muslims destroying hindu temples

8/10/2019 Muslims Destroying Hindu Temples

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62 FRONTLINE, DECEMBER 22, 2000

IN recent years, especially in the wake of the destruction of theBabri Mosque in 1992, much public discussion has arisen overthe political status of South Asian temples and mosques, and inparticular the issue of temples desecrated or replacedby mosques in the pre-British period. While Hindunationalists like Sita Ram Goel have endeavoured todocument a pattern of wholesale temple destruction by Muslimsin this period,1 few professional historians have engaged the issue,even though it is a properly historical one.

This essay aims to examine the available evidence with a viewto asking,What temples were in fact desecrated in Indias pre-modernhistory?When, and by whom?How, and for what purpose?And above all, what might any of this say about the relation-ship between religion and politics in pre-modern India? This isa timely topic, since many in India today are looking to the pastto justify or condemn public policy with respect to religious mon-uments.

FRAMING THE ISSUE

Much of the contemporary evidence on temple desecration

cited by Hindu nationalists is found in Persian materials trans-

lated and published during the British occupation of India.Especially influential has been the eight-volume History of Indiaas Told by its Own Historians, first published in 1849 and edit-ed by Sir Henry M. Elliot, who oversaw the bulk of the transla-tions, with the help of John Dowson. But Elliot, keen to contrast

what he understood as the justice and efficiency ofBritish rule with the cruelty and despotism of theMuslim rulers who had preceded that rule, was any-

thing but sympathetic to the Muhammadan period of Indianhistory. As he wrote in the books original preface:

The common people must have been plunged into the lowestdepths of wretchedness and despondency. The few glimpseswe have, even among the short Extracts in this single volume,of Hindus slain for disputing with Muhammadans, of gener-al prohibitions against processions, worship, and ablutions,and of other intolerant measures, of idols mutilated, of tem-ples razed, of forcible conversions and marriages, of proscrip-tions and confiscations, of murders and massacres, and of thesensuality and drunkenness of the tyrants who enjoined them,show us that this picture is not overcharged....2

With the advent of British power, on the other hand, a morestirring and eventful era of Indias History commences ... whenthe full light of European truth and discernment begins to shedits beams upon the obscurity of the past.3 Noting the far greaterbenefits that Englishmen had brought to Indians in a mere half

Temple desecrationin pre-modern IndiaWhen, where, and why were Hindu temples desecrated in pre-modern history, and how was this

connected with the rise of Indo-Muslim states?

H I S T O R I C A L A N A L Y S I S

RICHARD M. EATON

1 See Sita Ram Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, vol. 1:A Preliminary Survey (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1990); vol. 2, The Islamic Evidence(NewDelhi: Voice of India, 1991).

2 H.M. Elliot and John Dowson, trans. and eds., The History of India as Told by its Own Historians, 8 vols. (Allahabad: Kitab Mahal, n.d.), 1:xxi.3 Ibid., 1:xvi.

The historical experience of temple desecration in pre-modern India and, at a more general level, contested his-tory revolving round Indo-Muslim rulers and states has become a sensitive mass political issue in contemporaryIndia. The demolition of the Babri Masjid, on December 6, 1992, by storm-troopers of the Sangh Parivar, and the

train of communal violence and ill-fare this vandalism brought to different regions of the country, propelled theissue to national centre-stage. The ideologues of the Hindu Right have, through a manipulation of pre-modern his-tory and a tendentious use of source material and historical data, built up a dangerously plausible picture of fanati-cism, vandalism and villainy on the part of the Indo-Muslim conquerors and rulers. Part of the ideological andpolitical argument of the Hindu Right is the assertion that for about five centuries from the thirteenth, Indo-Muslimstates were driven by a theology of iconoclasm not to mention fanaticism, lust for plunder, and uncompromis-ing hatred of Hindu religion and places of worship. In this illuminating and nuanced essay on temple desecrationand Indo-Muslim states, which Frontline offers its readers in two parts, the historian Richard M. Eaton presentsimportant new insights and meticulously substantiated conclusions on what happened or is likely to have happenedin pre-modern India.

