Music of RussiaUSAD 2012-2013

Folk Music Folk songs varied locally from region to region

Different villages sang different songs ¨ They also sang different variations of the same song

Urban assimilation of villages transformed folk songs ¨ In some cases, urban popular music obliterated folk

tradition The late 18th century gave rise to folk song

transcription Educated urban gentlemen spearheaded the notation

of folk music Many of these men were amateur musicians Their work introduced folk songs into the world of art

music

Transcription Scotland pioneered transcription, but

Germany performed most important legwork Achim von Arnim (1781-1831) and

Clemens Brentano (1778-1842) compiled Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1805-1808) ¨ This folk song collection only included song

lyrics ¨ However, ensuing anthologies often featured

melodies as well

Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)

linked folk songs and nationalism This German philosopher traveled through

Europe and Russia He believed national divisions existed based on

language Herder considered folk song part of the

national, not just local, culture He was one of the first to note the national

importance of folk music Herder wrote that folk music channeled national

spirit Folk songs became part of national heritage

Transcription methods and their flaws

Before audio recording, transcribers relied solely on their memories Circumstances did not always allow the transcriber

to hear the song multiple times Even if he did, the same singer might still vary the

song Folk tradition did not stress rigid adherence to pitch and

rhythm Peasants only performed certain songs on certain

occasions Many folk songs were tied to ritual or work-related

events Thus, the transcriber only had one chance to listen These events, like weddings, often came with

distractions as well

Problems cont’d The extensive lyrics took a long time to perform

Many publishers only printed excerpts from songs A nonsensical verse about nature might have led to a

profound tale of love Worse yet, publishers rarely indicated these omissions

to the reader Some scholarly works generally included full texts

However, the general public could not easily access these publications

Even with the help of audio recording, transcribers must still make choices Transcribers must decide which irregularities to

preserve and which to exclude

Problems cont’d Early transcribers did not bother themselves with

issues of authenticity Above all, these transcribers viewed folk songs as

market goods Transcriptions needed to appeal to domestic consumers Most arrangements involved solo voice and piano

Arrangers ignored or rewrote polyphony and heterophony These textures greatly differed from Western art music

Arrangers feared buyers would not approve Sometimes arrangers replaced Western-like idioms to

increase “folk” appeal Notated folk songs reflected urban expectation more

than rural tradition

More Problems with transcriptions Despite their claims, arrangers always

invented their own harmonies for folk melodies The original songs most often involved

only solo voice However, arrangers still claimed to use

“authentic” harmonies 20th-century arrangers became more

conscious of authenticity and accuracy

Track 1: “The Day was Breaking” This folk song derives from the Smolensk

region “The Day was Breaking” exemplifies the

protyazhnaya genre It features a long, winding melody

The melody is melismatic Each syllable stretches out over an entire musical

phrase Thus, the lyrics unfold incredibly slowly

The lyrics refer to army recruitment Russian conscripts served in the Tsarist army

for 25 years

“The Day was Breaking” cont’d - excerpt

Each verse begins with a zapev, or solo introduction The zapev centers on the interval of the fifth

Protyazhnayas often focus on this interval Mikhail Glinka described the fifth as “the soul of

Russian music” Podgoloski (“undervoices”) overwhelm the

zapev, thickening the texture Each ensuing verse becomes more dissonant At the end of each verse, the texture reverts to

unison

“The Day was Breaking” cont’d - excerpt

The song takes liberties with intervals At the outset, a minor third featuring the modal

center and the third scale degree appears However, at the end of each verse, a major

third appears This interval sounds widely tuned compared to

Western music 19th century collectors would dismiss the sound However, 20th century collectors indicated the

wider tuning in their notation The singers use “open” sounds, just as real

folk singers do

Overview Various types of “Russian folk songs” pervade the musical

world Examples include “Dark Eyes,” “Those Were the Days, My

Friend,” and “Coachman, Spare Your Horses” A few songs originated in the countryside 19th-century Russian restaurants often featured gypsy

singers and choirs Their repertoire included both true folk songs and urban-

created “folk” songs Most 18th- and 19th-century collectors focused on

notating legitimately rural folk songs These songs reflected local village traditions and rituals However, collections did include the occasional popular song

Scholars classify folk songs into genres They base these decisions based on the song’s function They also consider the lyrics and character of the song

Protyazhnaya A solo performer may sing a lyrical song without a

special occasion These songs often focus on a tale of unhappy love The best-known subgenre of lyrical songs is the

protyazhnaya Protyazhnaya literally means “prolonged”

A protyazhnaya typically features a long, winding melodic line

The melismatic aspect of the songs further increases their length Melismatic songs stretch each syllable over a musical

phrase Even native Russian speakers struggle to piece together

the slowly unfolding lyrics

The protyazhnaya took on great symbolic status in the 19th century Nikolai Gogol (1809-1852) established the

protyazhnaya as a symbol for Russia as a whole His novel Dead Souls (1842) includes a memorable

image Three horses lead a coach across an unending stretch of

Russian land The coachman sings a melancholic, interminable

protyazhnaya Thus, Gogol implies that both Russia and the

protyazhnaya are endless and tragic Many people came to believe all Russian folk songs

sounded melancholy City dwellers encountered the protyazhnaya more

frequently than other folk genres

Calendar Songs Rural peasants only performed calendar songs for

certain seasonal rituals These occasions include Advent, Christmas, Shrovetide,

and the summer solstice The lyrics of these songs often combine pagan and

Christian symbols Many Christian festivals replaced earlier pagan holidays

Calendar songs differ significantly from protyazhnaya songs Scholars believe calendar songs are much older than

lyrical ones Calendar songs use shorter, more syllabic melodic phrases

Each pitch corresponds to a single syllable of text

Other folk genres Wedding songs included joyous hymns and more depressing

tunes Tradition required the bride to sing a song lamenting leaving her

parental home Funeral laments featured naturalistic sobbing sounds The North of Russia favored byliny, or epic songs

