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Schema Theory and Learning ESL/EFL

Considerable attention has been devoted in recent theories of second

language acquisition to learners' background knowledge. One of the

important theories of learning is calledschema theory, which has used in

many studies as it has a great unique impact. This is because of its

influence on perception and learners' memory. The significance of

schematic knowledge is now widely acknowledged in foreign language

teaching and many researches in the schema-oriented area of ESL/EFL

teaching have been carried out. This theory has various definitions and the

three types of schemata are content, formal, and cultural which are closely

related to learners ' reading and listening comprehension in acquiring L2.

Before going further, it is essential to have a background view of

Schema Theory. In 1932 schema theory was introduced by Frederic

Bartlett during working on constructive memory (Psybox Ltd, 2002). He

regarded schemas a part of top-down processing. Furthermore, Bartlett

(1977 cited in Landry, 2002)considered schemas to be structures of

knowledge stored in the long-term memory (Psybox Ltd, 2002). Moreover,

Rumelhart (1977 cited in Landry, 2002) has illustrated schemata as

"building blocks of cognition" that are used in the process of

understanding sensory data, in repossessing information from memory, inorganizing aims and sub-goals, in allocating resources, and in leading the

flow of the processing system. What is more, Rumelhart claimed that if our

schemata are unfinished and do not offer an understanding of the incoming

information from the text we will have troubles processing and

understanding the text ((Psybox Ltd, 2002).


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The schema theory believes that people do not observe any reality

straight, however just via a perceptual framework. A psychological schema

is the perceptual framework that people use to make sense of the globe

around them. Here is an example of how this theory works, for example

everybody has their own personal schema and when they get a perception

they attempt to fit into their schema. The perceptual framework and the

context provide meaning to what people perceive. Therefore, schema

theory is significant in many areas for instance communication and

learning. For example if there is different in schemas of people it will be

easy to misunderstand each other. When a person says "I like riding",referring to horse, another may think he is saying he likes bicycle! (Landry,

2002).

From above examples, it is likely to say that are various

efficacious ways of defining schema. Schema thoery is a theory of how

knowledge is obtained and processed. It deals with preexisting or prior

knowledge that is stored in our mind. (Nassaji, 2002 documented in Al-

Issa, 2006). Schema is a technical word used by cognitive proponents to

describe how a person processes, arranges and stores information in his

brain. Schemata concerns of how we organize information to long term

memory (Widdowson, 1983). It mirrors the experiences, conceptual

understanding, attitudes, values, skills, and strategies [we] bring to a

text situation (Vacca & Vacca, 1999, cited in Al-Issa ,2006). This theory

is grounded on the belief that every act of understanding includes of one's

Knowledge of the world (AL-Issa, 2006). From the exceeding definitions,

we might bring to a close that schema is the pre-existing knowledge gained

through experiences stored in ones mind. It is an abstract structure of

knowledge. Plainly, schema theory claims that all knowledge is organized

into units. Within these units of knowledge, or schemata, is stored

information. Each separate schema is an advice for representing knowledge


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of a concept, long with specifications for relating it to a proper network of

connections that seem to hold all parts of that particulate concept.

In general, there are three main types of schemas, explicitly, formal

schemata, linguistic schemata and content schemata. The formers, which

are also called textual, relate the organizational forms and rhetorical

structures of written texts (Jun, Xioa-hui and Wei-hua, 2007). They contain

knowledge of various text types and genres and as well, they consist off

knowledge of different types of texts use text organization, language

formation, vocabulary, sentence structure and level of formality differently(Jun et al. 2007). Formal schemata are defined as knowledge of language

and linguistic conventions, containing knowledge of how texts are

structured and what the key characteristics of a particular genre of writing

are (Alderson, 2000; Carrell, 1987; Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983).A person

can use formal schematic representations of a text to understand

information in a new text. A study of formal schema proposes that texts

with familiar rhetorical organization should be easier to read and

comprehend than texts with unfamiliar rhetorical organization (Carrell,

1987:464 revised in Etern and Razi, 2009).

Content schemata refer to the background knowledge of the content

area of a text, or the subject a text talks about such as knowledge about

people, the world, culture, and the universe (Brown, 2001revised in Erten

and Razi, 2009). On other words, they refer to the familiarity of the subject

matter of the text. They contain an understanding of the topic of the text

and the cultural-specific constituents required to interpret it. Content

schemata can additionally be divided into two different types: background

knowledge and subject matter knowledge. The earlier refers to the

knowledge that may or may not be relevant to the content of a particular

text, and the final is straightforwardly related to the text content and topic


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(Alderson, 2000 cited in Erten and Razi, 2009) Content schema is an

element of the individuals cultural orientation, and while culture

influences all aspects of life, it undoubtedly has a major impact on all

components of learning process (Al-Issa, 2006). While a language is not

only the simple mixture of vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar but

also the bearer of dissimilar levels of the languages culture. To some

extent, content schemata can compensate for the lack of language

schemata, and hence aid learners comprehend texts by predicting, selecting

information and eliminating vagueness (Jun et al. 2007).

The third type of schema is cultural schemata. It is also calledabstract schema (Nassaji, 2002; Oller, 1995 quoted in Etren and Razi,

2009),story schema (Mandler, 1984 revised Erten and Razi, 2009), or

linguistic schema (Ketchum, 2006 documented in Erten and Razi, 2009).

Yule (1996: 87cited in Erten and Razi, 2009) points out that cultural

schemata are developed ...in the context of our basic experiences They

are defined as the pr-existing knowledge about cultural elements of the

language being acquired. It is suggested that cultural schema as a culture-

specific extension of content schema since they refer to the role of cultural

relationship that is required to completely understand the meaning intended

by the author conceptual in nature, cultural schema brings about cultural

familiarity and helps a person to restructure the story line through referring

to more personally and culturally appropriate scripts (Oller, 1995 cited in

Erten and Razi, 2009). To interpret a text, suitable culture schemata

considered to be essential.

