trounce pollution of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh.

This knowledge is significant in order to know the accurate situation of river Ganga for upgrading the precautionary measures.

GANGA WATER QUALITY CONDITION IN UTTAR STRETCHSaxena et al. (1966) studied on the chemical measure of pollution load of river Ganga in Kanpur and gave a conclusion that main increase in the pollution load of the river was due to discharge of heavy organic waste and heavy metals in the industrial waste of tanneries in Kanpur. Muller et al. (2002) studied six urban centres of the Ganga Plain and found the contribution of anthropogenic source in metals concentrations were 59% Cr, 49% Cu, 52% Zn, 51% Pb and 77% Cd and also divulged that urban centres act as sources of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd and cause metallic sediment pollution in rivers of the Ganga Plain. Beg and Ali (2008) examined various trace metals in river Ganga at Kanpur and found the increase in concentration ranged from 1.5- to 2-fold for most of the metals ( Cd, Cr, Cu,Fe,Mn,Ni, V, Zn) and Cr which showed a vivid increase in concentration in sediment from downstream area. The accumulation of Cr in sediment at Jajmau area was ( 5 mg/kg upstream to 147 mg/kg downstream) 30-fold higher than in sediment from upstream Bithoor area.

Ganga river water color curved to brown black from Narora to Varanasi with its centre at Kanpur. Bhatnagar et al. (2013). found higher levels of alkalinity, BOD, COD, TS, TSS, magnesium, phosphate, nitrate, fluoride, phenol, oil and grease than the permissible limit in the sediments of river Ganga at Jajmau area of Kanpur. Khwaja et al. (2001) evaluated upstream and downstream water and sediments and bared 10 folds increase in Chromium level in sediments at downstream Jajmau area at

Kanpur. Pandey et al. (2014) calculated correlation between interrelated water quality parameters and concluded high pollution in river Ganga water and also analyzed the order of heavy metals accumulation in the Ganga river was Fe>Zn>Cr>Co at Phaphamau site of Allahabad. Raghuvanshi et al. (2014) estimated physic-chemical parameters above the WHO and USPHS standards and discovered that water of study area (Rasoolabad ghat to Chatnag ghat) in year 2012-2013 at Allahabad is polluted and may be harmfu l for aquatic bio system and human beings. Singh et al. (2015) evaluated water quality of river Ganga during mass bathing at Allahabad and found increase in water pollution levels of the Ganga at Daraganj and Ramghat as these sites were most frequently used by the pilgrims. According to (CPCB, 2013) 33 drains were found with high BOD that flow into the river and about 3,000 MLD of domestic wastewater is discharged into the river in Kanpur-Varanasi stretch. CPCB (2013) declared the level of BOD an indicator of organic pollution is largely beyond the criteria in the stretch that spans from Kannauj to Tarighat. Faecal Coliform value ranges from 70-93000 MPN/100ml and is not suitable for bathing at from Kannauj (Upstream to Downstream) Kanpur. Pandey et al. (2010) investigated the data that exposed that the mid-stream water of the river Ganga at Varanasi is extremely contaminated by heavy metals and recommended that the use of such water for drinking may lead to latent health risk in long run.

SOURCES OF POLLUTIONUttar Pradesh is heavily populated belt of River Ganga, freshwater intake from the river is escalating, and water is drawn for agriculture, industry and domestic purposes both in villages and cities on the river banks. But what revisits the river is only waste.

The river Ganga in India is one of the most sanctified and revered rivers of the world by Hindus. The most ethnically noteworthy hotspot of the river in Uttar Pradesh are at Allahabad, Varanasi, and Vindhyachal, where according to Hindu folklore it is said to have tumble down from the heavens.

An assessment of water quality of River Ganga at Allahabad Shrivastava et al. (1996) concluded that mass bathing causes considerable alteration ( in terms of accumulation of contaminants) in river water quality.

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ADITI TIWARI AND SHUBHAM BAJPAI 167International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

In Uttar Pradesh, the plain stretch of the river, during summers and winters the river stops flowing, but the wastewater flow does not fade and in turn river transform into a sewer.

(CPCB, 2013) states that Uttar Pradesh has seven cities that produce 873.9 MLD which is 34 % of total wastewater generation, whereas the state has treatment capacity of 53 % of total wastewater generation.

In Uttar Pradesh 8 number of STPs was monitored by CPCB (2013) and they found that 287 MLD is utilized out of total installed capacity 358 MLD. This shows that there is a huge gap between the sewage Generation and Treatment capacity of sewage Treatment Plants in Uttar Pradesh. With respect to Uttar Pradesh chief urban centres engendering bounteous volume of sewage are Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. The significant projects such as irrigation project near Bijnore with canal system called Middle Ganga Canal having a capacity of 10,260 cusec; the Narora barrage for the water supply to Atomic Power Plant and from this barrage; a parallel canal system of 4600 cusec added later by the state of UP. These three irrigation canal systems deflect fresh water from the river for irrigation which impinge on the flows downstream of Narora predominantly up to Allahabad and contribute in contamination as during summer and winter seasons the stretch remains dry and the inevitable addition of inoperable water dumped into the river which requires volume of fresh water for dilution (CPCB, 2013).

The river Ganga acquired extreme pollution due to human intrusion by the means of disposal of waste, especially the effluents from industries. Industrial effluents modify the physical, chemical and biological nature of receiving water body.

According to CPCB (2013) 594 industries are located in the focal stalk of Ganga River, out of which 442 industries are tannery, although tanneries are higher in number but discharge less volume of wastewater, whereas, maximum volume of wastewater is impending from sugar industry i .e , 85.7 MLD.Pollution is thriving exponentially in Kanpur-Varanasi stretch, 3,000 MLD of domestic wastewater is released into the river. The wastewater drain from Sisamu nallah (BOD load 5,44,980 kg/day) at Kanpur, Pandu river (BOD load 34,900 kg/day), Rasulabad

(BOD load 20,264 kg/day) at Allahabad and Varuna/Khandwa (BOD load 3776 kg/day) drains at Varanasi is significantly contaminating the stream (CPCB, 2013).

BOD load is an indicator of the pollution and found worst at Kanpur. In this stretch, 10 drains release 20 per cent of the wastewater but account for 86 per cent of the BOD load of the stretch (CSE 2014).

SOME IMPERATIVE SCUTINIZED PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS AT DIFFERENT SITES OF RIVER WATER GANGA IN UTTAR PRADESH STRECH Capacious research on deviation of physicochemical parameters have been done till now and a series of research papers publishing the outcome of studies conceded on river Ganga water pollution was assessed. CPCB (2013) assessed the water quality of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh stretch and depicted DO mean value (6.9 mg/l) at Kanpur Downstream was not up to the standards. BOD Values were exceeding the water quality criteria recommended for bathing at Kannauj downstream, Mirjapur Downstream, Allahabad (Sangam)and Varanasi during some periods of the Year.

According to CPCB (2013) Physico - Chemical Parameters do not comply with the standards and water of river Ganga In Uttar Pradesh Stretch is highly polluted.

WATER TEMPERATURE Water temperature is the noteworthy parameter which persuades the biota in a water body by affecting their behaviour, respiration and metabolism, physiology and distribution. Arya and Gupta (2013) estimated average value of temperature at ten study sites of Kanpur were ranged between 18.75±0.95 (January) to 29.35±1.02 (May) and also concluded temperature as negatively correlated with DO and positively correlated with turbidity, BOD and COD site (Siddhinath Ghat). Khan and Nath (2014) recorded water temperature is recorded lower (22.1oC) on 01St Feb at Ghore Shaheed due to winter and higher (30.0oC) on 30th April at Ghore Shaheed (Mirzapur) during summer. And also concluded that in polluted water, temperature can have intense effect on Dissolved oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen

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168 JANUARY-JUNE 2016An Appraisal on the Defilement of Ganga Stream......

minimum DO value (6.00)in river Ganga water sample at Ghore Shaheed (Mirzapur) and this low DO indicates organic pollution load in river.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMANDCOD is an oxygen demand to decompose the biodegradable as well as non biodegradable organic waste in water by means of potassium dichromate under reflux conditions. Arya and Gupta (2013) observed the average values of COD 83.0 mg/l in month of April at study site (Jajmau) Kanpur because of received of huge industrial waste through Jajmau nala. Raghuvanshi et al. (2014) estimated COD 22.5mg/L at Rasolabad Ghat, Allahabad which exceeded the WHO permissible limits.

BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND Biological oxygen Demand is the valuable parameter which measures the oxygen required by microbes during the biochemical degradation and conversion of organic matter present in wastewater under aerobic condition.. BOD has been reasonable evaluation of purity of any water. During the study period Arya and Gupta (2013) noted the average value of BOD 8.0 mg/l in river Ganga water in the month of May at site Dhori Ghat at Kanpur. This increase in BOD is due to increase of the nutrient load in the river by dumping industrial effluent. Khan and Nath (2014) obtained the maximum BOD value 5.80 in river Ganga water sample at Ghore Shaheed (Mirzapur) and concluded the increased BOD values of water due to mounting of organic pollution plus untreated domestic sewage, agricultural runoff, and containing residual fertilizers, which is high on Ghore Shaheed (Mirzapur) site.

Raghuvanshi et al. (2014) estimated BOD 9.41±1.41 mg/L at Rasolabad Ghat, Allahabad which exceeded the permissible limits.

TOTAL HARDNESS Total hardness is a vital parameter of water quality used to illustrate the effect of dissolved mineral (Ca and Mg), determining solubility of water attributed to presence of bicarbonates, sulphate, chloride and nitrates of Calcium and Magnesium. Arya and Gupta (2013). assessed the values of Calcium is 195 mg/l in River Ganga in the month of April at site (Siddhnath Ghat) Kanpur ,this value arose due to

Demand (BOD). Tripathi et al (2014) has recorded water temperature ranged minimum in winter of 20.16±0.5 mg/l and maximum in summer of 31.16±0.46 mg/l and stated that water temperature show high significant positive relationship with salinity, chloride, sulphte, electrical conductivity, alkalinity and pH. whereas positve relationship with turbidity during the physico-chemical analysis of the Ganga river water at Allahabad. Pandey et al. (2014) revealed that the temperature (maximum 30.50C) increases more rapidly in river Ganga at Phaphamau site at Allahabad due to major disposal of untreated sewage and industrial effluents.

pH pH is the amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in water which indicates whether water is acidic or basic. It is an important indicator of the water quality. Zafer and Sultana (2002) analyzed high pH values indicated the alkaline nature of the river Ganga at Kanpur and suggested not to use the water of the river Ganga for drinking purposes unless it is treated. Arya and Gupta (2013) observed increase in pH values up to 9.5 of river Ganga water in month of March at the study site Kanpur and concluded that escalating use of alkaline detergents in residual areas and alkaline material from waste water in industrial areas has made the water extreme alkaline and unhealthy for domestic use . Khan and Nath (2014) recorded the maximum pH value (8.42) at Shivpur and (7.59) recorded at Ghore Shaheed (Gazipur) In River Ganga and gave the conclusion that the decrease in pH values of water recorded indicates increasing of pollution load from upstream to downstream. Pandey et al. (2014) measured higher pH values (8.29) in river Ganga Water at Daraganj Ghat, Allahabad as contrast to WHO standards recommended.

DISSOLVED OXYGENDissolved Oxygen value is a measure of the biological activity of the water loads and is significant in determining the water quality criteria of an aquatic system to attain the routine procedure of water reclamation amenities. Arya and Gupta (2013) evaluated the average values of DO at (Siddhanath Ghat) Kanpur shows minimum concentration 4.2mg/l in month of April because of highly biological oxygen demand owing to high water pollution of tannery industries. Khan and Nath (2014) observed

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pollution while Ministry of Agriculture holds the covering of non point sources of pollution. GAP applied the polluter pays principle to control industrial wastes. GAP also covered very wide and varied activities, landscaped river frontage, built stepped terraces on the sloped river banks for ritualistic mass-bathing, improved sanitation along the river frontage, development of public facilities, improved approach roads and lighting on the river frontage( case study -the Ganga, 1997). The Action Plan worked upon applied research projects and many universities and trustworthy organizations by supporting with grants for projects carrying out studies and clarification which would have a direct posture on the Action Plan. Research projects include land application of untreated sewage for tree plantations, aquaculture for sewage treatment, disinfection of treated sewage by ultra violet radiation, and disinfection of treated sewage by Gamma radiation (case study -the Ganga, 1997). In spite of full to capacity financial support and engendering awareness through rigorous publicity campaign using the press and electronic media, leaflets and hoardings plus organizing public programs for dispersing the message the program got inadequate public impact(case study -The Ganga, 1997).