Editor, Frontline

PART I


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63FRONTLINE, DECEMBER 22, 2000

century than Muslims had brought in five centuries, Elliotexpressed the hope that his published translations will make ournative subjects more sensible of the immense advantages accru-ing to them under the mildness and the equity of our rule.4

Elliots motives for delegitimising the Indo-Muslim rulers

who had preceded English rule are thus quite clear. Writing in1931 on the pernicious influence that the colonial understand-ing of pre-modern Indian history had on subsequent generations,Mohammad Habib remarked: The peaceful Indian Mussalman,descended beyond doubt from Hindu ancestors, was dressed upin the garb of a foreign barbarian, as a breaker of temples, andan eater of beef, and declared to be a military colonist in the landwhere he had lived for about thirty or forty centuries.... The resultof it is seen in the communalistic atmosphere of India today.5

Although penned many years ago, these words are relevantin the context of current controversies over the history of tem-ple desecration in India. For it has been through selective trans-lations of pre-modern Persian chronicles, together with a selectiveuse of epigraphic data, that Hindu nationalists have sought to

find the sort of irrefutable evidence that would demonstrate apersistent pattern of villainy and fanaticism on the part of pre-modern Indo-Muslim conquerors and rulers. One of Goelschapters is even entitled From the Horses Mouth. In reality,however, every scrap of evidence in this controversial matterrequires careful scrutiny.

TEMPLE DESECRATION BEFORE INDO-MUSLIM STATES

It is well known that, during the two centuries before 1192,which was when an indigenous Indo-Muslim state and com-munity first appeared in north India, Persianised Turks system-atically raided and looted major urban centres of South Asia,sacking temples and hauling immense loads of movable proper-ty to power bases in eastern Afghanistan. The pattern com-

menced in 986, when the Ghaznavid Sultan Sabuktigin (reign977-997) attacked and defeated the Hindu Shahiraja who controlled the region between Kabul andnorthwest Punjab. According to Abu Nasr Ùtbi,the personal secretary to the sultans son,Sabuktigin marched out towards Lamghan (locat-ed to the immediate east of Kabul), which is a citycelebrated for its great strength and abounding inwealth. He conquered it and set fire to the placesin its vicinity which were inhabited by infidels, anddemolishing the idol-temples, he established Islamin them.6

Linking religious conversion with conquest with conquest serving to facilitate conversion, andconversion serving to legitimise conquest Utbisbrief notice established a rhetorical trope that manysubsequent Indo-Muslim chroniclers wouldrepeat.

Notwithstanding such rhetoric, however, inva-sions of India by Sabuktigin and his more famousson Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 998-1030) appear to

have been undertaken for material reasons. Based in Afghanistanand never seeking permanent dominion in India, the earlierGhaznavid rulers raided and looted Indian cities, including theirrichly endowed temples loaded with movable wealth, with a viewto financing their larger political objectives far to the west, in

Khurasan.7 The predatory nature of these raids was also structurallyintegral to the Ghaznavid political economy: their army was a per-manent, professional one built around an elite corps of mountedarchers who, as slaves, were purchased, equipped, and paid withcash derived from regular infusions of war booty taken alike fromHindu cities in India and Muslim cities in Iran. For example,Mahmuds plunder of the Iranian city of Ray, in 1029, broughthim 500,000 dinars worth of jewels, 260,000 dinars in coinedmoney, and over 30,000 dinars worth of gold and silver vessels.India, however, possessed far more wealth than the more sparselypopulated Iranian plateau. Mahmuds 1026 raid on Somnathalone brought in twenty million dinars worth of spoil.8

The dynamics of north Indian politics changed dramatical-ly, however, when the Ghurids, a dynasty of Tajik (eastern

Iranian) origins, arrived from central Afghanistan toward the endof the twelfth century. Sweeping aside the Ghaznavids, Ghuridconquerors and their Turkish slave generals ushered in a new sortof state quite unlike that of the foreign-based Ghaznavids (seeFigure 1). Aspiring to imperial dominion over the whole of northIndia from a base in the middle of the Indo-Gangetic plain, thenew Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) signalled the first attempt tobuild an indigenous Muslim state and society in north India.With respect to religious policy, we can identify two principalcomponents to this project: (a) state patronage of an India-basedSufi order, the Chishtis, and (b) a policy of selective temple des-ecration that aimed not, as earlier, to finance distant militaryoperations on the Iranian Plateau, but to delegitimise and extir-pate defeated Indian ruling houses.