Generally, schema can affect our life .Schemas permit for us to

structure impressions. They influence how we may observe, perceive, and

also interpret information. Unluckily or luckily schemas may bias encoding

of social knowledge. For instance, people who come from different

countries or backgrounds may understand a situation in one way whereas


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others, based on previous experience, may consider it to be something

entirely different. Schemas as well depend on encoding. Encoding is how

we code what we may notice, hear, smell, or touch in our minds (Rober and

Rober, 2001). An individual can rely on schemata in his life when he faces

information that stick out. We also may depend on schemas when

something encoded in our minds was lately used or that is used regularly.

The individuals have schemata for every thing. Before coming upon any

new information, they develop units of knowledge about everything they

experience. Schemata become theories about reality.

Schema theory has a big impact on second language acquisition

field. It provides with a way to think about the representation of some

structures of complicated knowledge. It has concentrated attention on the

role old knowledge plays in acquiring new knowledge, and has highlighted

the specific techniques in the reading process in L2.

A number of studies in second language instructions have derived

their strategies from schemata theory.The most important implication of

schema theory is the role of prior knowledge in processing especially on

reading skill. They have proposed that relevant knowledge should be

activated before reading; that instructors should try to offer prerequisite

knowledge; and that more attention should be given to teaching higher-

order comprehension processes. The very important role of background

knowledge on reading comprehension is noted by Carrell and Eisterhold

(1983) and Anderson (1999 revised, Erten and Razi, 2009), that a readers

comprehension depends on her/his ability to relate the information that

she/he gets from the text with prior knowledge. There is a strong

relationship between reading process and schemata' types. As mentioned

earlier, formal schemata include the knowledge of organizational forms and

rhetorical structure of a text. Carrel (1984 cited in Al-Issa, 2006) confirmed

that explicit instruction of the text structure can improve students reading


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comprehension. . An appropriate employment of formal schemata plays a

significant function in reading. Content schema which defined as

knowledge of content can be the key understanding of a text. Jun et al.

(2007) argue that:

'' content schemata affect comprehension and remembering more than formal schemata

do for text organization. Readers remembered the most when both the content and

rhetorical forms were familiar to them while unfamiliar content may cause more

difficulties in correct comprehension.''p.21

Carrell and Eisterhold (1983), state that second language readers try to

provide schemas to make sense texts. They (1983) emphasize that in

ESL/EFL classroom teachers should be sensitive to reading process and

should provide their learners with texts that evoke their schemata. Using

schemata can be also applied in listening process and it is beneficial for it.

An investigation on this area, has confirmed that the accumulation of

schemata contributes most to effective comprehension and retention of new

listening material which are getting more difficult as students progress

along the way (Rumelhart, 1997 documented in Ya-jun, 2007).

Application of schema theory in listening teaching has revealed that

comprehension relies significantly on listeners successful activation of

their former knowledge (schemata). Psycholinguists conducting research

on listening also encourage teachers to help students construct more

schemata in their memory to achieve better comprehension in listening.

(Ya-jun, 2007).It can be concluded that it is urgent for ESL/EFL teachers

to supply suitable schema building to effectively reach the goal of building

and activating learners' schema knowledge.

In conclusion, Schema theory is described as theory of

individuals' prior knowledge which is classified into different types of

knowledge. There is no doubt that schema has positively affected the

educational field.Particularly, schema theory has great impact on teaching


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strategies of reading comprehension and listening process. Therefore

knowledge of schema theory is of a specific importance to teachers who are

accountable for recommending materials for reading instruction mainly on

his or her ESL teachers ability to activate the students related schemata

through classroom activities and teaching techniques. Finally, on my point

of view I recommend that teachers should be aware before deciding on

which reading and listening materials are to use in L2 classrooms.

References:

-Al-Issa, A. (2006, July) Schema Theory and L2 reading comprehension:

implication

for teaching.Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3, 7, 41-48.

-Carrell, P. L., & Eisterhold, J. C. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading.

TESOL

Quarterly, 17, 218232.

-Erten, I.H and Razi, S. (2009, April). The effects of cultural familiarity on

reading

comprehension.Reading in a Foreign Language, 1539-05787, 211,60-70.

-Landry, K. (2002). Schemata in second language reading.The Reading

Matrix,Vol.2,

No.3, Retrived

from:www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/article/thoeries- reading
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-Jun, W., Xioa-hui, L. & Wei-hua, W. (2007). Analysis of schema theory and its

influence on reading.US-China Foreign Language, 1539-8080, 5, 11

Serial No.50 School of Foreign Languages, Wuhan University of Technology,

China.

Psybox Ltd (2002). Schema [Electronic version] Retrieved 13 November

2009,from-

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/theories-reading

-Reber, A. S., & Reber, E. (2001). The Penguin dictionary of psychology (3rd

ed.). London: Penguin Books Ltd., England. Retrieved 11 November2009, from www.psychology.uiowa.edu

-Widdowson, H. G. (1983).Learning purpose and language use. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

-Ya-jun, Z. (2007, June).Schema theory and its application in teaching listening

for

non-English major undergraduates. Sino-Us English Teaching1539-8072,

4, 6, 32-46.

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http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/theories-readinghttp://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/theories-reading


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Dhofar University

College of Education and

Applied Science

Master Program


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EDUC 611

First Paper

Submitted to: Dr. Ahmed Al-Shafee

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