These solo tunes recounted ancient legends and historical events Byliny were syllabic and imitated human speech

Labor songs helped coordinate group labor projects Barge workers sang the “Song of the Volga Boatmen” The rhythm allowed the many workers to pull ropes

simultaneously Plyasovye refers to energetic dance songs

These repetitive melodies featured strong rhythms Other genres included lullabies, game songs, and military

marches

“Akh ty step” V. Sokolov arranged this Russian folk song The song reflects popular (urban) elements

rather than true rural roots Three aspects of the song reveal its

classification as a protyazhnaya Many songs of this genre feature the same

opening line: “O, ye steppes…” The melody features wide intervals

The opening starts with an ascending sixth Later, we hear an ascending octave

Like other protyazhnayas, the song sounds lyrical and sorrowful

“Akh ty step” cont’d “Akh ty step” clearly displays urban influence

This arrangement is much less melismatic than traditional folk songs

Urban styles override folk-like variants and irregular harmonies

The modern choral arrangement adds a hummed introduction and a lengthy conclusion

However, the arranger does attempt to imitate folk devices Some of the four verses begin with expressive vocal

solos Middle voices actively participate in the harmony The ends of phrases often converge to a unison or

octave

Folk Songs Collections & Arrangements Lvov-Pratsch (1790)

The Lvov-Pratsch collection was the most influential early folk song anthology It included both text and music

Nikolai Lvov transcribed the text Johann (Ivan) Pratsch arranged the music

City dwellers used the collection for domestic music playing

Composers included the arranged melodies in their own works

Lvov-Pratsch cont’d Accusations of Westernization contributed to the

collection’s fall from grace Critics charged Pratsch with rewriting melodies to match

urban expectation Pratsch supposedly placed accents on the wrong syllables to

match Western meter Later musicians found Pratsch’s harmonizations insensitive

and Western67 Lvov did not keep records of his sources

The sources may already have been altered from the rural originals

Thus, scholars cannot know the extent of Pratsch’s changes In the 19th century, collectors became more conscious of

accuracy and authenticity

Balakirev (1866) The Balakirev collection stressed the distinctive

sound of Russian folk music Unlike Pratsch, Mily Balakirev did not try to

urbanize folk melodies Rather, he attempted to exaggerate the differences

between folk and art music This choice reveals the abrupt shift in consumer taste in

the 19th century Balakirev favored non-Western musical ideas and

simple harmonies He often used flattened seventh degrees instead of

Western leading tones Sometimes he misrepresented sources to emphasize non-

Western sounds

Balakirev cont’d Balakirev mostly employed diatonic harmonies

In other words, he only used the pitches of a single scale Other than hymns, Western art music did not typically do this These harmonies created a modal sound

He used triads rather than four-note chords From 1600 onward, seventh chords frequently appeared in

Western art music Balakirev believed folk music should sound more ancient

Balakirev also meticulously adhered to the natural stress pattern of words He varied meter rather than sacrifice the stress pattern

Despite his scrupulous methodology, Balakirev still produced arrangements In other words, the transcriptions did not accurately reflect folk

practice However, they were more accurate than Pratsch’s approach

Melgunov and Palchikov Before the late 19th century, collectors did not transcribe

polyphony or heterophony Heterophony involves unsynchronized singers performing the same

melody It can also refer to a single melody with simultaneous variations

Polyphony refers to simultaneous melodies Russian folk collectors were not very aware of these textures in

folk song Few early transcribers made serious attempts to notate them Composers imitated the effect vaguely, but few understood the

texture well They began folk-like choruses with a soloist They then incorporated the rest of the choir The section ended in unison

Composers only became aware of these two textures after recording technology appeared

Yuli Melgunov & Nikolai Palchikov cont’d Yuli Melgunov and Nikolai Palchikov each attempted to

notate folk heterophony and polyphony before recording technology

Melgunov published his collection of folk songs in 1879 He succeeded in notating heterophony

To do so, he listened to the music in melodic, not harmonic, terms He listened to several singers in the same village performing one at

a time Then he combined these variations on a single melody into one

score His attempts did not truly transcribe a choral folk song

However, they served as good approximations of heterophony Composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov dismissed the collection

as “barbaric” He could not bear the heterophonic texture The idea contradicted his own method of harmonizing folk songs

Yuli Melgunov & Nikolai Palchikov cont’d Nikolai Palchikov produced the best notation of

folk polyphony Palchikov lived in a village

Thus, he could observe the same songs and singers multiple times

Unfortunately, he also remained in relative obscurity Palchikov stood next to each singer and notated

each part He then combined these separate lines into a score The result proved better than Melgunov’s compilation

Unfortunately, Melgunov’s collection received greater attention Melgunov’s arrangements introduced Russian folk

texture to the art world

Linyova (1904) Yevgeniya Linyova released her first folk

song collection in 1904 She spearheaded the use of audio recording

technology Now, composers could not deny the textures in

Russian folk music Composer Igor Stravinsky was the first to

embrace these folk textures Other 20th century composers eagerly followed

his lead At the time, composers longed to break

established composition rules

Folk Songs in Classical Music Composers’ uses for folk song

Composers used folk themes to characterize lower-class characters in operas For instance, Mikhail Glinka used folk songs to designate

peasants in A Life for the Tsar Other composers believed folk melodies made music sound

more “national” Philosophers like Herder reinforced this belief Glinka chose Russian folk songs to differentiate his work from