The first of these policies was based on a conception of reli-gion and politics well summarised by the Deccanicourt-poet Abd al-Malik Isami. Writing in 1350,Ìsami observed that

the existence of the world is bound up closelywith that of the men of faith. In every country,there is a man of piety who keeps it going andwell. Although there might be a monarch inevery country, yet it is actually under the pro-tection of a fakir (Sufi shaikh).9

Sufis, in other words, were understood as thereal sovereigns of Indo-Muslim states. Amongall South Asian Sufi orders, moreover, theChishtis were the most closely identified with thepolitical fortunes of Indo-Muslim states, andespecially with the planting of such states in partsof South Asia never previously touched byIslamic rule. The pattern began in the first halfof the fourteenth century, when that orders riseto prominence among Delhis urban populacecoincided with the political expansion of the

Figure 1: Silver coin of

Ali Mardan (ca. 1208-

1213), commemorating

the conquest of Bengal

by the newly-established

Delhi Sultanate, in May

1204. Courtesy of G.S.

Farid, Asiatic Society,

Calcutta.

4 Ibid., 1:xxii, xxvii.5 K.A. Nizami, ed., Politics and Society during the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib (New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House,1974), 1:12.

6 Ùtbi, Tarikh-i Yamini, in Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 2:22.7 C.E. Bosworth, The Later Ghaznavids, Splendour and Decay: The Dynasty in Afghanistan and Northern India, 1040-1186 (1977; repr. New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal, 1992), 32, 68.

8 C.E. Bosworth, The Ghaznavids: Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran, 994-1040 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963), 78.

9Àbd al-Malik

Ìsami, Futuhus-salatin by Isami, ed. A.S. Usha (Madras: University of Madras, 1948), 455; Agha Mahdi Husain, ed. and trans., Futuhus-salatin,or Shah Namah-i Hind of Ìsami (London: Asia Publishing House, 1967), 3:687.


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imperial Tughluqs.10 By effectively injecting a legitimisingsubstance into a new body politic at the moment of its birth,the patronage of Chishti shaikhs by governors in Tughluqprovinces, or by independent rulers succeeding to power inthose provinces, contributed positively to the process of Indo-Muslim state-building.

Equally important to this process was its negative counter-part: the sweeping away of all prior political authority in newlyconquered and annexed territories. When such authority wasvested in a ruler whose own legitimacy was associated with a royaltemple typically one that housed an image of a ruling dynastysstate-deity, or rastra-devata (usually Vishnu or Siva) that tem-ple was normally looted, redefined, or destroyed, any of which

would have had the effect of detaching a defeated raja from themost prominent manifestation of his former legitimacy. Templesthat were not so identified, or temples formerly so identified butabandoned by their royal patrons and thereby rendered politi-cally irrelevant, were normally left unharmed. Such was the case,for example, with the famous temples at Khajuraho south of the

Middle Gangetic Plain, which appear to have been abandonedby their Candella royal patrons before Turkish armies reachedthe area in the early thirteenth century.

It would be wrong to explain this phenomenon by appeal-ing to an essentialised theology of iconoclasm felt to be intrin-sic to the Islamic religion. It is true that contemporary Persiansources routinely condemned idolatry (but-parasti) on religiousgrounds. But it is also true that attacks on images patronised byenemy kings had been, from about the sixth century A.D. on,thoroughly integrated into Indian political behaviour. With theirlushly sculpted imagery vividly displaying the mutual interde-pendence of kings and gods and the commingling of divine andhuman kingship, royal temple complexes of the early medievalperiod were thoroughly and pre-eminently political institutions.It was here that, after the sixth century, human kingship wasestablished, contested, and revitalised. Above all, the central iconhoused in a royal temples womb-chamber, and inhabited bythe state-deity of the temples royal patron, expressed the sharedsovereignty of king and deity (see Figures 2 and 3).

