mutation a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s dna can be passed on to...

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MUTATION MUTATION a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA can be passed on to daughter cells typically neutral or harmful, rarely beneficial allow species to change and adapt over time only those adapted to their environment will survive

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Page 1: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

MUTATIONMUTATION

a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA

can be passed on to daughter cells

typically neutral or harmful, rarely beneficial►allow species to change and adapt over time►only those adapted to their environment will

survive

Page 2: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►Multicellular organisms have two types of mutations:

Somatic mutations

►passed on during mitosis, but not to subsequent generations

Germ-line mutations

►occur in cells that give rise to gametes, passed to subsequent generations

Page 3: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Mutations Can Be:Mutations Can Be:

► spontaneous take place naturally as a result of normal

molecular interactions (ex. DNA pol made a mistake, 1/10–9)►ex. DNA replication, transposons (jumping genes)

►induced caused by agents outside the cell mutagen: a substance that increases the rate

of mutation

Page 4: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

► ex. nitrous acid (HNO2) can turn C in DNA into U

► ex. benzpyrene, a component of cigarette smoke adds a large chemical group to G, making it unavailable for

base pairing

► ex. ionizing radiation (X-rays) produces highly reactive chemical species called free radicals,

which can change bases in DNA to unrecognizable (by DNA polymerase) forms

It can also break the sugar–phosphate backbone of DNA, causing chromosomal abnormalities

UV is absorbed by thymine in DNA, causing it to form interbase covalent bonds with adjacent nucleotides. This, too, plays havoc with DNA replication.

Page 5: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►mutagensmutagens physicalphysical

►ex. X-rays, UVex. X-rays, UV

chemicalchemical►ex. nitrites, gasoline fumes, cigarette smokeex. nitrites, gasoline fumes, cigarette smoke

Page 6: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 7: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Types of MutationsTypes of Mutations1. single-gene mutations

changes in nucleotide sequence of one gene

a) point mutation (mispairing) most frequent type single base pair is substituted/inserted/deleted

b) frameshift mutation (strand slippage) change of reading frame a HUGE deal!

Page 8: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►effect can be minor, or not…

depends on final consequence

Page 9: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 10: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

(reading the code)

Page 11: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Silent

Neutral

Nonsense

Missense

Page 12: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

i) silent mutation

►aa sequence stays the same

Page 13: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

ii. missense mutation

►alters aa sequence of a protein

Page 14: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Single base change in hemoglobin gene causes sickle cell anemia

wildtypeallele

mutantallele

wildtypephenotype

mutantphenotype

Page 15: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

iii. nonsense mutation

►mutation that inserts a “stop” earlier than it was

Page 16: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

iv. frame-shift mutation

►reading frame shifts

Page 17: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

► Base substitutions (point mutations) ,insertions, Base substitutions (point mutations) ,insertions, and deletionsand deletions

Page 18: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 19: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Types of MutationsTypes of Mutations

2. 2. chromosome mutations changes in chromosomes, can involve

many genes

usually a consequence of cross-over gone wrong (meiosis)

Page 20: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 21: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

So…if this is dangerous, how do So…if this is dangerous, how do you fix it?you fix it?

Page 22: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

ERROR CORRECTIONERROR CORRECTION

► a human cell can copy its DNA in a a human cell can copy its DNA in a few hoursfew hours

if you were to type this, 1 letter per if you were to type this, 1 letter per second, it would take you close to 100 second, it would take you close to 100 yearsyears

200 books at 1000 pages each…200 books at 1000 pages each…

Page 23: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►error rate: 1/1 billion pairs (3 billion pairs total)

Page 24: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

MECHANISMS OF REPAIRMECHANISMS OF REPAIR

1. DNA polymerase I and DNA polymerase II

- both proof-read and “fix” mistakes as new DNA is being made

99% of mistakes are caught this way incorrect base is taken out, correct

added

Page 25: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

2. Mismatch repair- similar in prokaryotes and eukaryotes- protein group replaces mismatched

nucleotide with correct one

Page 26: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 27: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Mutations and EvolutionMutations and Evolution

►typically neutral or harmful, rarely beneficial

►allow species to change and adapt over time

• random accumulation of mutations (in the extra copies of genes) can lead to the production of new useful proteins and new functions!

Page 28: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 29: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 30: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 31: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 32: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely
Page 33: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

World map of human migrations, with the North Pole at center. Migration patterns are based on studies of mitochondrial (matrilinear) DNA. Dashed lines are hypothetical migrations.Numbers represent thousand years before present, with 2-4% mutation rate per 1 million years.

Page 34: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Our sense of smell sucks…► 80 genes were lost in the human lineage after

separation from the last common ancestor with the chimpanzee. 36 of those were for olfactory receptors.

Our immune systems are amazing, allowing us to live in very large groups

► Genes involved in chemoreception and immune response are overrepresented

We’re the “hairless ape”► A gene for type I hair keratin was lost in the human

lineage. The loss of that particular gene may have caused the thinning of human body hair. The gene loss occurred relatively recently in human evolution—less than 240,000 years ago.

Page 35: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

Our jaws are not all that useful

► Stedman et al. (2004) stated that the loss of the sarcomeric myosin gene MYH16 in the human lineage led to smaller jaw muscles.

► They estimated that the mutation that led to the inactivation (a two base pair deletion) occurred 2.4 million years ago, predating the appearance of Homo ergaster/erectus in Africa.

The period that followed was marked by a strong increase in cranial capacity, promoting speculation that the loss of the gene may have removed an evolutionary constraint on brain size in the genus Homo.

Page 36: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►Compared with

chimps, humans have evolved weak jaw muscles and jaw bones – cooked food and your brain?

Page 37: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►The expansion of the human brain may have involved a snowball effect, in which initial mutations caused further mutations that enhanced the brain even more

Page 38: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►Humans' big brains require extra energy – three mutations may have helped meet that demand

Page 39: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

► In 6 million years, our diet gradually changed from fruit and leaves to starchy grains. Genes involved in digestion offer a timeline to those dietary changes

Page 40: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

We can TALK►Humans and Neanderthals also share the

FOXP2 gene variant associated with brain development and with speech in humans, indicating that Neanderthals may have been able to speak.

►Chimps have two amino acid differences in FOXP2 compared with human and Neanderthal FOXP2

Page 41: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely

►You can teach a chimp tricks, but it won't ever talk. The human "language gene" has helped us learn the rules of speech and maybe even grammar

Page 42: MUTATION   a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA   can be passed on to daughter cells   typically neutral or harmful, rarely