Italian operas The use of familiar folk melodies also garnered sympathy and

acclaim from audiences Folk music also contained new techniques

Glinka and other composers drew inspiration for technical innovations

Composers often included folk melodies for several of the above reasons

Folk Songs in Classical Music cont’d Myths and exaggerations

Many “national” composers exaggerated their knowledge of folk traditions Often, their biographers published gross

overstatements In truth, most 19th-century composers came from

privileged backgrounds They did not grow up listening to folk music Most composers consciously studied folk music in their

adult years Rimsky-Korsakov himself denied rumors of his

familiarity with folk songs He did not experience folk music until his twenties Rimsky-Korsakov studied Balakirev’s collection of

transcriptions

Contemporary critics often exaggerated the authenticity of quoted folk songs Composers rewrote folk melodies to suit their own

works The songs themselves transformed en route from the

village to the city Rimsky-Korsakov presented a folk song melody simply

He often used a solo woodwind instrument The accompaniment consisted of subtle string pizzicato Rimsky-Korsakov kept harmony to a minimum, using long

pedal notes A pedal note refers to a long sustained note, often found in

the bass line. Usually, a pedal note contains the root of the harmony.

Audiences frequently believed all folk songs sounded like this However, the style was all Rimsky-Korsakov’s creation

Most importantly, scholars overplayed the national spirit imparted by folk songs Only peasants from a certain region would

recognize a folk song Yet composers came to associate folk song

with the entire population of Russia In other words, a tiny little-known part

represents the vast whole Folk music does not possess noticeable

“Russianness” A foreign audience unfamiliar with Russian

music would not recognize it as such

Russian Music of the 19th century

Westernization and Russian National Identity Westernization under Peter the Great

In the early modern period, Russians set themselves apart from “The West” Ivan the Terrible (r. 1547-1584) allegedly sent several

dozens of scholars abroad Unfortunately, none of these students ever returned to

share their learning Before Peter the Great, Russia rarely contacted

Europe Russia occasionally sent diplomats overseas But, the country did not engage in extended

interaction with the West

Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) began a large-scale Westernization program During his reign, the educated elite increasingly

realized Russia’s isolation from the West This epiphany also spread throughout the general

population European civilization fascinated Peter

He traveled throughout Europe in disguise At one point, the tsar worked as a shipbuilder on a

Dutch wharf Peter the Great aimed to recreate Russia as a

major European power He intended to establish an irreversible, large-scale

program of Westernization

St. Petersburg

• St. Petersburg became the thriving center of Peter’s “new and improved” Russia• Engineers and laborers

drained a strategically located marsh to build the city

• The tsar based the city on Venice and Amsterdam• St. Petersburg featured

its own harbor and canals• It contained towering

modern buildings• The Europeanized city

did not look like any other Russian town

Peter Westernized every aspect of city life The well-organized grid of streets and identical

houses emphasized his power He renamed and remodeled all state institutions to

fit Western models He forced the aristocracy to adopt European dress

and shave their beards Nobles discarded their long robes in favor of European

breeches and coats Those who refused to shave were forcibly coerced

Peter also hosted assamblei (fashionable balls) and introduced the minuet (slow and graceful ballroom dance for two, the minuet first appeared in the French royal court during the 17th century. Its name derives from the small (menu means “small”) steps required to perform the dance. 18th-century composers often included a minuet-style piece in triple time as a movement in a larger composition.)

Despite heavy resistance, Peter the Great successfully implemented his reforms In part, he triumphed due to sheer

ruthlessness His alterations, however, did benefit some

segments of the population Still, controversies over Westernization

remained for two centuries Communism later declared itself the supreme

Westernizing force However, the Soviet Communist movement

still diverged from Western ideals

The emergence of Russian nationalism : Nationalism only gained major momentum in the late 18th century German nationalist philosophers

influenced the educated Russian elite Both nations worked to collect folk songs

Russians also began to take interest in their native Slavic language At the time, the urbanized nobility mostly

spoke French The Russian elite viewed nationalism in

completely cultural terms at this time

Napoleon Invades

Napoleon’s invasion in 1812 truly launched Russian nationalistic fervor Authorities realized that the army required

the support of the entire population Political nationalism first appeared in mass

produced patriotic posters and leaflets These advertisements urged all Russians to unite

as a single nation They asked individuals to pledge their main

loyalty to their nation

• The pamphlets succeeded in uniting the Russian population• Russian peasants fought

French invaders with axes and sticks

• Citizens set fire to Moscow rather than relinquish it to French forces

• The defeat of Napoleon gave rise to Russian national awareness

Outcomes of the Napoleonic Wars Though their victory united Russian citizens, the

1812 Patriotic War also fostered dissent Russian military officers and soldiers realized their

country’s backwardness These men fought Napoleon back to Paris En route, they noticed the superior infrastructure and

greater equality in Europe They also realized that serfdom was incredibly

outdated (Serfdom refers to exploitation of rural peasants by the landowning nobility. The peasants, called serfs, worked for the wealthy landowners in exchange for legal protection and certain other rights. In essence, serfs lived in a condition of modified slavery, as they received no pay and depended on their landlords for all manner of legal, economic, and social welfare.) Most European nations had outlawed serfdom centuries

prior

Another Outcome: The Decembrist Uprising, 1825• Dissatisfied soldiers

revolted against the new tsar Nicholas I in December 1825• The “Decembrists”

aimed to incite social reform

• Unfortunately, their revolution failed

• The tsar hanged five of the rebel leaders

• He also exiled many other participants to Siberia

• Thus, Napoleon’s invasion also revealed growing frustration within Tsarist Russia

Establishment of Russian Nationalism In 1833, the Russian government established

Official Nationalism All Russian schools would teach students this new

state ideology Minister of Education Sergei Uvarov introduced the

doctrine He described it with a slogan: “Orthodoxy, Autocracy,

and Nationality” Orthodoxy referred to the dominant Russian religion, the

Orthodox Church Autocracy embodied the unquestionable absolute sovereignty

of the tsar However, even Uvarov did not truly understand “Nationality”

(narodnost’) At this point, dissatisfied intellectuals developed the

concept of nationalism The Russian government did not yet see nationalism as a

weapon they could employ

Pyotr Chaadayev Chaadayev’s concerns

Pyotr Chaadayev (1794-1856) expressed concern about Russia’s cultural backwardness His “Philosophical Letter” of 1829

addressed this issue Chaadayev noted that European

nations shared common history and traditions Their societies held similar views on

justice, law, order, and duty By contrast, Russia never participated

in this community Thus, Russia lacked these basic

European principles

The authorities refused to publish Chaadayev’s “Philosophical Letter” They thought his ideas too controversial Instead, they declared him insane and treated

him as such Regardless, manuscript copies spread throughout

the nation (USAD made this corrections in June.)