The major need of Action Plan was to follow these strategies for long term. The effectiveness of plan is questionable as no major improvement is observed in the water quality even after several claims of extensive research and general awareness.

RECOMMENDATIONS

§ The Sugar, Pulp and Paper and Chemical industries sector discharge about 70% of total wastewater generated in the Uttar Pradesh. In addition, leather tanneries at Kanpur have made the water quality of Ganga as the key apprehension in this reach. Thus, there is instant need of firm environment surveillance to verify their acquiescence with environmental standards.

In Uttar Pradesh, system should manage sewage differently as quantum of untreated sewage shattered from cities along the river. So, there is need of treatment of sewage and availability of proper transference system for it.

There is a huge gap between the sewage Generation and Treatment capacity of sewage

§

§

inflow of substantial tannery effluent in the stream. Tripathi et al. (2014) recorded Total hardness values higher in monsoon of 231.3± 3.05 mg/l and lower in summer of 202.6±11.84 mg/l and also concluded that the Total hardness show high significant positive relationship with total solids,nitrate and phosphate whereas high significant negative relationship with pH,DO, BOD,COD, and Transparency.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS Total dissolved solid indicates the inorganic pollution load of water system in industrial effluent. Arya and Gupta (2013) estimated the average values of total dissolved solid ranged between 208.5±103.92mg/l (January) to 367.8±173.63mg/l (April) at all ten sites of Kanpur indicates highly contaminated water. Khan and Nath (2014). recorded the maximum TDS value (382.0) in River Ganga water samples at Ghore Shaheed (Mirzapur) and declared that the largest amount of total solids adds to the highest turbidity and electrical conductivity.

BACTERIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATIOCPCB (2013) revealed that Faecal Coliform Values ranged from 70-93000 MPN/100ml in river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh stretch and estimated Faecal Coliform Values higher at Kannauj (9000 MPN/100ml), Kanpur (93000 MPN/100ml) which do not console the water quality criteria for bathing. Whereas the Total Coliform value ranges 150-240,000 MPN/100ml not meeting the criteria for domestic use at all monitored locations( mentioned in below Table). In the lower stretch of Uttar Pradesh from Dalmau to Trighat., CPCB (2013) attained the Faecal Coliform values range from 40-46000 MPN/100ml in river Ganga water , which were also not meeting the water quality criteria for bathing at all monitoring locations excluding Upstream Vindhyachal.

GANGA ACTION PLANThe Ganga action plan was, commenced in 1986 with the main target of pollution abatement, to improve the water quality by Interception, distraction and management of domestic sewage treatment and present toxic and industrial chemical wastes from identified atrociously polluting units incoming to the river Ganga. GAP identified all possible point and non point sources of pollution and supported centrally invested project funds for overcoming point sources of

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Treatment Plants in Uttar Pradesh which should be abridged to recuperate water quality of river Ganga.

§ The ecological flow of river water should not be interrupted to detrimental level by the Irrigation Projects such as Middle Ganga Canal near Bijnore and Narora barrage, as these obstruct the dilution of contamination during dry seasons in the river Ganga.

The wastewater drain from Sisamu nallah (BOD load 5,44,980 kg/day) at Kanpur, Pandu river (BOD load 34,900 kg/day ), Rasulabad (BOD load 20,264 kg/day) at Allahabad and Varuna/Khandwa (BOD load 3776 kg/day )drains

§

at Varanasi is significantly contaminating the stream. Consequently, it is obligatory that minimum flow should be sustained to hold the eco-system of river and aquatic life (CPCB, 2013).

The relationship between pollution control programs and public participation should be decisive for any effort to renovate the waterfront of the river Ganga.

Religious practices should be lodged within scientific framework of revival management.

Need of hour is to accomplish a tough 'Ganga river Pollution control' action program with long term measures.

§

§

§

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Table 1 : Different Drains discharge wastewater in river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

Point sources Waste water pH COD BOD TDSFlow (MLD)

Dabka Nalla Kanpur 94 7.16 543 168 1540

Shetla Bazar Kanpur 29 9.64 1793 424 5076

Wazidpur Kanpur 54 9.3 2491 843 -

Sisamau Nala Kanpur 197 7.81 7478 2930 644

Permiya Nala Kanpur 186 7.44 93.5 58.3 523

Rasulabad Allahabad 29.8 7.99 1362 680 5132

Nehru Drain Allahabad 7 8.10 17.3 8.65 637

Kodar Drain Allahabad 20 7.63 148 52.4 734

Pongaghat Allahabad 8 7.8 96.9 20.1 678

Solari Drain Allahabad 34.8 8.02 105.8 31.6 770

Maviya Drain Allahabad 65 7.31 104 52 523

Mugalaha Drain Allahabad 46 7.68 33.9 13.2 284

Ghore sheed Drain Mirzapur 86.4 - 110 47.7 -

Rajghat Drain Varanasi 16.19 7.28 100 49.9 454

Nagwa Drain Varanasi 66.45 7.46 156 61.1 608.4

Varuna Drain Varanasi 304.5 7.31 46.2 12.4 552.4


Table 2: Bacteriological contamination of Water of the cities in Uttar Pradesh, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

Fig 2: Graph showing Gap between Sewage generation and Treatment Plant capacity some cities of Uttar Pradesh, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

Cities Garhmuk- Narora Kannauj Kanpur Allahabad Mirzapur Varanasi Ghazipurteshwar

Faecal coliform 2100 610 9000 93000 5000 7000 46000 13000(MPN/100ml)

Total Coliform 4300 1400 49000 240000 14000 17000 70000 21000(MPN/100ml)

Fig 1: River Ganga Stretch in Uttar Pradesh.

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Fig 3: Different categories of industries generating Waste water., Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

Fig 5: BOD Load of Domestic Drain Discharge from different cities in River Ganga, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

Fig 4: Domestic Drain Discharge from different cities in River Ganga, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

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Fig 6: Physico- chemical Parameters of River Water of Ganga in Uttar Pradesh, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

Fig 7 : Faecal Coliform in River Ganga water in Uttar Pradesh stretch, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

Fig 8: Total Coliform in River Ganga water in Uttar Pradesh stretch, Source: CPCB, 2013, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga.

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CONCLUSION

The water quality of Ganga has declined and vilely polluted due to anthropogenic activities in Uttar Pradesh. The manuscript assessed the major causes and sources of water pollution of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh. The studies have concluded that the parameter value of pH, DO, BOD, COD, Total solids, Total hardness and Bacteriological contamination are such that the water is not suitable for drinking, bathing, wildlife, fisheries, recreation and irrigation. Ganga at Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi is in worst condition. The effectiveness of Ganga Action Plan is still questionable. Urgent actions for preserving and refining the water quality are the need of the hour.

REFERENCES

Arya S, Gupta R (2013) Water Quality Evaluation of Ganga River from Up to Downstream Area at Kanpur City. J Chem & Chem Sci 3: 54-63.

Beg K R, Ali S (2008) Chemical contaminants and toxicity of Ganga River sediment from Up and Down stream area at Kanpur. American J of Environ Sci 4: 362-366.

Bhatnagar MK., Gupta RS, Bhatnagar P (2013) Ganga River Water Pollution: A Review. Asian J of Biochem and Pharm Res 8: 1.

Central Pollution Control Board, Pollution Assessment: River Ganga (2013).

Centre for Science and Environment, Ganga the River, Its Pollution and What we can do to clean it (2014).

Khan S, Nath S (2014) Physiochemical Analysis of River Ganges at Mirzapur In Uttar Pradesh. India. J of Appl Chem 7: 61-67

Khwaja AR, Singh R, Tondon SN (2001) Monitoring of Ganga water and sediments vis-À-vis tannery pollution at Kanpur (India): a case study. Environ Monit Ass 68: 19-35.

Pandey J, Shubhashish K, Pandey R (2010) Heavy metal contamination of Ganga river at Varanasi in relation to atmospheric deposition. Tropi Eco 51: 365-373.

Pandey R, Raghuvanshi D, Shukla DN (2014) Water quality of river Ganga along Ghats in Allahabad City, U. P. India. Adv in App Sci Res. 5:181-186

Raghuvanshi D, Singh H, Pandey R, Tripathi B, Shukla DN (2014) Physico-Chemical Properties and Correlation Co-Efficient of River Ganga at Allahabad. Bull Env Pharmacol Life Sci 3: 233-240.

Saxena KL, Chakrabarty RN, Khan AQ, Chattopadhya SN, Chandra H (1966) Pollution Studies of the River Ganga. Near Environ Health: 270–85.

Sharma, Y (1997) Case Study I - The Ganga, India, Water Pollution Control - A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management Principles.

Singh S, Nath S (2015) Water Quality Analysis of River Ganga and Yamuna during Mass Bathing, Allahabad, India. Uni J of Environ Res and Techno 5: 251-258.

Srivastava RK, Sinha AK (1996) Water Quality of the River Ganga at Phaphamau (Al1ahabad)-Effect of Mass Bathing during Mahakumbh. Environ Toxi.11: 1.

Tripathi B, Pandey R, Raghuvanshi D, Singh H , Pandey V, Shukla DN (2014) Studies on the Physico-chemical Parameters and Correlation Coefficient of the River Ganga at Holy Place Shringverpur, Allahabad. J of Environ Sci Toxico and F Tech 8: 29-36

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Evaluation of Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects of Cypermethrin on Root Meristems of Allium cepa L.

GEETHA SUVARNA AND BHAGYA B. SHARMA

Centre for Environmental Studies, Yenepoya University, Karnataka, India

Received: 04 October 2016 Revision: 15 November 2016 Accepted: 22 November 2016

ABSTRACT

Cytogenotoxic effect of a commercial pesticide with cypermethrin (0.25%) as active ingredient was assessed in the root meristem cells of Allium cepa. Three test concentrations of the pesticide were determined based on the EC50(11.12mg/L) of Allium root growth. The mitotic index (MI) decreased significantly in a dose dependent manner (p<0.001). All the concentrations of the test pesticide showed chromosomal aberrations and the most common abnormality was stickiness. The observations indicate high cytotoxicity potential of the pesticide.

Key words: Cypermethrin, Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity, Mitotic index, chromosomal.

INTRODUCTION

Increased use of pesticides and their release into

the environment has affected the ecological balance.

The chemical residues in the soil and aquatic systems

enter the food chain and cause health effects in living

organisms. Extensive usage of pesticides for domestic

purposes concerns their effect on non target organisms

(Guzzella et al. 1996). This necessitates the evaluation

of these pesticides for their potential to cause cytotoxic

and genotoxic effects. In this study a commercial

formulation of pesticide with cypermethrin as active

ingredient is assessed for its toxicity. Cypermethrin is

extensively used in agriculture to kill pests. In addition

it inhibits growth of green algae and nitrogen fixation

in soybean. Cypermethrin is a type II pyrethroid

insecticide, widely used to treat house hold pests (Cox

C 1996). Pyrethroids are analogs of pyrethrins which

are active substances in the flowers of chrysanthemum.

Their mode of action is on the nerve cells by blocking

the closure of the ion gates of the sodium channels

(Roberts and Hutson 1999). Toxicity of cypermethrin

depends on the cis:trans isomer ratios. Cis isomers are

biologically more active but are more toxic than the

trans isomers (Kamrin1997). The use of plant test

system to study the toxicity of pesticides or

environmental pollutants is widely accepted. Allium

cepa test is a sensitive, cost effective and reliable assay

to study toxicity of chemicals. Various parameters such

as root shape, root length, mitotic index and

chromosomal aberrations are used to estimate

cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of chemicals (Khanna

and Sharma 2013). The aim of the present work was to

determine the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of a

commercial formulation of pesticide with

cypermethrin as active ingredient by Allium cepa test.