Moreover, notwithstanding that temple priests endowed aroyal temples deity with attributes of transcendent and uni-versal power, that same deity was also understood as having avery special relationship, indeed a sovereign relationship, withthe particular geographical site in which its temple complexwas located. As revealed in temple narratives, even the physi-cal removal of an image from its original site could not break


10 See Simon Digby, The Sufi Shaikh as a Source of Authority in Mediaeval India, in Marc Gaborieau, ed., Islam and Society in South Asia, in Purusartha 9 (Paris:

Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 1986), 69-70.

Figure 3: Vijayanagara, A.D. 1430. Devarajapuram copperplate inscription showing the signature of Vijayanagarasstate-deity Virupaksha, certifying a grant of land to Brahminsmade by King Devaraya II (1425-1446). Virupakshassignature, at the bottom, is in Kannada script, while the restappears in Sanskrit. Collection of the R.S.R. ArchaeologicalMuseum, Rajahmundry, A.P. Photo by Phillip B. Wagoner.

Figure 2: Stone sculpture of Narasimha I (1238-64), raja ofthe Eastern Ganga dynasty, standing with a sword in his belt(right). The king is leaning over a priest and worshipping thedynastic state-deity, Lord Jagannath, flanked on the right bya Siva linga and on the left by an image of Durga. Originallyin the Surya temple at Konarak, Orissa, ca. 1250; presentlyin the National Museum, New Delhi. Courtesy of John C.Huntington.


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the link between deity and geography.11 A divine power,writes David Shulman, is felt to be present naturally on thespot.12 The bonding between king, god, temple, and land inearly medieval India is well illustrated in a passage from theBrhatsamhita, a sixth century text: If a Siva linga, image, ortemple breaks apart, moves, sweats, cries, speaks, or otherwiseacts with no apparent cause, this warns of the destruction ofthe king and his territory.13 In short, from about the sixth cen-tury on, images and temples associated with dynastic authori-ty were considered politically vulnerable.

Given these perceived connections between temples, images,and their royal patrons, it is hardly surprising that, as RichardH. Davis has recently shown,14 early medieval Indian historyabounds in instances of temple desecration that occurred amidst

inter-dynastic conflicts. In 642 A.D., according to local tradi-tion, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I looted the image ofGanesha from the Chalukyan capital of Vatapi. Fifty years laterarmies of those same Chalukyas invaded north India and broughtback to the Deccan what appear to be images of Ganga andYamuna, looted from defeated powers there. In the eighth cen-tury Bengali troops sought revenge on king Lalitaditya bydestroying what they thought was the image of VishnuVaikuntha, the state-deity of Lalitadityas kingdom in Kashmir.

In the early ninth century, the Rashtrakuta king Govinda IIIinvaded and occupied Kanchipuram, which so intimidated theking of Sri Lanka that he sent Govinda several (probably Buddhist)images that had represented the Sinhala state, and which theRashtrakuta king then installed in a Saiva temple in his capital.

11 Richard H. Davis, Lives of Indian Images(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999), 122, 137-38.12 David D. Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 48.Emphasis mine.

13 Cited in Davis, Lives, 53.14 Davis, Lives, 51-83,passim.

Figure 4: Image of Durga seized from the Chalukyas byRajendra I, Chola king (1012-1044), and taken to his capital.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. Courtesyof Richard H. Davis. (Right) Figure 5: The Tamil inscription atthe base of this sculpture, seized by the imperial Cholas in1045 from their Chalukya enemies, reads: This is the doorguardian brought by Lord Vijayarajendradeva after burning(the Chalukya capital) Kalyanapuram. Institut FrancaisedIndologie, Pondicherry. Courtesy of Richard H. Davis.


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About the same time, the Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha alsoinvaded Sri Lanka and took back to his capital a golden Buddhaimage that had been installed in the kingdoms Jewel Palace. Inthe early tenth century, the Pratihara king Herambapala seized asolid gold image of Vishnu Vaikuntha when he defeated the Sahi

king of Kangra. By the mid-tenth century, the same image wasseized from the Pratiharas by the Candella king Yasovarman andinstalled in the Lakshmana temple of Khajuraho.