‘‘In his land, Peter the Great found only a blank sheet of paper, and he wrote on it: ‘Europe and the West’; since then we have belonged to Europe and the West”

Chaadayev’s work inspired two different ideological groups in the mid-19th century Westernizers believed Russians was part of Europe

They supported continued imitation of Western traditions Slavophiles focused on Russia’s “blind, superficial and

awkward imitation” of the West This group advocated the reversal of Peter the Great’s

Westernizing reforms They called to reinstate communal law and other abolished

practices Slavophiles also wanted to firmly distinguish Russian

Orthodoxy (Eastern Christianity) from Western Christianity (especially Catholicism) They claimed Eastern Christians favored authority and faith over

logic and reason Slavophiles also spoke of a new world order led by Russia,

not Europe

Like Chaadayev, many other 19th-century intellectuals compared Russians to Westerners Most comparisons were to the French and Germans

The French were old enemies from 1812 Meanwhile, the Germans made up a large part of St.

Petersburg’s high society Comparison and contrast formed the basis for

defining Russian “national character” However, this method of analysis also resulted in

national stereotypes The French were brilliant but the Russians were profound The Germans were industrious but the Russians were

humane and empathetic “Russian character” proved nothing but a

philosophical construct

Philosophical Influence on Music 19th-century Russian composers sought to

differentiate themselves from the West Glinka attempted to create a new style of opera

He believed Russia displayed greater melancholy than sunny Italy

Thus, Russian opera should be more sorrowful than widespread Italian opera

The Mighty Handful would adopt similar ideas in the 1860s

National stereotypes played a major role in the creation of “Russian style” From the beginning, composers defined Russian music as

non-German German stereotypes thus became a major factor in Russian

musical development

Class Divisions A great divide existed between the educated elite and the

lower classes Late 18th-century writers claimed national character stemmed

from the lower classes “The people” (lower-class peasants) made up the majority of the

population Upper-class Russians spoke French and tended toward the

cosmopolitan Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796) descended from Germans However, she occasionally wore Russian national garb to tease

courtiers The gentry and the peasantry rarely interacted on a regular basis

Even servants in noble households did not maintain ties to their rural backgrounds

Despite their claims, the elite knew little about the general population

Catherine the Great

Abolition of Serfdom

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 sparked renewed interest in the peasantry The Peredvizhniki (Russian Realist school) did not idealize peasant

life in paintings The Narodnik (populist) movement inspired intellectuals to move to

the countryside Most narodniks were students who left their city homes to join the

peasantry The narodniks provided education and medical assistance to rural

peasants Peasants often treated the narodniks with indifference or even

resentment Interestingly, the peasants placed more stock in social hierarchy than the

wealthy The appearance of their superiors seemed unnatural

Author Leo Tolstoy worked with peasants on his land He wore a collarless peasant shirt However, he still lived off the rent from said peasants

Nikolai Palchikov moved to a village to collect folk song melodies In the village, he worked as a country judge The peasants ultimately accepted him and helped him in his transcriptions

• Composer Modest Mussorgsky (1839- 1881) revealed the greatest narodnik influence in art music• He originally hailed from the

landowning gentry• However, he lost his wealth after the

emancipation of the serfs• Despite his reversal of fortune,

Mussorgsky maintained sympathy for the poor

• He wrote songs presenting different peasant characters

• For instance, his song “Trepak” features a drunk and depressed peasant• This miserable character falls to

the snow to awaits his death

East and West Even as they defined the West, Russians also

explored the East The Russian empire spanned a huge continuous

stretch of land Finland and Poland formed the Western boundaries The Black and Caspian Seas lay to the South Eventually, the empire stretched from the Baltic to the

Pacific “The East” covered many different nationalities and

cultures Still, Russians considered a few regions stereotypically

“Eastern” These included the Caucasus region, Central Asia, and

the Far East

Russian soldiers constantly fought tribes in the Caucasus Mountains and Transcaucasia These tribes waged war on their conquerors hoping to

reassert their independence Russians stereotyped “the East” just as they did the

West The East, however, was under Russian control

Russians viewed the East as exotic These stereotypes affected musical Orientalism80

Expansion into Central Asia also influenced Orientalism to a lesser extent The Russian Far East did not influence 19th-century

music as much This region was too distant and relatively unpopulated Thus, it received little scholarly attention

Perspectives on the role of the East differed Westernizers dismissed the East entirely

They claimed the region would not contribute to Russian cultural growth

Slavophiles, by contrast, gladly emphasized the role of the East They claimed the East influenced Russian fatalism,

mysticism, and autocracy The elite emphasized both the similarities and

differences between Russia and the East They often juxtaposed Russia’s simplicity with the East’s

exotic extravagance However, Russians also “Orientalized” themselves

They emphasized their differences from the West and similarities to the East

They depicted themselves as “Barbarians” who opposed Western corruption

Track 3: “The Glory Chorus” from A Life for the Tsar

Background “The Glory Chorus” comes from the finale of

Glinka’s opera A Life for the Tsar This opera as a whole exemplifies Official

Nationalism Different elements in this work illustrate

“Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality"