ChemicalsA commercial formulation of pesticide (dusting powder) with Cypermethrin as the active ingredient (0.25% a. i.) was procured from local market. Maleic hydrazide was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and all other chemicals were of analytical grade.

Plant Test systemThe onion bulbs (Allium cepa L.) used in the experiment was procured locally. Equal sized healthy bulbs were cleaned and loose outer scales were peeled off without damaging the root primordia. The bulbs



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were kept under running tap water for an hour prior to tests. All tests were performed at room temperature in the laboratory (25±1°C) and protected against direct sunlight.

Determination of EC50Root growth inhibition study was used to determine

the effective concentration (EC50) of the pesticide

(Rank 2003).The concentration of the test solution was

based on preliminary experiments. Three test

concentrations (5mg/L, 10mg/Land 20mg/L) of the

pesticide were prepared by dissolving in 1% methanol.

A series of five bulbs per concentration was set upwith

1% methanol as control group. Test solutions were

replaced every 24 hrs with fresh solution. Root length

of control and experimental sets were measured at the

end of 96 hrs. The average root length of onion bulbs

from each group was plotted against their test

concentrations to estimate EC50 value.

Genotoxicity assayThe genotoxicity assay was carried out in three

concentrations ofthe test pesticide that is ½ EC50,

EC50 and 2x EC50 prepared in 1% methanol and also

served as control (Rank 2003).Maleic hydrazide

(10mg L-1) was used as positive control. Onion bulbs

were rooted in tap water for 24 hrs. Healthy bulbs with

emerging roots were transferred to test solutions and

exposed for 24 hrs. Five onion bulbs per concentration

were set up under same laboratory conditions

mentioned above. After the exposure time, root tips

from each onion bulb were fixed in Carnoy's fixative

for 24 hrs and preserved in 70% ethanol for further

analysis. For microscopic observations the fixed roots

were hydrolysed at 60°C with 1N HCl for 15 min,

stained with haematoxylin for 15 min. Temporary

slides were prepared in 45% acetic acid and cover slips

were sealed with clear finger nail polish. For each

onion bulb, one slide was prepared. The root tips were

squashed and slides were labelled and observed (40x

and 100x) under microscope (Lawrence & Mayo,

India). One thousand cells per slide and a total of 5000

cells per test solution were scored for the mitotic index

(MI) and percentage of chromosomal aberrations.

Mitotic Index and percent aberrant cells were calculated using the formulae:

Mitotic index = Total number of dividing cells x 100

___________________

Total number of cells

Total aberrant cells x 100Percentage of aberrant cells = _______________________

Total dividing cells

Statistical analysisData was summarised as mean ± standard deviation and analysed with one way ANOVA test at 0.05 level of statistical significance using SPSS v20.0 for Windows software. Least Significant Difference test was used for comparing thedifferent treatment groups with control.


The cytogenotoxicity assessment by Allium cepa assay is an effective test system to study environmental contaminants. The root growth inhibition test is used to assess toxicity of the test sample. The effect of the pesticide on root elongation is shown in Fig 1. The mean root length of the pesticide treated Allium bulbs was lower compared to the control. A dose dependent reduction was observed with slight discoloration of root tips at highest concentration. Fig 1 shows the reduction of root growth in pesticide treated bulbs compared to control where the EC50 value was 11.12 mg L-1. The pesticide concentration of 10 and 20 mg L-1 showed more than 50% decrease in root growth which indicates cytotoxicity (Khanna and Sharma 2013).

The cytotoxicity of the pesticide is further confirmed by decreased mitotic index (MI) (Table 1). All the concentrations of the pesticide decreased MI and the inhibitory effects were dose-dependent and

-1 significant. The pesticide concentration of 11mg L-1and 22mg L showed 41% and 52% reduction in

mitotic index respectively. The decrease in MI below 50% is shown to induce sublethal effects and is called cytotoxic limit value (Sharma and Vig 2012). The

-1 pesticide concentration above 22mg L could have reduced dividing cells and thus decreased cell growth (Yekeen and Adeboye 2013). Table 1 shows the genotoxic effect of the pesticide on the chromosomes

177

GEETHA SUVARNA AND BHAGYA B. SHARMA 177International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

of root meristematic cells. The aberrations observed were not dose dependent. Stickiness was the most common physiological aberration found and bridges were less frequent caused due to chromatin dysfunction (Patiland Bhat 1992) (Fig 2). Stickiness caused due to chromosomal condensation reflects toxicity of the pesticide (Khanna and Sharma 2013). The results of this study reveal the cytotoxic and

genotoxic effects of the analyzed pesticide commonly used in agriculture and house hold pests.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Yenepoya University for granting permission to carry out this study at the Centre for Environmental Studies.

Table 1: Effect of pesticide on the mitotic index of Allium ceparoot meristem cells.

-1Figure 1: EC of test pesticide (11.12mg L ) in Allium roots.50

Control 13.2 ± 0.35** 0.04 0 0.75 ± 0

5.5 12.33 ± 1.47 0.72 0.04 5.16 ± 2.49

11 7.80 ± 0.97 ** 0.7 0 11.25 ± 0.71

22 6.28 ± 1.46** 0.18 0.02 4.69 ± 2.26

Concentration of test pesticide

-1(mg L )

Mitotic Index (mean ± SD)

Percentage of different types of aberrations

Sticky chromosomes

Bridges

Frequency of aberrant cells(mean ± SD)

5000 cells per concentration**statistically significant (p<0.001)

178

178 JANUARY-JUNE 2016Evaluation of Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects.....

179

REFERENCES

Cox C (1996).Cypermethrin. J pest reform16: 15-20.

Guzzella L, De Paolis A, Bartone C, Pozzoni F, Giuliano G (1996). Migration of pesticides residues from agricultural soil to groundwater. Int J Environ Anal Chem 65: 261-275.

Kamrin MA (1997). Pesticide profiles: toxicity, environmental impact, and fate. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Khanna N, Sharma S (2013). Allium Cepa Root Chromosomal Aberration Assay: A Review. Indian J Pharm Biol Res 1(3): 105-119.

Patil BC, Bhat GI (1992). A comparative study of MH and EMS in the induction of choromosomal aberrations on lateral root meristem in Clitoria ternata L. Cytologia 57: 259-264.

Rank J (2003). The method of Allium anaphase-telophase chromosome aberration assay. Ekologija 1: 38-42.

Roberts TR, Hutson DH (1999). Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals: Part2 Insecticides and fungicides. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK.

Sharma S, Vig AP (2012). Antigenotoxic effects of Indian mustard Brassica juncea (L.) Czern aqueous seeds extract against mercury (Hg) induced genotoxicity. Sci Res Essays 7(13): 1385-1392.

Yekeen TA, Adeboye MK (2013). Cytogenotoxic e f f e c t s o f c y p e r m e t h r i n , d e l t a m e t h r i n , lambdacyhalothrin and endosulfan pesticides on Allium ceparoot cells. Afr J Biotechnol 12(41):6000-6006.

Fig 2: Normal and aberrant stages of mitosis observed in cells of Allium cepa. A – normal prophase, B – normal metaphase, C – normal Anaphase, D – normal telophase, E – sticky metaphase, F – anaphase bridge

179

GEETHA SUVARNA AND BHAGYA B. SHARMAInternational Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

Effects of Occupational Exposure to Cement Dust in Asbestos Factory Workers

K RUDRAMA DEVI, MINNY JAEL. P AND DILIP REDDY K

Department of Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad

Received: 04 October 2016 Revision: 20 October 2016 Accepted: 28 October 2016

ABSTRACT

Subjects occupationally exposed to potential mutagens/carcinogens represent the most suitable groups for epidemiological studies aimed at assessing the risk for the individual or the offspring. Several cancer risks to humans have been detected by epidemiological studies performed in occupational settings. The epidemiology studies have been able (a) to identify specific occupations or agents associated with the risk; (b) to verify the results of experimental studies; and (c) to test the effectiveness of changes in production or preventive measures in decreasing risks. Reproductive epidemiology has suggested a risk of spontaneous abortions or of malformation in the offspring of workers exposed to some chemicals or occupations, but data are often conflicting due to methodological problems. With the aim of early assessment of risk in mind, the epidemiological use of indicators of exposure or of the early effect of exposure to genotoxic agents is increasingly applied to occupational groups. Data on the fertility and other reproductive end points in 142 workers exposed to cement dust asbestos factory workers were recorded by using standard questionnaire simultaneously 120 people away from industry not exposed to any toxicant belonging to same socio economic group are considers for control data.. The exposed group were further categorized based on duration of exposure, life style, smoking and non-smoking and socio-economic status. The statistical analysis shows that the differences in the reproductive end points between the control and exposed groups were significant (P< 0.05)

Key words: Neonatal deaths, Still birth, congenital malformations, cement dust.

INTRODUCTION

Asbestos is a known carcinogen and its

carcinogenic properties has been reported (Mossmar &

Gee, 1989) epidemiological and clinical studies have

shown asbestos fibres are associated with development

of neoplasia, lung cancer, malignant mesotheline

(Jaurand 1997, Manning et al., 2002). mineral and man

made vitreous fibres are used for hundreds of years for

several purposes asbestos fibres are extrensity used for

various industrial purposes. Asbestos is used for

manufacturing asbestos – cement – sheets, asbestos –

cement pipes brake tinning, clutch lining, asbestos

yarns ropes gaskets k seals etc. mostly asbestos

industrial units use chryosotile variety of asbestos.

However the mutagenic effects are controversial

(chamberlin and Tarmy 1997, Reiss et al 1982,

Livingston 1980, Lavappa et al 1974) text found to

mestagenic (Kalyan swamy et al 1993, Laxman Rao

et al 1987, Rudrama Devi 1992,)

Due to the modern industrial and the rapid

development in the field of science and technology,

man is continuously exposed to the environment

pollutants like industrial and agricultural chemicals,

food activities, drugs and cosmetics etc. Out of these

compounds some are found to be mutagenic in lower

organisms and also in mammalian system and some of

these compounds will also cause birth defects. These

occupational and environmental hazards have



Research Article

180

status and its distribution in a given population. Data on the fertility and other reproductive parameters in 142 couples were recorded where males were occupationally exposed to cement dust. Their age group was between 20-50 years, and data from 120 couples belonging to same age group and not having any history of exposure to asbestos or other toxicants, were collected for comparison (controls). The Characteristics of control and exposed population are given in Table 1. The workers were further divided into groups based on the duration of exposure, life style, diet, habits and socioeconomic group. The workers were selected to serve as control subjects who were not exposed to any toxic chemicals. The data collection gives the information on reproductive end points like still births, congenital malformations are recorded in table -2.


The occupational epidemiology of each individual was recorded using standard questionnaire. The epidemiology broadly deals with study of relationship of various factors that influence the occurrence of a disease or an altered physiological status and distribution in a population. Data on the reproductive parameters in 142 occupationally exposed to cement dust are recorded in Table 2. There was a decrease in the number of fertile females in exposed group. Abortions and still births were increased among the females. The percentages were 21-73% and 14.60 in exposed, and 11.38 and 8.13in controls respectively. The frequency of live birth decreased from 70.40% to 50.54% in exposed group. The percentages of neonatal deaths in exposed groups was 10.32% against control value of 6.50%. The difference in the frequency of reproductive end points was significant in exposed group as compared to controls were significant. (table-2).

assumed yet another dimension of serious nature in

Bhopal, Chernobyl and Basel. The relationship

between workplace exposure to dust particulates and

respiratory diseases is one of the most widely studied

subjects of modern epidemiology.

Occupational exposure to trichloro ethylene an

imported volatile organic compound used clock

manufacturing factory showed on skin (29.6%) and

respiratory symptoms (21.1%) were observed among

exposed group (Sing thong et al, 2015), Asthma allergy

skin reactions visual disorders were most prevalent in

printing factory workers (Dechart Somasiri, 2014). A

significant hearing loss and reproductive end points

were observed in chromium alloy factory and tobacco

dust exposed population. (Rudrama Devi & Jithender

naik, 2012, Muthamura et al., 2004).