In the early eleventh century, the Chola king Rajendra I fur-nished his capital with images he had seized from several promi-nent neighbouring kings: Durga and Ganesha images from theChalukyas; Bhairava, Bhairavi, and Kali images from theKalingas of Orissa; a Nandi image from the Eastern Chalukyas;and a bronze Siva image from the Palas of Bengal (see Figure4). In the mid-eleventh century, the Chola king Rajadhirajadefeated the Chalukyas and plundered Kalyani, taking a largeblack stone door guardian to his capital in Thanjavur, where itwas displayed to his subjects as a trophy of war (see Figure 5).In the late eleventh century, the Kashmiri king Harsha even

raised the plundering of temples to an institutionalised activi-ty; and in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century, whileTurkish rulers were establishing themselves in north India, kingsof the Paramara dynasty attacked and plundered Jain templesin Gujarat.15

This pattern continued after the Turkish conquest of India.In the 1460s, Kapilendra, the founder of the SuryavamshiGajapati dynasty in Orissa, sacked both Saiva and Vaishnavatemples in the Cauvery delta in the course of wars of conquestin the Tamil country.16 Somewhat later, in 1514,Krishnadevaraya looted an image of Balakrishna from Udayagiri,which he had defeated and annexed to his growing Vijayanagarastate. Six years later he acquired control over Pandharpur, wherehe seems to have looted the Vittala image and carried it back to

Vijayanagara, with the apparent purpose of ritually incorporat-ing this area into his kingdom.17

Although the dominant pattern here was one of looting royaltemples and carrying off images of state-deities, we also hear ofHindu kings engaging in the destruction of the royal temples oftheir political adversaries. In the early tenth cen-tury, the Rashtrakuta monarch Indra III not onlydestroyed the temple of Kalapriya (at Kalpa nearthe Yamuna River), patronised by theRashtrakutas deadly enemies, the Pratiharas, butalso took special delight in recording the fact.18

IMPERIALISM OF THE DELHI SULTANATE,

1192-1394

In short, it is clear that temples had been thenatural sites for the contestation of kingly author-ity well before the coming of Muslim Turks toIndia. Not surprisingly, Turkish invaders, whenattempting to plant their own rule in earlymedieval India, followed and continued estab-lished patterns. The table and the corresponding

maps in this essay by no means give the complete picture of tem-ple desecration after the establishment of Turkish power inUpper India. Undoubtedly some temples were desecrated butthe facts in the matter were never recorded, or the facts wererecorded but the records themselves no longer survive.

Conversely, later Indo-Muslim chroniclers, seeking to glorify thereligious zeal of earlier Muslim rulers, sometimes attributed actsof temple desecration to such rulers even when no contempo-rary evidence supports the claims. As a result, we shall never knowthe precise number of temples desecrated in Indian history.

Nonetheless, by relying strictly on evidence found in con-temporary or near-contemporary epigraphic and literary sourcesspanning a period of more than five centuries (1192-1729), onemay identify eighty instances of temple desecration whose his-toricity appears reasonably certain. Although this figure falls wellshort of the 60,000 claimed by some Hindu nationalists,19 areview of these data suggests several broad patterns.

First, acts of temple desecration were nearly invariably car-ried out by military officers or ruling authorities; that is, such

acts that we know about were undertaken by the state. Second,the chronology and geography of the data indicate that acts oftemple desecration typically occurred on the cutting edge of amoving military frontier. From Ajmer in Rajasthan, the formercapital of the defeated Cahamana Rajputs also, significantly,the wellspring of Chishti piety the post-1192 pattern of tem-ple desecration moved swiftly down the Gangetic Plain asTurkish military forces sought to extirpate local ruling houses inthe late twelfth and early thirteenth century (see Table and Map1: nos. 1-9). In Bihar, this included the targeting of Buddhistmonastic establishments at Odantapuri, Vikramasila, andNalanda. Detached from a Buddhist laity, these establishmentshad by this time become dependent on the patronage of localroyal authorities, with whom they were identified. In the 1230s,

Iltutmish carried the Delhi Sultanates authority into Malwa(nos. 10-11), and by the onset of the fourteenth century theKhalji sultans had opened up a corridor through easternRajasthan into Gujarat (nos. 12-14, 16-17).