Featured excerpt In the score, Glinka identifies “The Glory Chorus” as a “hymn-march”

The onstage military band emphasizes the martial aspect of the march rhythm The rhythm imitates a Russian Orthodox chant This rhythm consists of a half-note followed by two quarter notes

Glinka also uses harmonies unusual for an opera Outer voices move in parallel thirds Such harmonies frequently appear in Orthodox hymns Glinka’s score thus indicates religious and nationalist influences

Like the rest of the opera, “The Glory Chorus” embodies Official Nationalism In addition to the “hymn” aspects above, Glinka uses church bells to

show Orthodoxy The church bells also reflect Nationality

The lyrics glorify the first Romanov tsar in keeping with the principle of Autocracy

Glinka: The Father of Russian Music Most Russian music histories begin with Mikhail

Ivanovich Glinka (1804-1857) Virtually all historians agree that true Russian

classical music started with Glinka’s work Many consider his first opera, A Life for the Tsar

(1836), the first Russian national opera Of course, opera existed in Russia before Glinka

Peter the Great began the development of Russian art music

He hoped to prove Russia’s status as an international power His assamblei featured dance music byWestern

musicians Peter hoped to recreate Western-style music as part of his

Westernization campaign

Actual opera first appeared in Russia during Tsaritsa Anna’s reign It began as a foreign

import from Italy In 1731, an Italian

company performed Calandro by Giovanni Ristori in Moscow

In 1736, Russian musicians collaborated with an Italian troupe in St. Petersburg

They performed The Power of Love and Hate by Francesco Araja

Glinka continued

From then on, opera flourished in Russia The Russian Imperial Court welcomed Italian

and French troupes Private opera houses opened in St. Petersburg

This development allowed opera to reach wider audiences

The first Russian-language libretto appeared in 1755 The story centered on the myth of Cephalus

and Procris Italian instructors trained Russian opera

singers

Glinka’s predecessors set the stage for Russian opera composition Maxim Berezovsky (1745-1777) was the first Russian opera

composer to achieve fame Audiences in Russia and abroad recognized his name Other opera composers included Yevstigenei Fomin (1761-1800) and

Dmitri Bortnyansky (1751-1825) These Italian-trained composers conformed to accepted Western

genres While studying in Italy, they wrote opera seria (“serious opera”) These works used mythology as their subject matter One could not differentiate between the Russian and Italian opera seria

In Russia, these composers created comic operas based on French archetypes However, the librettos featured Russian language The composers included distinctly Russian plots and characters Audiences reacted favorably to the familiar elements Russian comic operas thus enjoyed considerable popularity

Glinka’s Innovations Many of Glinka’s “innovations” actually existed in the

works of his predecessors Glinka’s works often incorporated folk melodies

Fomin’s Coachmen at the Relay Station (1787) also reflected folk influence

The opera’s opening chorus imitates a protyazhnaya folk song The solo singer is eventually joined by the chorus

Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar (1836) focused on a historical, not mythological, subject The story centers on peasant Ivan Susanin

He gave his own life to save the future Tsar Mikhail Romanov In 1815, Catarino Cavos premiered an opera based on the

same tale A Venetian by birth, Cavos lived and worked in St. Petersburg His version of the story remained immensely popular It took time for Glinka’s opera to step out of Cavos’ shadow

Glinka’s great ambition set him apart from his peers and predecessors His skilled originality put him on par with his

European contemporaries These peers included Vincenzo Bellini,

Giacomo Meyerbeer, and Hector Berlioz A Life for the Tsar featured no spoken dialogue

Every line was sung It was the first Russian-language opera to attempt

such a feat Cavos’ version featured long sections of spoken

text between arias and songs

Glinka’s ambition proves surprising given his upbringing He lacked any formal composition training86

In fact, Glinka regarded himself as a student even in his late years

Born to landowners, Glinka participated in his uncle’s private orchestra This ensemble mostly played fashionable

overtures Based on this experience, Glinka might have

become a composer of light, elegant songs and dances for aristocratic salons

In his apprenticeship, he did create such works However, they did not satisfy his lofty aspirations

Glinka honed his skills abroad before returning to dominate Russian opera In Italy, Glinka studied vocal composition

He could have settled for writing Italian-style arias and operas However, he dared to dream of a purely Russian operatic form

This Russian opera would draw subject matter from Russian history It would prove more serious and musically demanding than Italian

opera Glinka learned more difficult compositional techniques in

Germany There he studied with theorist Siegfried Dehn In 1834, Glinka returned to Russia after hearing of his father’s

death In Glinka’s last year of life, however, he would return to

Germany to visit Dehn

A Life for the Tsar Glinka’s first opera, A Life for the Tsar, premiered

at the Moscow Bolshoi Theatre in 1836 The opera featured a clearly monarchist message

The storyline implied the divine authority of the Romanov dynasty Russia successfully fought off a Polish invasion in 1613 Afterward, the first Romanov tsar took the throne The peasant Ivan Susanin fooled the Poles to allow the

tsar time to escape When they discovered the deception, the Poles killed

Susanin At the end of the opera, Susanin dies in a forest

The epilogue concludes with a somber march Afterward, the chorus cries, “Glory to the Tsar!”