In the present study an epidemiological survey has

been carried out in workers employed in asbestos

factory exposed to cement dust.


Reproductive epidemiology: In the present study

people working in asbestos industry in Medak district

were selected to study the effects of cement dust on the

reproductive end points such as still births, abortions,

neonatal deaths, congenital malformations, etc. The

occupational epidemiology on the background of each

individual was recorded using a standard

questionnaire.

The relationship of various factors that influence the occurrence of a disease or an altered physiological

Table 1: Characteristics of control and exposed subjects

Group No. of samples Age in years ±SD Duration of exposure

Control 120 35.8±1.46 to 46.8±1.8 20±1.2 years

Exposed 142 40.2±1.6 to 44.08

181

K RUDRAMA DEVI et. al., 181International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

Table 2: Data on reproductive histories in Asbestos factory workers.

Parameters Control Exposed group

No. of females 120 142

No. of fertile females 102(85.60) 130(91.54)

No. of pregnancies 246(2.06) 368(2.59)

Live births 176(70.40) 286(50.54)

Abortions 28(11.38) 80(21.73)

Still births 20(8.13) 54(14.6)

Neonatal deaths 16(6.50) 38(10.32)

Congenital malformations 6(2.43) 10(2.71)

Many compounds interact with the genetic material in bacteria, mammalian system and cell cultures. If man is exposed continuously to these diverse types of environmental mutagens, there will be a great risk in future generations. Hence, in recent years a need for constant monitoring and vigilance for their ill effects on man and his environment has been felt and an urgency to devise appropriate remedial measure emphasized which permit comparison between the populations... The study conducted on dental assistants, factory workers, painters and gardening workers, who were exposed to nitrous oxide, inorganic mercury, organic solvents and pesticides show that spontaneous abortions were found to be significantly increased in factory workers and painters. Occupational exposure to organic solvents during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of major fetal malformations (Khattak 1999) .Welch & Cullen (1988) evaluated the semen samples from shipyard painters exposed to ethylene glycol ethers. Sperm concentrations, velocity, motility, morphology, morphometry and viability were measured. The measures of sperm counts were lower in painters. Exposure to six organic solvents (styrene, toluene, xylene, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane) was conducted to investigate the effects of parental exposure of pregnancy. Spontaneous abortions and congenital malformations among the wives of men occupationally exposed to organic solvents were observed by Taskinen et al. (1989).. Parental exposure as a risk for birth defects in offspring of painters was reported by Ohlson (1992). High exposure to toluene increase the risk of spontaneous abortions. Exposure to genotoxic agents cause

human reproductive problems. Couples with fertility problymphocytes in males correlates positively with DNA damage in sperm; an abnormally high frequency of MN in peripheral blood lymphocytes is associated with pregnancy complications including miscarria-ge, intra-uterine growth restriction and pre-eclampsia. The studies published to date consistently indicate an association of MN in peripheral blood lymphocytes with impaired reproductive capacity. (Fenech, 2011; Weselak et al., 2008 ).

Earlier Sallmen et al. (1922) reported that parental lead exposure is associated with congenital malformations. Further, in the year 2000 they reported that parental exposure to lead increases the risk of infertility at low occupational exposure levels. A delay was observed among the wives of men exposed to lead (Min et al. 1997), suggested that parental occupational lead exposure might be associated with low birth weight in the offspring. Epidemiological studies indicated that parental exposure to lead and mercury be associated with the risk of spontaneous abortions (Antilla et al 1989)

Chronic exposure to irritant levels of soluble Cr exposed to toxic irritant gases and leather dust. There are compounds may cause cough, chest pain, dyspnea and several potential sources of air emissions in the leather development of asthma. (Cruz, 2006) an Chronic bronchitis, combination, evolved from the leather tannery effluents emphysema, pulmonary fibrosis and impaired lung. In fact various studies have demonstrated that function have been observed in

P<0.05

182

182 JANUARY-JUNE 2016Effects of Occupational Exposure.....

nickel-chromium welders inhalation of these air pollutants, may be linked to the and foundry workers [ATSDR, 2005; Fidan et al, 1998]. Abdallah et al. (2010) concluded that shoe workers are proved at risk of respiratory affection due to their exposure of tannery dust.

The results of the present study show the effects on reproductive end points, hence precautions should be taken in work place to prevent health problems. The above indicate the reproductive toxicity in men exposed to cement dust in Asbestos factory workers. Hence the workers should be educated to use the gloves and masks to prevent the dust exposure while processing the Asbestos sheets. Periodically medical checkup should be conducted for the employs otherwise the progeny of the workers have the carcinogenic effect on reproductive outcome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Osmania University authorities for providing laboratory facilities.

REFERENCES

Abdallah,H.M., A. Saad-Hussein, N.M. Abdel-Latif, J.S. Hussein and M.A. Hassanein, 2010. Ventilatory function and oxidative-antioxidant status in shoe m 1; Fig 1

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry combustion and thermal treatment of hazardous (ATSDR), (2005): Toxicological Profile for Nickel. US wastes and materials. Environ Health Perspect, 114(6): Department of Health and Human Services, Public 810-817. Health Service: Atlanta

Antilla, A., Lindbohn, M.I., Sallmen, M., Hemminiki, K. (1989): Spontaneous abortions and congenital malformations among the wives of men occupationally exposed to organic solvents. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 15(5): 345-52

Champlon M and Tahnuy (1977): Asbestos and glass fibres in bacterial mutation test Mut. Res 43:159-164.

Cruz, M.J., R. Costa, E. Marquilles, F. Morell and X. Muñoz, (2006): Occupational Asthma Caused by Chromium and Nickel. Arch. Bronconeumol., 42(6): 302-6.

Decharat Somsiri (2014): Prevalence of acute symptoms among workers in printing factories. PubMed.

Feneech M. (2011): Micronuclei and their association with sperm abnormalities, infertility, pregnancy loss, pre-eclampsia and intra-uterine growth restriction in humans. Mutagenesis.;26:63–67. [PubMed]

Fidan,F., M. Unlu, T. Koken, L. Tetik, S. Akgun and I.R. Doyle, (1998): Respiratory mechanics and R. Demirel. 2005. Oxidant-antioxidant status and surfactant in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. pulmonary function in welding workers. J. Occup. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol., 25(11): 955-963.

Jaurand MC (1997): Mechanisms of fibre induced gentoxicity Env. Health percep:105: 1073-1084.

Kalyana swamy B, Kameshwari and Rudrama Devi K. (1993): Chryosotte asbestos induced mesonucleic in bone marrow erythorcyts of swiss albino mice. Inter. Agri. Biol. Re 9(2) 46-49

Khattak, S.K., Moghtadar, G.M.C., Martin, K., Barrera, M., Kennedy, D. and Koren, G. (1999): Pregnancy outcome following gestation exposure to organic solvents: A prospective controlled study. Jama., 282(11): 1033.

Lavappa K., S. F. and S.S. Epstern (1974): Cytogentic studies on chrysofile asbestos Env. Res. 10:165-173.

Laxman Rao P, Ravi M, Rupa D S and P.P Reddy (1987): Effect of chrysotile asbestos on bone marrow cells Proc. Int. Gen. 99-103.

Manning CB, Vallyathan V, Mosmam BT (2002): Disease caused by asbestos: Mechanisms of injury and disease development. Int. Immuno. Pharmacology: 21: 191-200.

Min, I., Correa-Villasenor, A. and Stewart, P.A. (1997): Parental occupational exposure and low birth weight.Amj. Ind.Med., 30(5): 568-578.

Mossmar BT, Gee JB, (1989): Asbestos related disease N Eng J Med, 320: 1721-1730.

Muthamura S, Leong Shing Tel (2004): Health implications among occupational exposed workers in chromium alloy factory, PubMed, 01-01.

O h l s o n , C a r l - G o r a n , B i r g i t t a K l a e s s o n andChrister, Hogestedt (1985): Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 10(5): 283-292.

K RUDRAMA DEVI et. al., 183International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

183

Reiss B., S. Soloman C Tong, M Leven stein, S. H Rosenberg G M Williams (1982): Absence of mutagenic acvity of three forms of asbestos in liver epithelial cells. En. Rs. 27; 389-397.

Rudrama Devi K. and Jithender Kumar Naik (2012): An Epidemiological Survey of Occupationally Exposed Beedi Workers to Tobacco Dust. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology Vol. 11 No. 1 pp. 135-137.

Sallmen, M., Lindbohm, M.I., Kyyrinen, P., Nykyri, E., Antilla, A., Taskinen M. and Hemminiki, K. (1922): Parental occupationally lead exposure and congenital malformations. J. Epidemiol. Community Health, 46(5): 519-522.

Sing Thong, Siriporn, Pakkong, Choosand Kanti Mara, Wongsanit, Sarrinya (2015): Occupational

health risks among trichloroethylene exposed workers in a clock manufacturing unit.

Taskinen, H., Antilla, A., Lindbohn, M.I., Sallmen, M. and Hemminiki, K. 1989: Spontaneous abortions and congenital malformations among the wives of men occupationally exposed to organic solvents. Scaand. J. Work Environ. Health, 15(5): 345-52.

Welch and Cullen, M.R. (1988): Effects of exposure of ethylene glycol ethers on shipyard painters. III. Haematological effects. Am. J. Ind. Med., 14(5): 236-52.

Weselak M, Arbuckle TE, Wigle DT, Walker MC, Krewski D (2008): Pre- and post-conception pesticide exposure and the risk of birth defects in an Ontario farm population. Reprod Toxicol.;25:472–480. [PubMed].

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184

Frequency Analysis of Consecutive Days Maximum Rainfall at Raichur, Karnataka, India

1 2 3PRADEEP C.M. , YASMIN and G.V. SRINIVASA REDDY

1,3Department of Soil and Water Engineering

2Raitha Samparka Kendras, Chandrabanda, Raichur, Karnataka

Received: 23 November 2016 Revision: 30 November 2016 Accepted:

ABSTRACT

Probability distributions were to predict rainfall status of various return periods varying from 2 to 100 years estimating one day and two to seven consecutive days annual maximum rainfall of Raichur, Karnataka, India. Six commonly used probability distribution (viz: Normal, Log-normal, Exponential, Gamma, Pearson type III and Log Pearson type III distribution) were tested to determine the best fit probability distribution using the comparison of chi-square values. The results revealed that the Log-normal distribution was the best fit probability distribution for maximum two days consecutive rainfall followed by maximum three, five and six consecutive days rainfall and Log Pearson type III distribution was the best fit probability distribution for maximum one day annual rainfall as well as maximum four and seven days consecutive rainfall for the region. Based on the best fit probability distribution a maximum of 73.93 mm in 1day, 104.06 mm in 2 days, 120.14 mm in 3 days, 123.02 mm in 4 days, 140.61 mm in 5 days, 149.36 mm in 6 days and 144.40 mm in 7 days is expected to occur at Raichur every two years. Similarly a maximum rainfall of 341.16 mm, 329.66 mm, 371.59 mm, 614.56 mm, 426.70 mm, 442.12 mm and 633.25 mm is expected to occur in 1 day, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 days respectively every 100 years. The results from the study could be used by design engineers and hydrologists for the economic planning, design of small and medium hydrologic structures and determination of drainage coefficient for agricultural fields.

Key words: Return period, probability distributions, chi-square test.

College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS Raichur, Karnataka, India

15 December 2016

INTRODUCTION

The rainfall in India varies, depending upon sea-

son and location. Study area lies between 15˚ 33' - 16˚

34' North latitude and 74˚ 14' - 77˚ 36' East longitude

and 390 to 415 m above mean sea level. The climate is

semi arid and the region is characterized by high day

temperature, low humidity and excessive evaporation

during summer and pre-monsoon periods. Rainfall is

comparatively less in this area than the other parts of

the country. The average annual rainfall is about 690

mm, which mainly occurs during the monsoon season.

Thus this region has already been known as drought

prone area of the country.

The procedure for estimating the frequency of

occurrence (return period) of a hydrological event such

as flood is known as (flood) frequency analysis.