Delhis initial raids on peninsular India, on which Khalji rulersembarked between 1295 and the early decades ofthe fourteenth century (nos. 15, 18-19), appear tohave been driven not by a goal of annexation butby the Sultanates need for wealth with which todefend north India from Mongol attacks. In 1247,Balban, the future sultan of Delhi, had recom-mended raiding Indian states for precisely this pur-pose.20 For a short time, then, peninsular Indiastood in the same relation to the North namely,as a source of plunder for financing distant militaryoperations as north India had stood in relation toAfghanistan three centuries earlier, in the days ofSabuktigin and Mahmud of Ghazni. After 1320,however, a new north Indian dynasty, theTughluqs, sought permanent dominion in theDeccan, which the future Sultan Muhammad binTughluq established by uprooting royally patron-

Figure 6: Silver coin of

Sultan Iltutmish

(1210-1235). Courtesy

of G.S. Farid, Asiatic

Society, Calcutta.

15 See Romila Thapar, Harbans Mukhia, and Bipan Chandra, Communalism and the Writing of Indian History(Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 1969), 14, 31.16 See Phillip B. Wagoner, Tidings of the King: A Translation and Ethnohistorical Analysis of the Rayavacakamu (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993), 146.17 Davis, Lives, 65, 67.18 Michael Willis, Religion and Royal Patronage in north India, in Vishakha N. Desai and Darielle Mason, eds., Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculpturesfrom North India, AD 700-1200(New York: Asia Society Galleries, 1993), 59.19 Entry for the date 1688 in Hindu Timeline, Hinduism Today(December, 1994), cited in Cynthia Talbot, Inscribing the Other, Inscribing the Self: Hindu-

Muslim Identities in Pre-Colonial India, Comparative Studies in Society and History 37, no.4 (Oct., 1995), 692.20 See Minhaj Siraj Juzjani, Tabakat-i-Nasiri, trans. H.G. Raverty (1881; repr. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corp., 1970), 2:816.


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ised temples in western Andhra, most prominently theSvayambhusiva complex in the centre of the Kakatiyas capital cityof Warangal (nos. 20-22. See Figure 7). Somewhat later SultanFiruz Tughluq did the same in Orissa (no. 23).

THE GROWTH OF REGIONAL SULTANATES, 1394-1600

From the late fourteenth century, after the tide of Tughluqimperialism had receded from Gujarat and the Deccan, newlyemerging successor states sought to expand their own political fron-tiers in those areas. This, too, is reflected in instances of templedesecration, as the ex-Tughluq governor of Gujarat and his suc-cessors consolidated their authority there (see Map 2: nos. 25-26,31-32, 34-35, 38-39, 42), or as the Delhi empires successors inthe South, the Bahmani sultans, challenged Vijayanagaras claimsto dominate the Raichur doab and the Tamil coast (nos. 33, 41).The pattern was repeated in Kashmir by Sultan Sikandar (nos. 27-30), and in the mid-fifteenth century when the independent sul-tanate of Malwa contested renewed Rajput power in easternRajasthan after Delhis authority there had waned (nos. 36-37).

In the early sixteenth century, when the Lodi dynasty ofAfghans sought to reassert Delhis sovereignty over neighbouringRajput houses, we again find instances of temple desecration (nos.43-45). So do we in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth cen-turies, when the Bahmani Kingdoms principal successor states,Bijapur and Golconda, challenged the territorial sovereignty ofOrissan kings (nos. 55, 59; Maps 2 and 3), of Vijayanagara (no.47), and of the latters successor states especially in the southernAndhra country (nos. 50-51, 53-54, 60-61; Maps 2 and 3).