Naturally, Tsar Nicholas I supported the performance87 Besides the imperialist storyline, the libretto came from

the court itself Baron Rosen, secretary to Nicholas’ heir Alexander II,

wrote the libretto Following the premiere, Nicholas I showered Glinka

with recognition He offered the composer a royal ring as a token of favor Furthermore, he offered Glinka the highest musical

position in his court Despite imperial recognition, Glinka did not write A

Life for the Tsar on commission He actually composed quite a bit of the music before

Rosen completed the libretto

As Glinka intended, A Life for the Tsar sounds distinctly Russian Glinka first created musical contrast between

the Russians and the Poles He characterized the Poles using two Polish

ballroom dances Russians were familiar with both the polonaise and the

mazurka Both dances involved 3/4 time and dotted rhythms

Glinka used more songlike pieces in 2/4 and 4/4 to illustrate the Russians

In Act III, Glinka dramatically juxtaposed both styles The Poles demand Susanin’s compliance in a mazurka

rhythm Susanin defies them in a protyazhnaya style

Glinka favored the imitation of folk themes rather than direct quotation The overture mimics a protyazhnaya The opera’s “Rowers’ Chorus” also features

a protyazhnaya-like melody Glinka set this melody over a pizzicato string

accompaniment The strings represent the balalaika, a

plucked string instrument In the entire opera, Glinka only quotes two

actual folk tunes

The intelligentsia admired Glinka’s technique and the opera’s apparent Russianness Glinka’s compositions alluded to Russian folk and

popular song They also reflected “Romance” influence These musical aspects made the fresh compositions

seem familiar to Russian audiences Non-Russian audiences, by contrast, noticed the

Italianate elements of the opera

Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842) Glinka based his second opera on a

narrative poem by Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837) Many considered Pushkin Russia’s greatest

19th-century poet Unfortunately, he died before he could create

a libretto for Glinka The resulting libretto received a great deal of

criticism The fairy-tale opera emphasizes musical

color over drama Thus, the five acts pass very slowly

In this work, Glinka continued to experiment with the use of color to depict nationality A quoted Finnish song characterized Finn,

a kindhearted sorcerer Glinka used many Orientalist devices to

represent Ratmir, Lyudmila’s Eastern suitor Remember, Glinka composed this opera

before Orientalist clichés developed

The evil dwarf Chernomor received special musical treatment This supernatural creature possessed a beard seven times

his height Glinka invented the whole-tone scale to depict

Chernomor’s magical existence This scale divides the octave into six equal parts instead of

eight It moves in whole steps only Glinka also called this scale his “chemical” scale

The whole-tone scale put off conventional rules of tonal harmony This effect evoked a sense of the supernatural Use of this scale indicated that human laws did not apply to the

magical creature

The public did not react enthusiastically to the 1842 premiere of Ruslan and Lyudmila Performances discontinued shortly after the premiere

Glinka’s popularity plummeted from the high point reached with A Life for the Tsar

Glinka considered this failure his greatest disappointment

As a result of his letdown, Glinka traveled abroad extensively In Spain, Glinka took folk dancing lessons

His experiences inspired the orchestral pieces Jota Aragonesa (1845) and Night in Madrid (1848)

In the end, Glinka returned to Russian styles in Kamarinskaya (1848) This orchestral work almost reconceived variation

form

Glinka’s legacy and musical contributions

Russian composers mythologized Glinka and his contributions after his death They took his example as the foundation for a

new markedly Russian compositional style His uncommon musical devices became part of

Russian national heritage Some of these techniques came from Russian

folk music Others, however, simply arose from Glinka’s

own creativity

Glinka championed the creation of folk-like musical idioms He believed art music could benefit from elements

of folk songs and dances Only some of his folk melodies appeared as direct

quotations Glinka imitated folk music in his original material He reproduced protyazhnayas and dance songs alike

Glinka also cleverly reproduced folk heterophony He never lived with peasants or used audio technology Thus, he worked with limited understanding of the

texture

A Life for the Tsar demonstrates the composer’s affinity for folk-like sounds The introductory chorus switches between a solo singer and the

chorus Glinka varied the number of individual voices present in the choral

texture Like folk music, he wrote two or three parts that converged to a

unison Glinka also employed the folk device peremennost’

This technique involved shifting between several equally important modal centers

Unlike most Western music at the time, folk tunes did not center on one tonic

Glinka’s chord progressions reflected this influence However, he still used standard harmonies

Usually, Glinka moved between pairs of relative major and minor scales

The widespread use of 5/4 meter began with Glinka This unusual meter appears in the wedding choruses

of both A Life and Ruslan Indirectly, this device reflects folk influence

Russian folk poetry featured five-syllable lines that accented the third syllable

This characteristic frequently appeared in wedding songs

Russian folk song typically uses five notes of different length for the five syllables Glinka, however, used five equal quarter notes

Glinka’s disciples treated 5/4 as an authentic Russian meter They also experimented with other uncommon meters

Borodin employed 7/4 Rimsky-Korsakov used 11/4

The whole-tone scale from Ruslan inspired other innovative scales Rimsky-Korsakov created the octatonic scale

This scale alternates whole steps and half steps It spans eight notes, hence the term “octatonic” Rimsky-Korsakov’s invention proved more useful

than the whole-tone scale 20th-century classical and jazz music

incorporated the octatonic scale Glinka’s fans also divided their works into

sections with different musical rules

The composer also popularized “changing-background variations” In fact, Russian scholars refer to this technique as “Glinka

variations” Typical variation form changes the melody while the

accompaniment remains constant Glinka variations do the exact opposite

The melody remains unchanged All other elements (harmony, instrumentation, etc.) vary

Despite the deceptive name, Glinka did not originate the Glinka variations Beethoven uses this technique in “Ode to Joy” from his Ninth

Symphony Movement 3 from Beethoven’s String Quartet Op. 59 No. 2 also

features this device In fact, it centers on a Russian melody Possibly, this earlier work inspired Glinka

Regardless of the technique’s origin, Glinka created important examples For instance, he used folk themes with changing-background variations This musical technique honored the folk melody

Glinka’s use of different musical colors for different nationalities in opera inspired others This same principle also appeared in the West