Though the nature of most hydrological events (such

as rainfall) was erratic and varies with time and space,

it is commonly possible to predict return periods using

various probability distributions (Upadhaya and

Singh, 1998). Frequency analysis of rainfall data has

been attempted for different places in India (Bhatt et

al., 1996; Mohanty et al., 1999; Rizvi et al., 2001;

Singh, 2001; Dabralr and Pandey, 2008). Flood

frequency analysis was developed as a statistical tool

to help engineers, hydrologists and watershed

managers to deal with this uncertainty. Flood



Research Article

185

frequency is utilized to determine how often a storm of

the safest possible structures (e.g. dams, bridges,

culverts, drainage system etc.) because the design of

such structures demands knowledge of the likely

floods which the structure would have to watershed

during its estimated economic useful life (Bruce and

Clark, 1966). In particular, analysis of annual one day

maximum rainfall and consecutive maximum days

rainfall of different return periods (typically 2 to 100

years) is a basic tool for safe and economic planning

and design of small dams, bridges, culverts, irrigation

and drainage work as well as for determining drainage

coefficients (Bharkar et al., 2006).

There is widely accepted procedure to forecast the one

day maximum rainfall. However, a hydrological

frequency analysis has an application for predicting

the future events on probability basis/return period. In

this context the present study was carried out to

determine the statistical parameters and prediction of

annual one day maximum and maximum two to seven

days consecutive rainfall analysis of Raichur at various

return periods using six probability distribution

function, viz., Normal, Log-normal, Exponential,

Gamma, Pearson type III and Log Pearson type III

distributions.


Study area and collection of dataThe daily rainfall data recorded for the period of 34

years (1977 – 2010) at the Raichur station were

obtained from agro-meteorological observatory, UAS,

Raichur for the purpose of this analysis. The daily data,

in a particular year, 2 – 7 days consecutive days rainfall

were computed by summing up rainfall of

corresponding previous days. Maximum amount of

annual 1 day and 2 – 7 consecutive days rainfall for

each year was used for the analysis.

Theoretical consideration of

probability distributionsThe theory of different probability distributions, are

given as under. A computer software package VTFIT

was used to fit the probability distributions.

Probability distributionsOne of the important problems in hydrology deals with

interpreting a past record of rainfall events, in terms of

future probabilities of occurrences. There are many

probability distributions that have been found to be

useful for hydrologic frequency analysis. These can be

summarized as below:

a) Normal distribution: This is a symmetrical, bell

shaped, continuous distribution, theoretically

representing the distribution of accidental errors about

their mean or the so called of errors. The probability

density function is expressed as:

Where, X = variable; µ = mean value of variable; and σ

= standard deviation. In this distribution mean, mode

and median are same. The total area under distribution

is equal unity.

b) Log-normal distribution: This is a transformed

normal distribution in which the variable is replaced by

its logarithmic value. Its variability density function is:

Where, X = variable; µ = mean value of variable; and σ

= standard deviation. This is a skewed distribution of

unlimited range in both directions.

c) Exponential distribution: The exponential

distribution occurs naturally when describing the

lengths of the inter-arrival times in a homogeneous

Poisson process. Its probability density function is:

Where, X = variable; µ = mean value of variable; and β

= scale parameter.

d) Gamma distribution: In hydrology the gamma

distribution has an advantage of having only positive

values (Tilahun, 2006). The probability density

function of a gamma distributed random X variable is

given by:

186

186 JULY-DECEMBER 2016Frequency Analysis of Consecutive Days.....

Where, X = variable; γ = location parameter; and Γ (β)

= gamma function.

e) Pearson type III distribution: It states as

follows:

Where, X = variable; α = shape parameter; β = scale

parameter; and γ = location parameter.

f) Log Pearson type III distribution: The general

and basic equation defined the probability density of a

Log Pearson type III distribution is described below:

Where, X = variable; α = shape parameter; β = scale

parameter; and γ = location parameter.

Selection of probability distribution functionIt is necessary to test the goodness of fit of a

probability distributions that can be fitted with VTFT

and the methods used to evaluate the parameters of the

above six distributions. The chi-square test was carried

out to test the goodness of fit of the probability

distributions employed in the study. The formulae for

evaluating the test statistics of the goodness of fit tests

used in VTFIT was calculated from the relationship.Where, Oi = observed number of occurrences in

interval i; Ei = corresponding expected number of

occurrences in interval i; and N = number of

observations. The chi-square distribution functions are

tabulated in many statistics texts. In this study six

commonly used probability distributions were fitted

with 1 day and 2 to 7 days consecutive maximum

rainfall.


Statistical parameters of annual 1 day as well as consecutive days maximum rainfall were computed

(Table 1). The maximum rainfall found in monsoon season (June – October). One day to seven days maximum rainfall data were fitted with six main probability distributions. The Table 1 revealed that the deviation was observed to be less in one day maximum rainfall analysis (i.e. 65.82 mm) and whereas maximum deviation was observed in consecutive five days maximum rainfall (i.e. 123.22 mm). Similarly, the coefficient variation was more in two days consecutive maximum rainfall (i.e. 81.63 %) and less variation was observed in one day maximum rainfall (i.e. 71. 85 %). The estimated mean rainfall for one day maximum, consecutive two, three, four, five, six and seven days maximum rainfall were 91.60, 121.80, 139.51, 155.80, 162.36, 170.82 and 177.24 mm respectively.

The data presented in Table 2 found that the computed chi-square values for six probability distribution that Normal, Log-normal, Exponential, Gamma, Pearson type III and Log Pearson type III distribution were found to be less than the critical value of chi-square at 95 per cent confidence level for 1 day and 2 – 7 days maximum rainfall series. As per the chi-square values (Table 2), Log-normal distribution function was found to be best fit function for two, three, five and six consecutive days and Log-Pearson type III distribution function for one, four and seven consecutive days. So the Log-normal distribution and Log Pearson type III distribution function was found to be the best fitted functions for 1 day and 2 – 7 consecutive days maximum rainfall in the study region.

Table 3 showed that the annual 1 day and 2 – 7 consecutive days maximum rainfall for different return periods as determined by the selected best fitted distribution. The result showed that a maximum of 73.93 mm in 1 day, 104.06 mm in 2 days, 120.14 mm in 3 days, 123.02 mm in 4 days, 140.61 mm in 5 days, 149.36 mm in 6 days and 144.40 mm in 7 days was expected to occur at Raichur and surrounding areas in every two years. For a recurrence interval of 100 years, the maximum rainfall expected in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 days was 341.16 mm, 329.66 mm, 371.59 mm, 426.70 mm, 442.12 mm and 633.25 mm respectively.

Bhakar et al. (2006) and Barkotulla et al. (2009) recommended that 2 – 100 years is a sufficient return period for soil and water conservation measures, construction of dams, irrigation and drainage works. The 2 – 100 years return period obtained in this study

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Table 1: Statistical parameters of annual one to seven consecutive days maximum rainfall.

Table 3: One to seven consecutive days of annual maximum rainfall for various return periods.

Table 2: Chi-square value for the six different distributions.

Parameters 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days 5 days 6 days 7 days

Minimum (mm) 39.40 54.00 55.60 73.80 73.80 73.80 77.60

Maximum (mm) 380.00 629.60 703.60 762.20 778.40 782.80 783.80

Mean (mm) 91.60 121.80 139.51 155.80 162.36 170.82 177.24

Standard deviation (mm) 65.82 99.42 110.34 122.33 123.22 122.75 121.56

Coefficient of variation (%) 71.85 81.63 79.09 78.51 75.89 71.86 68.59

Coefficient of skewness 2.88 4.26 4.27 3.93 4.03 3.97 3.99

Coefficient of kurtosis 10.69 21.55 21.64 18.84 19.58 16.34 19.40

Return period Maximum rainfall (mm)

1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days 5 days 6 days 7 days

2 73.93 104.06 120.14 123.02 140.61 149.36 144.40

5 119.33 157.92 180.75 197.62 210.10 221.18 219.13

10 158.39 196.40 223.78 265.45 259.18 271.56 286.87

20 203.67 235.16 266.93 347.51 308.24 321.71 368.55

25 219.82 247.82 281.01 377.56 324.20 337.99 398.41

50 275.62 287.99 325.54 484.22 374.65 389.32 504.21

100 341.16 329.66 371.59 614.56 426.70 442.12 633.25

Consecutive Normal Log-normal Exponential Gamma Pearson Log Pearson days type III type III

1 day 24.24 6.24 30.24 7.29 5.53 4.82

2 days 19.65 0.24 36.24 4.47 4.12 0.59

3 days 27.41 1.65 29.88 8.35 6.94 3.76

4 days 20.71 2.35 30.59 8.35 5.88 0.94

5 days 26.00 2.35 35.88 8.35 9.41 4.47

6 days 20.00 3.41 40.12 6.24 9.76 4.12

7 days 18.94 6.24 37.65 5.18 9.06 1.65

188 JULY-DECEMBER 2016Frequency Analysis of Consecutive Days.....

could be used as a rough guide during the construction of such similar structures. In particular, these values could be very beneficial during the construction of urban drainage system in the Raichur as poor drainage has been identified as one of the major factors causing flooding in the area.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study concluded that the data of thirty four years (1977 – 2010) is sufficient to obtain annual maximum rainfall (mm) distribution of Raichur region. The most suitable probability distribution function to represent the observed data may depend on rainfall pattern of the region. As rainfall pattern varies from place to place. The statistical comparison at 2, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 and 100 return periods were done by Chi-square test (Hogg and Tannis, 1977) for goodness of fit. The predicted rainfalls are fairly close to the observed rainfall. It shows that the Log-normal distribution and Log Pearson type III distribution function was found to be the best fitted functions for 1 day and 2 – 7 consecutive days maximum rainfall for the study region. This analysis and prediction of expected consecutive days maximum rainfall rainfall would help in water conservation measures, construction of dams, irrigation, adaptation of cropping plan and drainage works of Raichur region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge meteorological department, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka for providing the data for analysis.

REFERENCES

Barkotulla, M.A.B., Rahman, M.S. and Rahman, M.M. (2009). Characterization and frequency analysis of consecutive days maximum rainfall at Boalia, Rajshahi and Bangladesh. Journal of development and agricultural economics, 1(5): 121-126.

Bhakar, S.R., Banasal, A.N., Chajed, N. and Purohit, R.C. (2006). Frequency analysis of consecutive days maximum rainfall at Banswara, Rajasthan, India. ARPN journal of engineering and applied sciences, 1(3): 64-67.

Bhatt, V.K., Tewari, A.K. and Sharma, A.K. (1996). Probability models for prediction of annual maximum daily rainfall of Datai. Indian journal of soil conservation, 24(1): 25-27.

Bruce, J.P. and Clark, P.H. (1988). Introduction to hydrometeorology. Pergamon press, oxford. pp. 115-118.

Dabralr, P.P. and Pandey, A. (2008). Frequency analysis for one day to seven consecutive days of annual maximum rainfall for the district of north Lakhimpur, Assam. Journal of agriculture, 89: 29-34.

Hogg, R.V. and Tanis, E.A. (1977). Probability and Statistical interference. Macmilan Publishing Co. Inc., New York.

Mohanty, S., Marathe, R.A. and Singh, S. (1999). Probability analysis of annual maximum daily rainfall for Amaravati. Indian journal of soil conservation, 43(1): 15-17.

Rizvi, R.H., Singh, R., Yadav, R.S., Tewari, R.K., Dadhwal, K.S. and Solanki, K.R. (2001). Probability analysis of annual maximum daily rainfall for bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh. Indian journal of soil conservation, 29(3): 259-262.

Singh, R.K. (2001). Probability analysis for prediction of annual maximum daily rainfall of eastern Himalaya (Sikkim mid hills). Indian journal of soil conservation, 29(3): 263-265.

Tilahun, K. (2006). The characterization of rainfall in the arid and semi-arid regions of Ethiopia. Water S. A. 32(3): 429-436.

Upadhaya, A. and Singh, S.R. (1998). Estimation of consecutive days maximum rainfall by various methods and their comparison. Indian journal of soil conservation, 26(2): 193-201.