Unlike the Deccan, where Indo-Muslim states had beenexpanding at the expense of non-Muslim states, in north Indiathe Mughals under Babur, Humayun, and Akbar that is,between 1526 and 1605 grew mainly at the expense of defeat-ed Afghans. As non-Hindus, the latter had never shared sover-eignty with deities patronised in royal temples, which probably

explains the absence of firm evidence of temple desecration byany of the early Mughals, in Ayodhya or elsewhere. The notionthat Baburs officer Mir Baqi destroyed a temple dedicated toRamas birthplace at Ayodhya and then got the emperors sanc-tion to build a mosque on the site the Babri Masjid was elab-orated in 1936 by S.K. Banerji. However, the author offered noevidence that there had ever been a temple at this site, much less

that it had been destroyed by Mir Baqi. The mosques inscrip-tion records only that Babur had ordered the construction of themosque, which was built by Mir Baqi and was described as theplace of descent of celestial beings (mahbit-i qudsiyan). Thiscommonplace rhetorical flourish can hardly be construed as refer-ring to Rama, especially since it is the mosque itself that is sodescribed, and not the site or any earlier structure on the site.21

However, whenever Mughal armies pushed beyond the fron-tiers of territories formerly ruled by the Delhi sultans and soughtto annex the domains of Hindu rulers, we again find instances oftemple desecration. In 1661 the governor of Bengal, Mir Jumla,sacked the temples of the neighbouring raja of Cooch Bihar, whohad been harassing the northern frontiers of Mughal territory (no.64; Map 3). The next year, with a view to annexing Assam to theimperial domain, the governor pushed far up the Brahmaputravalley and desecrated temples of the Ahom rajas, replacing theprincipal one at Garhgaon with a mosque (nos. 65-66).

All of these instances of temple desecration occurred in thecontext of military conflicts when Indo-Muslim states expandedinto the domains of non-Muslim rulers. Contemporary chroni-clers and inscriptions left by the victors leave no doubt that fieldcommanders, governors, or sultans viewed the desecration of royaltemples as a normal means of decoupling a former Hindu kingslegitimate authority from his former kingdom, and more specifi-cally, of decoupling that former king from the image of the state-deity that was publicly understood as protecting the king and hiskingdom. This was accomplished in one of several ways. Most typ-ically, temples considered essential to the constitution of enemy

21 See S.K. Banerji, Babur and the Hindus,Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society 9 (1936), 76-83.

Figure 7: Site of the Svayambhusiva temple at Warangal, demolished in 1323 by the Tughluq prince Ulugh Khan.Photo: John Henry Rice.


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Instanceso

fTempleDesecration

No.

Date

Site

District

S

tate

Agent

Source

1

1193

Ajmer

Ajmer

R

ajasthan

Md.Ghuri(s)

23:2

15

2

1193

Samana

Patiala

P

unjab

Aibek

23:216-17

3

1193

Kuhram

Karnal

H

aryana

Aibek(g)

23:216-17

4

1193

Delhi

U

.P.

Md.Ghuri(s)

1(1911):13

23:217,2

22

5

1194

Kol

Aligarh

U

.P.

Ghuridarmy

23:2

24

6

1194

Banaras

Banaras

U

.P.

Ghuridarmy

23:2

23

7

c.1202

Nalanda

Patna

B

ihar

BakhtiyarKhalaji(c)

20:90

No.

Date

Site

District

State

Agent

Source

39

1473

Dwarka

Jamnagar

Gujarat

MahmudBegdha(s)

14-3:259-61

40

1478

Kondapalle

Krishna

A.P.

Md.IIBahmani(s)

6-2:306

41

c.1478

Kanchi

Chingleput

TamilNadu

Md.IIBahmani

6-2:308

42

1505

Amod

Broach

Gujarat

KhalilShah(g)

1(1933):36

43

1489-1517

Nagarkot

Kangra

Him.P.

KhawwasKhan(g)

35:81

44

1507

Utgir

SawaiMadh.

Rajasthan

SikandarLodi(s)

14-1:375

45

1507

Narwar

Shivpuri

M.P.

SikandarLodi

14-1:378

46

1518

Gwalior

Gwalior

M.P

IbrahimLodi(s)

14-1:402

47

1530-31

Devarkonda

Nalgonda

A.P.

QuliQutbShah(s)

6-3:212

48

1552

Narwar

Shivpuri

M.P.

DilawarKh.(g)

4(Jun1927):101-4

Fornos.

1-24,

seeMap1:Imperialism

oftheDelhiSultanate,

1192-1394



8/9


9/9

muslims destroying hindu temples

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