There, composers referred to the technique as couleur locale

Glinka’s supporters focused on two operatic genres They wrote heroic national dramas like A Life for

the Tsar Also, they composed fairytales like Ruslan and

Lyudmila

Glinka’s orchestral works also influenced subsequent composers He never wrote any symphonies, only single-

movement overtures and fantasies Other composers wrote on Russian and non-Russian

folk themes Balakirev composed the Czech Overture Rimsky-Korsakov wrote the Serbian Fantasy

Glinka’s Kamarinskaya served as a model for future composers This piece features Glinka variations on two themes Similarly, Balakirev wrote Overture on Three

Russian Themes Balakirev also composed the piano piece Islamey The composer Lyapunov created the virtuosic

Lezghinka Etude for piano

Track 4: Kamarinskaya Background The single-movement Kamarinskaya involves a

slow theme and a fast theme Glinka alternates between variations on the slow and

fast themes

The Russian wedding song “From behind Tall Hills” forms the slow theme This theme occurs four times in different registers Each repetition features different texture The fourth statement appears in the bass line

“Kamarinskaya” refers to the sprightly dance tune that makes up the fast theme This melody also lends its name to the

piece as a whole Folk tradition repeated this theme in

“dance-till-you drop” variations The piece’s form defies any previously

established musical form Instead, Glinka reinvents the variation

form His techniques elevate the folk melodies

and variations

The excerpt on the USAD CD begins with the first fast section The first violin section presents the opening

statement of the theme Glinka then adds other instrumental voices to

the mix Throughout the variations, Glinka barely alters

the melody When he does, the alterations suggest virtuosic

fiddling Each phrase sounds like an ostinato pattern The 11th statement modulates from major to

minor Glinka emphasizes the opening notes of the slow

theme

The slow theme reappears for two-and-a-half statements

Then, the kamarinskaya dance tune resumes At one point, Glinka drops the melody

altogether, leaving only the accompaniment The tempo slows down slightly as Glinka

explores truly innovative variations A C-natural in the horn produces dissonance

against a D-major harmony In the end, the tempo quickens triumphantly

The Mighty Handful and “National” Style

The birth of Russian music conservatories The Rubinstein brothers vastly enhanced musical

education in Russia Anton Grigoryevich Rubinstein rose to fame as one of

the world’s top virtuoso pianists He also worked as a conductor and composer

Anton’s younger brother Nikolai also performed as a pianist and conductor

A Russian border-guard stopped Anton as he returned from a European concert tour Asked for his occupation, Anton replied that he was a “self-

employed artist” The guard did not recognize this profession Anton only received entry for being “the son of a merchant

of the second rank” This incident inspired Anton to work to improve the status

of Russian musicians

Between 1859 and 1860, the Rubinstein brothers formed the Russian Music Society This institution organized a series of public

concerts in St. Petersburg and Moscow Anton worked in St. Petersburg while his

brother lived in Moscow The repertoire featured major works by the likes

of Beethoven, Schumann, and Mendelssohn For the first time in Russian history, the general

population could access art music Previously, a handful of aristocratic enthusiasts

shaped most Russian musical life

The Rubinsteins also founded music conservatories in the two major cities The St. Petersburg Conservatory opened in

1862 and the Moscow Conservatory in 1866 Musicians and composers no longer needed

to enroll in private classes Instead, these conservatories offered

comprehensive five-year courses Most professors came from abroad,

especially from Germany The conservatories increased the social

prestige of musical careers in Russia Russia now entered the wider world of

international art music

Conservatories Vs. Mighty Handful

The Mighty Handful led an anti-conservatory movement in Russia These composers argued against

conservatoriesdue to nationalistic concerns They feared the institutions would overly

Westernize Russian music Conservatories, they claimed, revealed too

much foreign influence

Formation of the Mighty Handful Vladimir Stasov (1824-1906) and Mily Balakirev

(1837-1910) became friends in the mid-1850s Both men loved the music world

Balakirev performed as a pianist He also composed his own pieces Glinka personally encouraged Balakirev to continue

composing Stasov worked as a prominent music critic

Both dreamed of a distinctive Russian style of music This style should appeal to both domestic and

international listeners Stasov and Balakirev hoped it would sound original and

progressive Balakirev and Stasov assembled four other musicians who

shared this goal

Stasov first referred to the group as the moguchaya kuchka Literally, this name translates to “the mighty little

heap” “Handful” sounds more elegant than the original

Russian term In English, some refer to the group as “The Five” in

reference to the five composers However, this term overlooks the sixth important

member, Stasov Stasov alone of the Mighty Handful did not compose his

own works Nonetheless, he helped establish the group’s nationalist

ideology As a critic, he also promoted the group’s music and

discredited rivals

Balakirev served as the Mighty Handful’s musical mentor He was the only full-time musician in the

group At the time, composers struggled to

maintain a living Balakirev earned the majority of his

income by teaching piano lessons He still lived in relative poverty

The opera-loving Cesar Cui worked as an engineer building military fortifications

Army officer Modest Mussorgsky played the piano skillfully However, he only composed polkas for

aristocratic ladies Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov composed

between tours of duty as a naval officer Alexander Borodin served as an

internationally acclaimed chemistry professor He played the cello in his spare time