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Regimes of Alpine Rivers and their Impacts under Changing Climate

CHAITANYA SURE

Technische Universität MünchenM.Sc. Sustainable Resource Management

Received: 22 December 2016 Revision: 27 December 2016 Accepted:

ABSTRACT

The rivers in the Alpine regions are greatly affected by climate change. With changes in snow cover in mid latitudes, one can expect changes in the characteristics of river discharge in Alpine catchments. This review article assesses the variability in snow cover, runoff and streamflow of Alpine rivers across parts of Europe and North America in response to the changing climatic and hydrological regimes. While doing so, various studies were considered which have predicted such climatic changes based on long and short term meteorological data and a number of hydrological models. Results show that air temperature could explain some of the observed increases in winter, spring and autumn runoff, and winter streamflow. Extreme precipitation events are expected to change more snow cover to rain and increase the probability of extreme streamflow. The results also highlight that as climate warms, snow accumulation's vulnerability to the altitude changes. Future work could include studying the combined effect of climatic regimes and surface processes like soil and vegetation on the river discharge, and also reducing the model uncertainties.

Key words: Alpine Rivers, Climate Change, Precipitation, Temperature, Discharge, Streamflow.

30 December 2016

INTRODUCTION

Research on Alpine rivers has increasingly

become a tool for studying the climate change impact

on the environment. The river regimes or the local

hydrological balance are a particularly important

question in this context. Understanding these changes

may help to design appropriate adaptation strategies

(Bavay et al., 2009). Huge areas of the world depend

on snow melt during the dry summer months, but

climate change may lead to less snow and increase

existing water shortages (Barnett et al., 2005).

Quantitative results point in particular to the influence

of changes in precipitation and temperature regimes.

They show that severe effects are predicted for

glaciers, where high runoff levels shift from summer to

spring because melt rates of the ice sheet decrease

following a rise in temperatures (Stahl et al., 2008).

Trend analyses of changes in river regimes have been

carried out by Hantel et al. (2007) and Morán-Tejeda et

al. (2013) for the Alps and Berghuijs et al. (2006) for

North America. All studies agree that the most

pronounced changes are detected for lower altitudes.

This finding is consistent with the explanation that

temperature trends are most visible at those elevations

for which a small change in temperature leads to

increased rain as against precipitation due to snow.

There are, thus, two major reasons for additional

model studies on the combined behaviour of snow and

discharge under climate change scenarios. First, a

variety of models with different climatological

regimes. Second, the critical behaviour of the

snowmelts to be assessed with respect to hydrological

regimes. The combined and detailed investigation of

snow and discharge response to climate change

scenarios for Alpine headwater catchments is fairly

limited.

The adiabatic gradient show that temperatures decrease with height in mountains and the topography enhances the uplift of moist air triggering condensation and precipitation (Anon et al. 2008). Altitude is thus one of



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the most important geographic factors influencing changes in temperature and moisture at different spatial scales. This is the case despite atmospheric warming because at high altitudes, temperatures are still sufficiently low to enable snow accumulation during winter and spring. Under such conditions, precipitation is a major factor determining the behavior of the snowpack. Therefore, it is important to identify altitudes at which temperature is no longer a limiting factor for snow accumulation.

The results of climate change impact on these regimes will be presented and discussed in the following sections. Due to the scope of the review, the limitations of both the meteorological data processing and the physical modelling were not touched upon. Finally, implications of these results will be provided in the conclusion.

MethodsIn a majority of the studies that have been reviewed, data for daily snow depth (cm), air temperature (°C),

and precipitation (mm) are from the climate database of the Federal Offices of Meteorology and Climatology, like MeteoSwiss in the case of Morán-Tejeda et al. 2013. For the analysis of interactions between the variables to be investigated, researchers try to find a trade-off between the number of stations to be analyzed and the length of the data series. Figure 1 shows one such example of alpine streamflow trends in Switzerland, studied by Birsan et al. 2005, which analyses 48 basins. This was done over three different study periods – 70 years, 40 years and 30 years as shown in Table 1. As later explained in the review results, the data combination in this case reinforced the interconnectivity between climatological and hydrological regimes of the rivers in the alpine regions.

This review investigates the role of temperature and precipitation in explaining variability in river discharge across different altitudes of Alpine regions. Studies like Bavay et al. 2013, Morán-Tejeda et al. 2013 and have used for simulation, among many, models such as –

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Fig.: 1: Locations of 48 basins used in this analysis. (Birsan et al., 2005). Journal of Hydrology, Volume 314,Issues 1–4, 2005, 312–329, (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.06.008)

Table 1: Study periods and number of stations used in the analysis (the data provider is in parenthesis).

Study period Streamflow (FOWG) Precipitation Air temperature (MeteoSwiss) (MeteoSwiss)

1931–2000 (70 years) 12 109 16

1961–2000 (40 years) 30 109 26

1971–2000 (30 years) 48 109 42

CHAITANYA SURE 191International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

l Digital Elevation Model (DEM),

l Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW),

l Regional Climate Modelling (RCM),

l Global Climate Models (GCM) and

l Glacier Evolution Run-off Model (GERM)

In addition to temperature and precipitation, some other meteorological variables necessary for these models are – relative humidity, wind velocity and long and short wave radiation. A series of characteristic power-law relationships between discharge and width, depth, and slope tell that volumetric discharge of rivers could be depicted by the following equation –

Q = ū * b * h

where

Qàvolumetric discharge,ūàmean flow velocity, b àchannel width and h àchannel depth.

The causal aspects of identified trends in Hydrological or snowmelt dominated regimes were investigated in most studies by correlation analyses with precipitation, air temperature and various basin attributes. The basin attributes were analyzed by principal component analysis to identify structure and redundancy in the variables. Among others, the nonparametric rank-based Spearman correlation coefficient was used to report the results of correlation analyses by Birsan et al. 2005.

Analysis and EvaluationThe analysis in this section is derived from the results of the various studies which primarily employed the spatial plots of the trends in the different alpine regimes. By comparing the patterns in these figures, qualitative conclusions about the effect of temperature and precipitation trends on the overall river discharge were be drawn. There were some similar results observed both in the alpine regions of Europe and North America. Among them were the below-zero temperature and precipitation triggering snowfall, the persistence of low temperatures maintaining the snowpack and the dependence of snow on seasonal temperature making the streamflows at mid latitudes highly vulnerable to climate warming (Bavay et al. 2013), (Hamlet et al. 2005).

3 a. Precipitation and Temperature TrendsThe climatic events in the last century (1915 –) show

modestly upward trends in precipitation that result in upward trends in river discharge and strong downward trends due to upward temperature trends over essentially the entire domain. Thus the majority of the downward trends in river discharge are attributable to large-scale warming, which overwhelms the effects of widespread increases in winter precipitation. Note in Figure 2, for example, the predominantly upward trends in grid cells in some regions of United States, associated with precipitation, but predominantly downward trends for the same state in warmer areas with winter temperatures above −2.5°C (Hamlet et al. 2005).

3b. Correlation between Streamflow trends and Mountain basinsThe positive correlation between streamflow trends

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Fig. 2: Relative trends (% yr−1) in simulated discharge for three calendar dates for the period from 1916-2003. Scatter plots are colour coded for 4 different regions in the United States: (a) combined effects of temperature and precipitation trends, (b) effects of temperature trends alone, and (c) effects of precipitation trends alone. Reference – Hamlet et al., 2005, American Meteorological Society, (http:// dx.doi.org/10.1175 /JCLI3538.1)

192 JULY-DECEMBER 2016Regimes of Alpine Rivers.....

and basin attributes related to altitude points to the higher vulnerability of mountain basins to changes in precipitation and air temperature. This seems to be supported by the fact that most consistent statistically significant correlations are observed in winter and spring (especially higher streamflow quantiles in spring), when we expect the influence of precipitation and temperature on runoff production in mountain basins to be strongest (Birsan et al. 2005).

Other climatic regimes are also apparent in the studies. Coastal mountain ranges are warmer but are able to produce very large snowpacks in midwinter that can persist longer because of high mean precipitation and cloudy spring conditions. These areas are affected by temperature increases from midwinter through spring which also explains why they are most sensitive to warming. Continental areas, by contrast, are typically dryer and colder, and snow accumulation takes place over a number of months from late fall to early spring. For areas with cold midwinter temperatures, the temperature sensitivity becomes relatively small and the large downward trends in river discharge are associated primarily with strong downward trends in winter precipitation (Hamlet et al. 2005).

3c. Relation between Snowpack trends and Alpine altitudesIn the study (Morán-Tejeda et al. 2013) of snowpack variability in the Swiss Alps, the linear trends observed (Figure. 3) help estimate the thresholds that indicate altitudes at which precipitation becomes a better predictor of snowpack variability than temperature. Below the threshold, temperature determines the snowfall-rainfall relationship, whereas at high altitudes, as already highlighted, the abundance of snow in winter mainly depends on precipitation amount. However, the derived thresholds are not an exact altitude limit, but rather a range of altitudes that reflect the uncertainties of the linear regressions. Morán-Tejeda et al. 2013 have stressed in their research that very few summit stations show poor relations between the altitude and the correlation coefficients, which appear as outliers in the observed linear relationship.

CONCLUSION

It has been observed that the response of the runoff and snow cover to the climate change scenarios is

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Fig. 3: Performance of snow models as a function of altitude. Each red and blue dot represents the correlation of temperature and precipitation, respectively, with the corresponding snow index for each site. The gray dotted area indicates significant (95%) coefficients. Fitted regression lines and the 95% confidence intervals are also shown. Reference – Morán-Tejeda et al. 2013, Geophysical Research Letters Volume 40, Issue 10, pages 2131-2136, 30 MAY 20013 DOI: 10.1002/grl.50463 (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1002/grl. 50463/ full# grl50463-fig-0002).

CHAITANYA SURE 193International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

qualitatively similar. Identified trends in alpine rivers were related to observed changes in precipitation and air temperature, and correlated with altitude attributes. The correlations are generally strongest for the moderate flow ranges, and decrease for extreme flows. Trends in air temperature point towards a significant decrease in the temperature range. A general increase in annual streamflow has been observed, mostly due to increases in winter, spring and autumn runoff. Most dominant changes have occurred in the winter season. Studies speculate that the observed increases in winter runoff are due to a shift of snowfall into rainfall. Similarly, low and moderate flow increases in the spring could be explained by the observed air temperature rise. Since precipitation variability seems most strongly associated with short term variability rather than long term trends, according to studies, the use of observed precipitation variability in conjunction with scenarios of warmer temperatures is an optimum approach for understanding the overall effects of global warming on the hydrologic variability of the alpine rivers. The results of the studies reviewed suggest that the effects of global warming are apparent and based on projections of continued warming, these trends are likely to continue.

Open questions include the errors in spatial interpolation of the meteorological fields and the stochastic climate generation for the local catchments. There is scope for further research to look at individual drivers of streamflow changes such as changes in glacial snowmelt, changes in mixed snowmelt-rainfall and changes in snowline. Also, there is scope for review of studies on evaporation from snow surfaces and as a result of it, changes in river regimes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to thank Prof. Dr. Annette Menzel from the Chair of Ecoclimatology at Technische Universität München for the training she imparted him on Hydrometeorology.

REFERENCES

Bavay, M. et al., 2009. Simulations of future snow cover and discharge in Alpine headwater catchments. Hydrological Processes, 23(1), pp.95–108. Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/hyp.7195.

Berghuijs, W.R., Woods, R.A. & Hrachowitz, M., 2014. A precipitation shift from snow towards rain leads to a decrease in streamflow. Nature Clim. Change , 4(7) , pp .583–586. Avai lable a t : http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2246.

Anon, 2008. Mountains and their climatological study. In Mountain Weather and Climate: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–23. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/mountain-wea the r-and-c l ima te /moun ta ins -and- the i r-climatologicalstudy/6A3C957F85234DF2A8E899CE599C8E3E.

Barnett, T.P., Adam, J.C. & Lettenmaier, D.P., 2005. Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions. Nature, 4 3 8 ( 7 0 6 6 ) , p p . 3 0 3 – 3 0 9 . Av a i l a b l e a t : http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/16292301.

Bavay, M., Grünewald, T. & Lehning, M., 2013. Response of snow cover and runoff to climate change in high Alpine catchments of Eastern Switzerland. Advances in Water Resources, 55, pp.4–16. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j. advwatres. 2012.12.009.

Birsan, M.V. et al., 2005. Streamflow trends in Switzerland. Journal of Hydrology, 314(1–4), pp.312–329.

Hamlet, A.F. et al., 2005. Effects of temperature and precipitation variability on snowpack trends in the western United States. Journal of Climate, 18(21), pp.4545–4561. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1175/JCLI3538.1.

Junghans, N., Cullmann, J. & Huss, M., 2011. Evaluating the effect of snow and ice melt in an Alpine headwater catchment and further downstream in the River Rhine. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 56(6), pp.981–993.

Morán-Tejeda, E., López-Moreno, J.I. & Beniston, M., 2013. The changing roles of temperature and precipitation on snowpack variability in Switzerland as a function of altitude. Geophysical Research Letters, 40(10), pp.2131–2136.

Stahl, K. et al., 2008. Coupled modelling of glacier and streamflow response to future climate scenarios. Water Resources Research, 44(2), pp.1–13.

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A Study on the Role of NGOs in the Protection of Environment

KAVITA DUA

OM Group of Institutions, 12 KM Stone, Hisar-Chandigarh RoadNational Highway-65, Distt. Hisar, Haryana

Received: 20 September 2016 Revision: 05 October 2016 Accepted: 15 November 2016

ABSTRACT

In a world where the focus is increasingly on how the environment has been affected by human actions. Environmental degradation is very rampant these days because of the irresponsible use of our natural resources. The earth's environment has become a pervasive and global problem. There are several environmental issues plaguing the earth which have gotten to be a major concern today.

Today, we come across various non-governmental organizations whose concerns are focused on environmental issues. Non-governmental Organization is a broad term, which includes charity organizations, advisory committees and various other professional organizations. There are large number of NGOs in India that are exclusively working for environmental, protection, conservation, and awareness. The number of these non-governmental organizations which are actively involved in environmental protection in our country is, in fact, more than in any of the developing country. Increasingly, the government is viewing NGOs not only as agencies that will help them to implement their programs, but also as partners shaping policy and programs. NGOs are playing an important role in framing the environmental policy, mobilizing public support for environmental conservation, and protecting the endangered species of forests and animals.

Environmental activism has achieved major success over the years and has helped in creating awareness among the general public on environmental protection and conservation. The issues like future of environmental protection, sustainable development and zero population growth are some of the major concerns of the environmental NGOs.

This review article focuses on the role played by NGOs in the protection of environment and the aim of this paper is to summarize the organizational problems of NGOs and to denote solutions of these problems.

Key words: Environmental protection, Environmental degradation, sustainable development, NGOs

INTRODUCTION

The consequences of the Environmental pollution are hard to comprehend, whereas the solutions to ending environmental pollution is not easy to come by this is an unending complex and intricate debate and the role of NGOs has a very important to protection of environment through social services.

The protection of environment is a pressing issue. Every person, organization and institution has an

obligation and duty to protect it. Environmental protection encompasses not only pollution but also sustainable development and conservation of natural resources and the ecosystem. Today, the necessity of environmental awareness and enforcement is more demanding and urgent than ever before. Despite provision in Indian Constitution providing for Environmental protection and many statutory provisions, the environment degradation continues. The main cause for environmental degradation is lack of effective enforcement laws.



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Environmental problems thus, have become critical. The protection of environment and conversation of resources has emerged as the focal point of nations. The International debate and concern for ecology has now become the watchword. As the concern for environmental problems increased, government institutionalized the environmental issues through new legislations and regulations. Civil society organizations started playing a proactive role in global environmental governance.

Definition of NGONon-profit literature the term 'voluntary organization' is commonly used for domestic third sector organizations. NGO literature the umbrella term 'non-governmental organization' is generally used throughout, although the category 'NGO' may be broken down into specialized organizational sub-groups such as 'public service contractors', 'people's organizations', 'voluntary organizations' and even 'governmental NGOs' or 'grassroots support organizations' and 'membership support organizations' (Lewis, 2006).

'Non-governmental', 'third sector' or 'not-for profit' organizations have in recent years become high profile actors within public policy landscapes at local, national and global levels. Around the world, there is an increasing commitment to the delivery of social services through involving neither voluntary organizations which are neither government agencies directed by the state nor organizations committed to the 'for-profit' ethos of the business world (Lewis, 2003).

Nongovernmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. A long list of acronyms has developed around the term 'NGO': INGO stands for international NGO, BINGO is short for business-oriented international NGO, RINGO is an abbreviation of religious international NGO, ENGO, short for environmental NGO, GONGOs are government-operated NGOs. (Wikipedia, 2006).

“Formal (professionalized) independent societal organizations whose primary aim is to promote common goals at the national or the international level” (Chang, 2005).

The World Bank defines NGOs as "private organizations that pursue activities to relieve

suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development" In wider usage, the term NGO can be applied to any non-profit organization which is independent from government. NGOs are typically value-based organizations which depend, in whole or in part, on charitable donations and voluntary service. Although the NGO sector has become increasingly professionalized over the last two decades, principles of altruism and voluntarism remain key defining characteristics (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2006).

HypothesisNGOs have played an active role in the protection of environment in India. These NGOs have been successful in protecting the environment to a great extent, which has resulted in better environmental management in past few decades.

Objectives 1) To describe the role played by NGOs in the

protection of environment and to specify the aims and objectives of environmental NGOs.

2) To describe and analyze achievements of some environmental NGOs in India.

3) To highlight the organizational problems of NGOs and to recommend the suggestions towards environmental protection.


The secondary data available regarding the achievements of environmental NGOs has been discussed and analysed.

A-1) Role of NGOs in imparting Environmental EducationNGOs have been taking a number of steps to promote discussion and debate about environmental issues, outside the broad spheres of popular media and the educational system. Advocacy and awareness is especially crucial in promoting concepts such as sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e conservation and the restoration of ecosystems. NGOs can sensitize policy makers about the local needs and priorities.

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196 JULY-DECEMBER 2016A Study on the Role of NGOs.....

They can often intimate the policy makers about the interests of both the poor and the ecosystem as a whole. In providing training facilities, both at community and government levels, NGOs can play a significant role. They can also contribute significantly by undertaking research and publ ica t ion on envi ronment and development related issues. It is necessary to support and encourage genuine, small, local level NGOs in different parts of the country which can provide much needed institutional support specific to the local needs.

The main ways in which voluntary agencies can be helpful in this respect are:

l To aid and advice the government.

l To act as the yes and ears of the Government ; and

l To educate the people at large and to create general awareness in favor of conservation.

Having due regards to the importance of the role of NGOs in motivating the society for participation in environmental conservation programmes the Ministry has launched several programmes, which are being implemented with their active participation.

3. A - 2 ) A i m s a n d o b j e c t i v e s o f environmental NGOs: NGOs constitute a worldwide network interacting with Governments and Intergovernmental organization in shaping international environmental policies:-

l Creating awareness among the public on current environmental issues and solutions.

l Facilitating the participation of various categories of stakeholders in the discussion on environmental issues.

l Data generation on natural resources.

l Fact finding and analysis

l Conducting participatory rural appraisal

l Protecting the natural resources and entrusting the equitable use of resources

· Analysis and monitoring of environmental quality

l Transferr ing information through newsletters, brochures, articles, audio-visuals etc.

l Organizing seminars, lectures and group discussion for promotion of environmental awareness.

l Solidarity and support to environmental defenders.

3. B) Description of Some Important Environmental NGOs

Environmental NGOs in India NGOs has been compiled from the following sources:

l A Directory 1999 (Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre)

l The Little Green Book. A Directory of Environmental Opportunities (Kalpavriksh)

Assam Science Society has 75 branches and was set up in 1953 to disseminate science knowledge.They impart environmental education and training through camps for teachers and students and conduct surveys on environment.

Bombay Natural History Society started its work in September 1883 at Mumbai. It aims to collect data on the specimens on natural history throughout the Indian sub-continent. To disseminate knowledge of flora and fauna by means of lectures, field trips, literature and expeditions and, to study wildlife related problems and recommend management plans to conserve wildlife and its habitat. It conducts field research projects on bird migration and studies on the movement and population structure of Indian avifauna.

Centre for Environmental Education (CEE) was set up in 1984 to spread awareness of environmental issues and try to find solutions for them. It is based at Ahmadabad and they have offices all over the country. They mainly aim to create environmental awareness in the communities. They conduct widespread environmental education and training programmes through a very vast network. They have also taken up projects related to conservation of biodiversity and eco-development.

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) does research, investigative and educational work in the

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KAVITA DUA 197International Journal on Environmental Sciences 7 (2)

field of pollution, forest, wildlife, land and water use. The activities are carried out through lectures, field trips, publications, exhibitions on the various issues they take up, meetings and workshops.

Clean Ahmedabad Abhiyan is alocal NGO that has been working with the Ahmedabad municipal corporation in the area of solid waste and is instrumental for organizing door to door meetings, awareness campaigns to educate people about the importance of segregating waste into biodegradable and recyclable waste. Once they have convinced the people of this the household begins segregating the waste.

CPR Environmental Education Centre (C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation) is based at Chennai and was set up in 1989 to promote environmental awareness, to produce and disseminate basic educational and reference material on environment and to take up environmental projects. It has done a study of the sacred groves of Tamilnadu and soil and water analysis. Gives guidance on environmental laws, environmental impacts and management studies. It works in the field of environmental education.

Darpana Academy of Performing Arts was set up in Ahmedabad in 1984 to spread education in dance, drama and puppetry. Through their various activities they spread the message of a better environment. They have launched a programme 'Jagruti', a school project for environmental empowerment.

Development Alternatives based at Delhi, work in all parts of the country. It was established in 1983 to design options and promote sustainable development through programmes of economic efficiency, equity and social justice, resource conservation and self-reliance. Its activities cover the entire nation. They are working in the field of pollution monitoring and control; waste recycling management; wasteland development; appropriate technology.

Gandhi Peace Foundation – Environment Cell began functioning at Delhi from June 1979. It was set up mainly to promote the environmental activities of rural development agencies; to disseminate environmental information through the publication of up to date reports on environmental issues; to organize workshops and seminars for environmental experts, policy makers, individuals and organisations working

for environmental issues. Their activities include researching the role of women in community forestry and rural development; conducting studies in soil erosion, water logging, drainage and seepage around select dams; planting fast growing trees.

Green Future Foundation was set up in 1987 at Pune in Maharashtra to promote and work towards environmental protection, energy and ecological conservation and pollution control. They impart environmental education and training by organising forest based camps for adults and youths. They also do afforestation and have raised a nursery of medicinal and indigenous plants.

I n d i a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r E n v i ro n m e n t a l Management (IAEM) was set up at Nagpur in 1963 to educate people on the environment, to encourage the conservation of the environment and to spread environmental knowledge. They conduct seminars, essay competitions and exhibitions related to water and its pollution, they have carried out water pollution control activities and worked in the field of environmental management.

Jammu and Kashmir Environment and Wasteland Development Society works mainly in the Rajouri District to develop wastelands. They have done extensive afforestation in the wasteland areas and identifies wastelands in the area of function.

Kerala Sastra Sahitiya Parishad was set up in 1962 in Thrissur Kerala to preserve the environment, to provide alternative models for development and to popularize science among the people.They have worked in the field of eco-development, creating awareness about water and energy conservation and encouraging the use of non-conventional energy sources such as smokeless chulhas, etc.

Kalpavriksh was started in 1971 as a movement opposed to the destruction of Delhi's green area. It is a citizens action group set up to inculcate understanding and concern on environmental issues, especially among the youth. It also aims to conduct research in environmental problems, to campaign on environmental issues and to evolve a holistic environmental perspective. It imparts environmental education in schools and colleges by forming a network of nature clubs, conducting bird watching expeditions and nature trails and has developed

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workbooks for the school level. It has conducted research on environmental subjects such as an impact assessment study on the Narmada Valley Project, pesticide use in India, air pollution in Delhi, mining activities in Dehra Dun district, protecting the Delhi ridge, are some of the works they have highlighted.