Despite their talent, the four lacked knowledge of technique and important repertory Balakirev taught them the devices

needed for large-scale works He also introduced them to the

masterworks of famous composers

Balakirev approached teaching differently than the conservatories Of course, Balakirev stood firmly opposed to the

conservatories He favored a demanding but informal approach

Unlike conservatories, he did not assign exercises or “pastiche” composition

Instead, Balakirev played arrangements of symphonies on the piano Mussorgsky, the skilled pianist, often joined him in duets Balakirev then pointed out interesting forms, features

and techniques Balakirev sometimes created his own terms to

explain music theory

Balakirev did assign ambitious homework projects, though He instructed Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov to write a symphony The task required a good amount of help and advice, according to

letters Mussorgsky and Cui attempted to write operas

Despite his stringent expectations, Balakirev also proved incredibly kindhearted He himself composed passages that seemed beyond the skill of

his students When the scores were published, Balakirev did not claim credit

In the end, Balakirev’s pupils surpassed him in terms of fame He selflessly devoted his attention to cultivating the group’s

skill and creativity Thus, he did not spend enough time on his own works Completed late in his career, his works did not receive great

recognition

Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade features arabesque100 patterns in solo violin A similar device appears in the solo

clarinet from Balakirev’s Tamara Balakirev’s work probably inspired

Rimsky-Korsakov’s However, Scheherazade’s greater

popularity leads listeners to believe the opposite

Creating “Russian style” Balakirev and Stasov aimed to create the image

of a unified “musical party” Cui also proved instrumental in molding the

Handful’s public image His writings saw publication in both Russia and France

The group worked in close cooperation in the 1860s The composers wrote their first large-scale works

collectively Balakirev believed the compositional process should

involve the entire group’s input At first, the composers all pursued similar ideals In later years, however, their ideas diverged

considerably

To create “Russianness,” Balakirev mainly advocated avoidance of Western clichés Balakirev used pieces by some Western

composers as negative examples for his pupils Felix Mendelssohn’s works allegedly

represented Germanic “routine” Balakirev hated the smooth musical periods

characteristic of these pieces Balakirev also disparaged the overly

sentimental compositions of Frederic Chopin

However, Balakirev did approve of “progressive,” original Western composers Balakirev championed the works of Ludwig van

Beethoven and Robert Schumann He admired these composers’ use of strong rhythmic

motives Moreover, he liked their compelling experiments with

form Franz Liszt and Hector Berlioz also met with

Balakirev’s approval These composers skillfully wrote “program music” Their compositions used musical colors to depict

characters and events In addition to these Western composers, Balakirev

also promoted Glinka’s works

Above all else, Balakirev stressed the importance of originality in composition

“Russianness” would result from avoidance of Western devices

For instance, he instructed his students to avoid common harmonic progressions

He considered the IV-V-I cadence too clichéd Instead, he suggested skipping the dominant (V),

creating a IV-I cadence Otherwise, the composers might disguise the

dominant chord

Balakirev also taught his students to incorporate folk and Oriental idioms The Mighty Handful turned to folk song for

non-Western material Balakirev alone traveled through Russia to

collect folk melodies Most of the songs came from educated

individuals, not the peasants themselves106 Still, Balakirev published 40 of these tunes in

1866 His collection included his own original piano

accompaniments The Mighty Handful seized this material for their own

compositions

These accompaniment devices reflected Balakirev’s tastes, not the original tunes

However, due to the Handful’s widespread use, many listeners mistakenly

The Caucasus region inspired the Handful to develop the Oriental style

Balakirev absorbed Georgian, Armenian, and Turkic musical elements

¨ New melodic and instrumentation ideas shaped the Handful’s works

¨ These foreign devices helped distance the Handful from Western composers

¨ Oriental music sounded instantly non-Western ¨ It proved more difficult to make folk music sound

non-Western o Audiences reacted favorably to the Oriental style o Western listeners began to notice the Handful o For various reasons, they identified all Handful

compositions as distinctly “Russian”

Many Russian composers incorporated the new Oriental style in some of their works Balakirev began the movement in the 1860s with his

piece Islamey Finished in 1869, this piano piece centers on a

Caucasian-inspired folk dance Balakirev applied Glinka variations to the theme Liszt’s virtuosic compositions also influenced Balakirev’s

piece Rimsky-Korsakov wrote Antar (1868), a symphonic

suite The music depicted an Eastern fairy tale in Oriental

style Borodin’s opera Prince Igor featured the Orientalist

Polovtsian Dances Mussorgsky and Cui also experimented with Oriental

themes in opera

The Handful also turned to Glinka’s oeuvre (composer’s lifetime works) for inspiration

Thanks to the Handful, listeners considered Glinka’s innovations innately “Russian” In particular, these composers favored the

changing-background variations form This device proved especially useful for

pieces based on folk themes

Rimsky-Korsakov expanded on Glinka’s approach to the supernatural His fairytale and supernatural works

featured Glinka’s whole-tone scale Rimsky-Korsakov also invented the

octatonic scale This scale alternates half steps and whole

steps It contains eight pitches in an octave rather

than the typical seven Russian scholars call this device the “Rimsky-

Korsakov scale” Today, jazz composers still use the scale

Like Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov used his unique scale to suspend tonal rules This effect resulted in an unearthly, exotic

sound In Sadko, this scale represents the

Underwater Kingdom Rimsky-Korsakov’s opera Kashchei the

Deathless also features this scale

The Mighty Handful also embraced Glinka’s use of unusual meters They realized folk melodies did not easily

conform to regular meters Thus, they switched between measures of

2/4, 3/4, and 4/4 Besides Glinka’s trademark 5/4, his

followers used 7/4 and 11/4

Second Symphony, Opening Alexander Borodin composed this

symphony Russian musicians nicknamed the piece

Bogatyrskaya o Borodin did not intend to create a

truly programmatic piece However, he thought the opening theme

represented bogatyri, ancient Russian warriors

The striking opening begins with a unison line carried by the entire orchestra The first movement repeats this first

phrase several times Each repetition sounds more grand

Borodin employs augmentation, lengthening the note values of the phrase

Two keys shape the opening section It starts out in B minor, though the first phrase

contains two chromatic pitches The repetition of the phrase modulates to D major The piece continues to hover between these two

closely related keys Unlike German symphonic allegros, the symphony

does not establish one main key The uncertainty of the key vaguely reflects the folk

technique of peremennost’ In peremennost’, a piece shifts between two modal

centers Unlike Western music, no single tonic defines the key of

the piece