Ladakh Ecology Development Group (LEDG) was set up in 1983 in Ladakh in the Leh and Kargil Districts. It aims to promote ecological and sustainable development harmonious with the traditional cultures of the area. They have worked in the area of ecological development and protection of the environment. A great deal of awareness has been generated under their Village Outreach Project. They are encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, promoting organic farming and the making of handicrafts. They have contributed to the ban of plastics in the valley.

Madras Naturalists Society (MNS) commenced its activities in Chennai in 1976 but was registered in 1979. Its main aims are to study environmental problems in and around Chennai;to impart environmental education through seminars and discussions; to imbibe a love for nature through camps and slide shows; to organise visits to sanctuaries in Tamilnadu; to disseminate information on nonpolluting and renewable sources of energy. It imparts environmental education to students and teachers through planting of trees in schools and slide shows. It conducts surveys and symposia on water pollution and forest destruction and is cooperating with other agencies in studying the city's pollution problems.

Narmada Bachao Andalon was set up in 1986 under the leadership of Medha Patkar. It aims mainly to educate those directly affected by large development projects, such as tribals, on the social and environmental impact of such projects. To protest against the construction of dams in the Narmada Valley in general; struggling towards a right to information and new environmentally sustainable water policy. To help the tribals get a substantial share of the government's development schemes/services and to unable them to undertake development activities themselves. They mainly educate, mobilize and organize residents of the Narmada Valley on human rights and justice, alternative development policies, environmental issues related to big dams in general and the Narmada project in particular. They undertake

surveys of the affected villages, protest against land and forest issues and government interference in this regard.

Orissa Environmental Society was established in 1982 at Bhubaneshwar. It was set up to encourage and organise study, research, understanding and appreciation of nature They conduct research, seminars and workshops on forest and wildlife protection and organise eco-development camps. They are campaigning for a biosphere reserve forest area in the state. They are the resource agency for pollution control in Talcher industrial area.

Rajasthan Environment Preservation Society was set up in 1985 at Jaipur to work towards pollution control, afforestation, ecological and environmental preservation. To promote social forestry and plantation and to clean the ponds, lakes and reservoirs. They impart environmental education and awareness, provide consultancy and encourage the use of renewable sources of energy.

Ramakrishna Mission Lokashiksha Parishad was set up in 1952 and its mission is to uplift the rural people with a view to making them self-reliant. It works in 11 districts covering about 4000 villages. It has been carrying out programmes for the development of the wasteland areas restoration of bundhs in the Sundarbans riverine areas to protect the land from saline water.It has been promoting the use of smokeless chulhas, sanitary toilet linked biogas plants, solar energy; extensive tree plantation; preservation of the Sunderban biosphere; promoting ecofriendly farming. It is also working in the area of environmental education.

Srishti was set up in Delhi in 1988 to promote conservation and enrichment of the environment; to carry out research on all aspects of sustainable living; to foster concern for the environment among the people, making its preservation a shared responsibility. It played a very active role in the drafting and finalisation of the Biodegradable Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998.

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), established in 1974,TERI is a wholly independent not-for-profit research institute. Its mission is to develop and promote technologies, policies and institutions for efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. It has

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been imparting environmental education through projects, workshops, audio visual aids and quiz competitions. It deals with policy related work in the energy sector, research on environmental subjects development on renewable energy technologies and promotion of energy effeciency in the industry and transport. TERI also has a major programme in biotechnology, the applications of which are oriented towards increased biomass production, conversion of waste into useful products and mitigating the harmful environmental impacts of several economic activities

Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi was set up in 1967 to disseminate information o the environment. They have spread environmental education and training and are setting up a resource centre at Almora.

Vatavaran, an NGO working in the sector of solid waste collection. They have around 27 projects in different parts of Delhi including JNU and NOIDA. This organisation was formed in order to improve the ways and means of garbage collection through a more concrete method. People normally dump their garbage indiscriminately in the MCD bins where they overflow and a stink begins rising. But now through the method of door to door collection the colonies are much cleaner than they were before this organization stepped in. For a very nominal charge the garbage is collected from the doorstep and taken to the private dump where it is segregated. Biodegradable waste is put into compost pits and the non-biodegradable is further segregated into groups such as, glass, paper, and plastics and then send further to recycling industries or to mills that require these for raw material.

World Wide Fund for Nature was set up in India in 1969. The coordinating body the WWF International, is located in Gland in Switzerland. Its main aim is the promotion of conservation of nature and environmental protection as the basis for sustainable and equitable development.

It has five broad programme components:

a) Promoting India's ecological security; restoring the ecological balance.

b) Conserving biological diversity.

c) Ensuring sustainable use of the natural resource base.

d) Minimizing pollution and wasteful consumption.

e) Promoting sustainable lifestyles.

This organisation has been working in the field of biodiversity conservation including field projects, consultancy and research and support to other organizations; forest management; environmental education and awareness. They are doing wildlife trade monitoring, and assisting CITES and related National Legislations; research in Indian and international laws; legal intervention on environmental issues; legal education on environment including Asia's only diploma course on environmental law. \

3. A) Organizational problems of NGOs:

l Research into this area produced a number of common problems and dilemmas that NGOs experienced. One of the most mentioned was that of the decision-making processes. Tensions often occurred between staff and senior managers because of the staff expectations that they would be equal partners in the decision-making process (Mukasa, 2006).

l Fund raising activities were often the source of much tension in organizations. The strategies and images used to raise funds from the public were often felt to compromise the nature of the work done by other members of staff. These images often depicted beneficiaries as helpless victims in need of assistance, which other staff felt was inaccurate and lacked respect for the beneficiaries (Mukasa, 2006).

l Other problem is about staff; such as; recruitment, assignment and layoff as well as human resources development and administration and finally everyday management of staff (Vilain, 2006).

l The most commonly identified weaknesses of the sector include; limited financial and m a n a g e m e n t e x p e r t i s e , l i m i t e d institutional capacity, low levels of self-sustainability, isolation/lack of inter-organizational communication and/or coordination, lack of understanding of the broader social or economic context (Malena, 1995).

l Shortage of trained manpower in the field of environment protection.

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l Lack of understanding about their role in civil society and public perception that government alone is responsible for the well-being of its citizens and residents.

l Lack of research and development facilities.

l Financial constraints.

l Lack of support from the governmental agencies.

l Difficulty in the mobility on account of lack of transport facilities.

3. B ) R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o w a r d s Envi ronmenta l Pro tec t ion : Some suggestions that can be made towards protection of environment could be made in the following areas where NGOs could play an effective role with the assistance of governmental agencies for achieving the ultimate goal of healthy and blissful environment:

l To develop the organization, individuals have to be able to contribute in the decision making process and they need to learn. All participants need to understand their responsibility to represent their particular s takeholders and to suppor t the implementation activities (Inglis & Minahan, 2006).

l To motivate research on different measures to be taken to solve the environmental problems.

NGOs could form voluntary national professional associations, like associations of engineers, accountants, or insurance companies, aimed at promoting the sector, partly through self-policing of standards. The solution list is likely to include several of the following issues (Moore & Stewart, 1998).:

§ Timeliness of issuing of annual reports;

§ Employment, recruitment and staff development policies and practices;

§ Sources of finance;

§ Arrangements for internal or external scrut iny of f inancia l t ransact ions ,

employment practices, organizational policies, etc.; and

§ Arrangements for the evaluation of organizational performance.

CONCLUSION

In a nutshell, it can be stated that designing governance structures that draw NGOs into environmental problem solving, policymaking, and implementation remains an important challenge. The solution lies in a revitalized global environmental governance system that would facilitate both an expansion of these roles for NGOs and the development of better-defined processes of participation. NGOs cannot replace the state, but may perform complementary as well as supplementary role and it can be assessed by the above discussion that very existence of NGOs and the role played by them in the protection of the environment is not only important but also necessary because no government alone with any amount of laws and acts can achieve the objectives of environment protection without individual and public participation which can be achieved only through a successful Government-Corporate-NGO partnership based upon a commitment, mutual trust and respect, as well as the willingness to understand the values, objectives and concerns of all partners is a step in the right direction that would lead to a significant improvement in the environment.

REFERENCES

Chang, W. (2005) ”Expatriate training in international nongovernmental organizations: A Model for Research”, Human Resource Development Review Vol. 4, No. 4 , pp. 440-461

Inglis, L. & Minahan, S. (2006) ”Stakeholders and strategic planning: experiences of an Australian nonprofit organization 1993-2001", http://www.sba. muohio.edu/abas/2001/Quebec/Inglis_Stakeholdersand StrategicPlanninginNPOs.pdf, , (Accessed, August 11 2006)

Lewis, D. (2003) “Theorizing the organization and management of non-governmental development organizations towards a composite approach”, Public Management Review, Vol. 5 Issue 3, pp. 325–344

Lewis, D. (2006) ”Bridging the gap?: the parallel universes of the non-profit and non-governmental organisation research traditions and the changing

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context of voluntary action”, http://www.lse.ac.uk/ co l l ec t i ons /CCS/pd f / IWP/ in t -workpape r1 . pdf#search=%22%22NGO%20literature%20the%20u m b r e l l a % 2 0 t e r m % 2 0 % E 2 % 8 0 % 9 8 n o n -governmental%20organization%E2%80%99%20is%20generally%20used%20%22%22, (Accessed, August 11 2006)

Lewis, L. (2005), ”The civil society sector; a review of critical issues and research agenda for organizational c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s ” , M a n a g e m e n t Communication Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 238-267Malena, C. (1995) “A Practical Guide to Operational Collaboration between the World Bank and Non-Governmental Organization”, World Bank (available http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet /WDS ContentServer/WDSP/IB/1995/03/01/000009265_3961219103437/Rendered/INDEX/multi_page.txt)

Marcuello, C. (2001) “Approaching the third sector from a management perspective: what does this offer?” http://www.istr.org/networks/europe/marcuello.pdf, (Accessed, August 11 2006)

Moore, M. & Stewart, S. (1998) ”Corporate governance for NGOs?”, Development in Practice, Volume 8, Number 3

Mukasa, S. (2006) ”Are expatriate staff necessary in international development NGOs? A case study of an international NGO in Uganda”, CVO International Working Paper 4, http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections /CCS/pdf/int-work-paper4.pdf#search=% 22%22 Research%20into%20this%20area%20produced%20a%20number%20of%20common%20problems%20and%20dilemmas%20that%22%20%22, (Accessed, August 11 2006).

NGOWatch; NGOs, http://www.ngowatch.org/ ngos.php, (Accessed, August 11 2006)

Norrell, A. (2006) ”Bridging gaps or 'a bridge too far'? The management advocacy within service providing NGOs in the UK”, http://www.lse.ac.uk/ co l lec t ions /CCS/pdf / in t -work paper3 .pdf# search=%22 Bridging%20gaps% 20or%20% E2%80%98a%20bridge%20too%20far%E2%80%99% 3 F % 2 0 T h e % 2 0 m a n a g e m e n t % 2 0 o f % 2 2 , (Accessed, August 11 2006).

The Regional Environmental Center (REC) for Central and Eastern Europe, (2006) Problems, Progress and Possibilities; a needs assessment of environmental NGOs in Central and Eastern Europe, (April 1997), http://www.rec.org/REC/ Publications/ NGONeeds/cover.html, (Accessed, August 11 2006).

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, (2006)”Entrepreneurial Ngos And Their Role In En t repreneursh ip Deve lopmen t” , Un-Ece Operational Activities, (Accessed, August 11 2006 Http://www.Unece.Org/İndust/Sme/Ngo.Htm)

Vilain, M. (2006) ”Non-profit management – current challenges for personnel management in German welfareorganization”,http://www.istr.org/conferences/capetown/volume/vilain.pdf#search=%22%22recruitment%2C%20assignment%20and%20layoff%20as%20well%20as%20human%20resources%20development%20%22%22, (Accessed, August 11 2006).

Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, (2006) “ N o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ” , h t t p : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o rg / w i k i / N o n - g o v e r n mental_organization, (August 11 2006)

Willets, P. 2002, “What is a non-governmental organization?”,http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/index.htm (Accessed, August 11 2006)

http://www.ngoindia.com/baif/

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